Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

Pocket gophers aren’t exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-shapeshifting-to-survive-climate-change/">animals</a>. They’re small, common rodents that live in underground burrows made of sandy soils. In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www3.nd.edu/~ammidnat/">The American Midland Naturalist</a>, researchers have made a surprising discovery about pocket gophers - they glow under ultraviolet light.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research was inspired by flying squirrels and opossums, which were already known to glow under ultraviolet light. 



"A bunch of people, myself included, were curious about other animals," said study lead author PhD candidate J.T. Pynne. "We tested it on the flying squirrels we had, and sure enough, it worked. So, I said, 'Well, what else do we have?'"&nbsp;



While a student at <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">UGA</a> Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, Pynne focused his research on pocket gophers, so it was natural for him to test their biofluorescence too.



"And it turned out, pocket gophers, flying squirrels and opossums were the only animal specimens that fluoresced. And I'm thinking, of course my strange little animals do this," said Pynne.



Other known animals that glow under UV light are the platypus, spiders, some birds and more. "We have known for a long time that arthropods fluoresced. Any time I catch a scorpion or a spider or a millipede and I have my black light, they're bright blue," said Pynne.



Finding all of these glowing animals naturally leads to the question - why do they glow? Unfortunately, there is no clear answer from scientists yet. For some like Pynne, it’s simply an interesting way to explore the natural world - go out on a dark night with a UV flashlight and see what glows out there. 



"Although unknown, the adaptive significance of biofluorescence in pocket gophers is likely similar to that documented in terrestrial and arboreal species previously, including communication or predator evasion," wrote the study authors.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pocket gophers glow under UV light

Pocket gophers aren’t exotic animals. They’re small, common rodents that...

Many people are aware that an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-gigantic-asteroids-hit-early-earth-than-expected/">asteroid</a> led to the extinction of the dinosaurs millions of years ago. However, new research from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/">University of Birmingham</a> has been investigating how major volcanic eruptions over 230 million years ago actually led to the rise of dinosaurs



By analyzing sediment and fossil plant records from a lake in Northern China’s Jiyuan Basin, scientists have matched volcanic activity pulses with the Late Triassic Carnian Pluvial Episode (CPE). This event increased global temperatures and humidity, ultimately resulting in rapidly increased development speeds of animal and plant life.



“Within the space of two million years the world’s animal and plant life underwent major changes including selective extinctions in the marine realm and diversification of plant and animal groups on land," explained study co-author Jason Hilton, professor of Palaeobotany and Palaeoenvironments at the University of Birmingham’s School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences. “These events coincide with an interval of intense rainfall known as the Carnian Pluvial Episode."



“Our research shows that this period can actually be resolved into four distinct events, each one driven by discrete pulses of powerful volcanic activity associated with enormous releases of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.”



The team discovered that large perturbation of the global carbon cycle, climatic changes to human conditions, and the lake’s deepening with a corresponding reduction in animal life and oxygen, all coincided with volcanic eruption phases.



“In addition to dinosaurs, this remarkable period in Earth history was also important for the rise of modern conifer groups and had a major impact on the evolution of terrestrial ecosystems and animal and plant life - including ferns, crocodiles, turtles, insects and the first mammals," said Professor Hilton.



Increased rainfall also resulted in the widespread expansion of drainage basins converging into swamps or lakes as opposed to rivers and oceans, indicated by geological events within the same timeframe across other continents.



“Our results show that large volcanic eruptions can occur in multiple, discrete pulses, demonstrating their powerful ability to alter the global carbon cycle, cause climate and hydrological disruption and drive evolutionary processes,” noted study co-author Dr. Sarah Greene.



The researchers investigated terrestrial sediments from the ZJ-1 borehole in the Jiyuan Basin of North China. They used high-resolution chemostratigraphy, palynological and sedimentological data in addition to uranium-lead zircon dating in order to correlate regional terrestrial conditions with synchronous large-scale volcanic activity in North America.



Dr Emma Dunne, a paleobiologist at the University of Birmingham who was not involved in the study, commented that “at this time, the dinosaurs had just begun to diversify, and it’s likely that without this event, they would never have reached their ecological dominance we see over the next 150 million years.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Major volcanic eruptions led to the rise of the dinosaurs

Many people are aware that an asteroid led to the...

In a fascinating study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>, researchers have discovered that baby birds can learn sounds from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/screen-time-is-a-top-concern-among-parents-during-pandemic/">parents</a> before they have even hatched. The birds were found to exhibit physical responses (fluctuating heartbeats) to their parents' calls from inside of the egg.



The experts used non-invasive techniques to study prenatal auditory learning in the embryos of three vocal learning species, including the superb fairy-wren, the red-winged fairy-wren and Darwin's small ground finch.&nbsp;The researchers also analyzed the embryos of two vocal non-learning species - the little penguin and Japanese quail.



"Vocal production learning is only believed to occur in seven lineages of birds and mammals, including humans," said study co-author Sonia Kleindorfer. "This research will hopefully inspire more study into the remarkable capacity of animals to learn sound."&nbsp;



"By moving the time window for sound learning to the prenatal stage, this research direction opens pathways to measure neurobiological downstream effects of early auditory experience on behavior and information processing."



The researchers used fluctuations in heart rate to measure the vocal learning concepts in embryo behavior and response to sound within the egg. This embryonic stage occurs well before baby birds hatch and start making complex calls or songs - which normally takes several months or even years after birth to accomplish.  



"By studying the capacity for sound learning in embryos, we are paving the way to new inroads into evolutionary and developmental timescales," explained study first author Diane Colombelli-Négrel.



"Long before actual vocalization, we found that these tiny songbirds were also discriminating towards non-specific sounds and capable of 'non-associative' - not from parents - sounds, building on the complexity of vocal learning in songbirds." 



According to Kleindorfer, there are many forms of vocal learning but vocal production learning by far stands out as a hallmark achievement in seven orders - primates, songbirds, parrots, hummingbirds, cetaceans, pinnipeds and bats. Among primates, however, only humans can do it.



"As a result of the rarity of vocal production learning, animals have been grouped into so-called 'vocal learners' - those that learn to imitate a vocalization from a vocal tutor - and 'vocal non-learners' - animals that produce vocalizations without imitating a vocal tutor," said Kleindorfer.



Patrick Abbot is a program director in the Division of Integrative Organismal Systems at the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, which funded the research.



"By showing that pre-hatch auditory learning may be common in birds, this project adds to our growing recognition of the importance of the sound environment and paves the way for new avenues of research on the neuroethology, development and evolution of vocal perception learning in vertebrates," said Abbot.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Baby birds can learn sounds before they've even hatched

In a fascinating study led by Flinders University, researchers have...

A new study reveals that both adult and juvenile hyenas often play fight with each other, using subtle body language cues to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/puppies-can-communicate-with-people-at-a-very-young-age/">communicate</a> to their opponent that the attacks are playful rather than dangerous. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.unipi.it/index.php/english">University of Pisa</a> analyzed the behavior of 24 wild spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) on a nature reserve in South Africa.&nbsp;



By analyzing 38 hours of footage of hyenas from the&nbsp;Greater Makalali Private Game Reserve near Limpopo, South Africa, evolutionary biologist Elisabetta Palagi and her colleagues discovered that hyenas rely on visual communication in order to fine-tune their playful interactions.&nbsp;



“It seems that if I want to play hard, I need signals to clarify that I am not attacking you - and that this is only play,” explained Dr. Palagi.



One of these cues is a relaxed, open mouth, resembling laughter, which also occurs in animals such as chimps, bears, dogs, or seals when they play fight. Another is head bobbing, a body language cue also signifying that the hyenas’ behavior should be taken to be playful rather than aggressive.&nbsp;



“They’re not just relying on vocalisations. Visual cues like facial expressions and body postures are important,” said Dr. Palagi.&nbsp;



Regardless of which body language cues they used, the animals always made sure that the opponents were watching them before they made it. This suggests that playmates were highly attentive to each other’s facial expressions and bodily gestures, and were capable of correctly interpreting them.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Additionally, the scientists found that the relaxed open mouth punctuated the play-fighting session at a higher frequency when the offensive patterns were biased towards one of the two players. This stands in contrast with the play behavior of most other animals, who tend to stop play fighting when one of them is clearly winning. Hyenas’ play-fighting sessions are thus longer and more complex than in the case of other species.



By using subtle body cues and facial expressions, the hyenas are able to exchange crucial information regarding the nature of their interaction.&nbsp;



According to the study authors, “spotted hyenas are highly competent and fast in processing facial displays of different nature to correctly 'read others’ intentions' and respond with appropriate motor actions to avoid misunderstanding during one of the most multifaceted and risky social interaction.”



The studies were published in the journals&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.07.012">Animal Behaviour</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cz/zoab076">Current Zoology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hyenas make faces when they want to play fight

A new study reveals that both adult and juvenile hyenas...

Dinosaur bones are the delight of many museum goers, but everyone, from the youngest dino-fan to the most professional paleontologist, has wondered what these prehistoric beasts might have looked like in the flesh. Unfortunately, most fossils preserve the exact opposite - the hard bony skeleton survives the millennia far easier than soft tissue, which decays away. Scant fossils of Triceratops skin and fossil feathers from meat-eating raptors in China have provided scientists with some rare clues.&nbsp;



In the 1990s, the discovery of a unique theropod, Carnotaurus (or meat-eating bull, so named for the twin horns over it’s eyebrows), caused quite a stir when it’s skeleton bore distinct skin impressions - more than any other single theropod skeleton.&nbsp;



The pebbly skin was occasionally dotted with larger triangular knobs, giving the animal an armored appearance. Unfortunately, much of the skin was destroyed during the painstaking process of fossil preparation.&nbsp;



Now, a new study has reexamined the skin that remains, giving dinosaur enthusiasts their clearest glimpse yet of this horned carnivore.&nbsp;



“By looking at the skin from the shoulders, belly and tail regions, we discovered that the skin of this dinosaur was more diverse than previously thought, consisting of large and randomly distributed conical studs surrounded by a network of small elongated, diamond-shaped or subcircular scales," explained study co-author Christophe Hendrickx from the Unidad Ejecutora Lillo.



Previous interpretations had suggested the conical scales formed orderly rows along the spine and sides. This new examination illustrates that the feature scales (or “studs”) had a random distribution across the body, growing out of the finer grained and wrinkled basement scales.&nbsp;



What exactly do these skin patterns mean for the biology of Carnotaurus? The function of the “studs” is unclear. The authors dismiss the notion that they may have aided in defense. They instead speculate that the scales may have served a role in display or coloration, though these ideas are hard to test, given that we can’t directly observe such a behavior.&nbsp;



The experts propose that the pebbled basement scales were important in thermoregulation - or controlling body temperature. Similarly, elephants have wrinkly and cracked skin, which helps both to retain water and lose heat through evaporative cooling. Carnotaurus could have used a similar strategy. Since big animals typically have trouble with overheating, such an adaptation might have come in handy during the warm Mesozoic era.&nbsp;



The researchers conclude that future studies should take a more proactive role in describing dinosaur skin, and consider what role this critical organ system might have played in these extinct animals’ lives. Their analysis must be more than skin deep.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cretaceous-research">Cretaceous Research</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur skin is more diverse than previously thought

Dinosaur bones are the delight of many museum goers, but...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/eth.13199">Ethology</a> has found that giraffe males usually engage in fights with males of similar stature, showing a surprising example of fair play that is rarely seen in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-shapeshifting-to-survive-climate-change/">animal</a> kingdom. Scientists believe that such a behavior functions in providing mature males a means of testing their competitive abilities without escalating to dangerous, full-scale fights.



In a longitudinal study, experts from the Universities of <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/">Manchester</a> and <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">Cambridge</a> investigated the sparring behavior of northern giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) in the Mogalakwena River Reserve in South Africa between November 2016 and May 2017. They discovered that young giraffe males display a high degree of fairness in their fights with other members of their species.&nbsp;



Besides engaging in fights with individuals of similar size, male giraffes are also respecting the “laterality” of their opponent (their left- or right-orientation). Thus, if one giraffe was right-oriented and the other left, they would stand head-to-head so they could each attack each other from their preferred sides. If both were left-oriented or both right-oriented, they would fight head-to-tail, in a similar display of fairness.



“I don't know if it's a mutual agreement – respect my side and I’ll respect yours. Never did I see a male try and cheat,” said study lead author Jessica Granweiler from the <a href="https://sees.uq.edu.au/">School of Earth and Environmental Sciences</a> at the University of Manchester.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Additionally, Granweiler and her colleagues found that mature giraffe bulls often played the role of ‘referees’ during fights between young adults, quickly intervening in case violence escalated, with the most dominant bull being responsible for the majority of the interventions.



“These results support the suggestion that sparring functions principally to provide maturing males a means of testing their competitive ability without escalating to full-scale fights,” explained the study authors.



Researchers also found that sparring displayed a seasonal peak coinciding with the onset of the wet season and possibly reflecting the increased aggregation of males at that time.&nbsp;



“A more nuanced understanding of how social and environmental factors shape interactions among individuals, such as sparring, will improve our understanding and management of this charismatic animal,” concluded the study authors.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giraffes engage in fair fights

A new study published in the journal Ethology has found...

A new therapy against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-bats-resist-covid-19-infection/">Covid-19</a> has shown “significant potential” in early animal trials. It consists of “nanobodies,” which are smaller and simpler versions of antibodies that llamas, camels, alpacas, and sharks appear to produce naturally in response to viral and bacterial infections. 



Experts claim that once this therapy has been comprehensively tested in humans, it could be given as a nasal spray in order to treat or even prevent infections with SARS-CoV-2.



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.rfi.ac.uk/">Rosalind Franklin Institute</a> in Oxfordshire vaccinated the llama Fifi with a small piece of viral protein, stimulating her immune system to produce nanobodies. Like in the case of antibodies, nanobodies bind to viruses and bacteria that invade an organism and help the body build a strong immune response to fight the infection.



These special, highly potent molecules were picked out and purified from a sample of Fifi’s blood, and then multiplied in the laboratory and tested on Syrian golden hamsters. All of the coronavirus-infected rodents that were treated with the nanobody nasal spray fully recovered within six days.



"The immune system is so marvelous that it still does better than we can - evolution is hard to beat," said study leader James Naismith, a professor of Structural Biology at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>. Although vaccines against the coronavirus are currently administered worldwide, having effective treatments is very important. "Not all of the world is being vaccinated at the same speed, and there remains a risk of new variants capable of bypassing vaccine immunity emerging," explained Professor Naismith.



New treatments such as this are crucial steps toward ending the current pandemic. However, according to Professor Sheena Cruickshank, an immunologist from the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/">University of Manchester</a>, further research is needed in order to assess the benefits and safety of using nanobody nasal sprays in humans.



"We need more data on efficacy and safety before we move to human trials," she said. "However, it's very promising nonetheless and the fact it may be cheaper and easier to administer is a plus. Covid-19 will be, unfortunately, with us for a while yet, so more treatments will be needed."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25480-z">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Llamas provide a potential treatment against Covid-19

A new therapy against Covid-19 has shown “significant potential” in...

Many scientists and environmental activists worry about the possible extinction of various species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-use-tools/">primates</a>. A new study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> argues that the demise of threatened primates could also trigger the extinction of many species of parasites that live in and on them.&nbsp;



Due to human activities such as deforestation, hunting, or trapping, a large number of primates are at risk of extinction. Currently, 108 of the 213 primate species from the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>’s dataset are considered endangered. However, scientists rarely think about the even larger number of parasite species that will disappear together with these primates.



"If all the primates that are threatened with extinction really do die out, they won't be the only species that go extinct," said study first author James Herrera, a researcher at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu/">Duke Lemur Center</a>. "It could also be twice that many parasites. That's a whole realm of biodiversity that could be going extinct without us even noticing.”&nbsp;



As Herrera acknowledges, it might seem weird to worry about these parasites, considering all our efforts to deworm and delouse our pets. However, many parasites are not dangerous for their hosts, and can even have surprising benefits, such as protecting against other infections or keeping autoimmune disorders in check.&nbsp;



“There's so little that we know about what they do in the body, that we don't even know what we're losing," he said. As previous studies show, 85 to 95 percent of the parasitic worms of animals are not even known to science yet. Thus, their potential benefits are far from being understood.&nbsp;



To estimate the potential loss of biodiversity primate extinctions could cause, Herrera and his colleagues used network analysis to measure the potential ripple effects on the parasites camping in or on primates.



They discovered that the 213 primates they studied were connected in complex webs of interaction with 763 species of worms, mites, protists, and other parasites. When a primate host dies, the parasites need to find another host in order to survive. However, if an entire primate species goes extinct, the parasites connected to it might have no other suitable hosts and disappear too.&nbsp;



Herrera and his team have found that if the 108 endangered primate species go extinct, 250 species of parasites could be doomed as well. Further research is needed to fully understand these complex inter-species connections and the ecosystemic risks their extinction might give rise to.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2020.0355">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

If primates go extinct, so will their parasites

Many scientists and environmental activists worry about the possible extinction...

Sawfly larvae secrete noxious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indoor-air-is-an-underestimated-source-of-dangerous-chemicals/">chemicals</a> to deter predation, especially by ants. The effectiveness of this deterrent can be tested directly on ants but in a recent study, researchers took a novel approach. Instead of exposing other insects or predators to the sawfly larvae chemicals, scientists translated the chemicals to noise and exposed humans to it.&nbsp;



To quantify how much the humans disliked the sounds, they measured how far from the loudspeakers people walked to reach a comfortable distance.&nbsp;



Entomologist Jean-Luc Boevé of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences was one of the collaborators on the project.



"Interestingly, we could show that the responses by ants and humans are correlated, thus indicating that sonification can approximate the 'real world' of predator-prey interactions," said Boevé, who explained where the idea of translating chemicals into sounds came from.



"For instance, you have small molecules like acetic acid contained in vinegar or pungent formic acid emitted by some ants, they're very volatile and diffuse into the air rapidly. So, I thought it would be possible to translate a high or low volatility into high or low tones, as well as other chemical traits into other sound traits."



The process of turning chemical cues into sound, that is the process of sonification was work intensive and time consuming. Many experiments and analysis of the sawflies chemistry and morphology were required.&nbsp;



"To be honest, I considered the sonification project so far-fetched myself that I set the project aside, sometimes for several months," said Boevé.



In the end, many of the roughly 50 human participants described the sounds as scary or unpleasant, exactly what you would expect from chemical deterrents. The researchers hope that the new technique of sonification will be useful for further research in assessing volatile insect chemicals, especially in cases where it may otherwise be challenging.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The results were published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a> in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/patterns/home">Patterns</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sawfly defense chemicals translated into creepy sounds

Sawfly larvae secrete noxious chemicals to deter predation, especially by...

A new study published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211320721000415?via%3Dihub">International Journal for Parasitology: Drugs and Drug Resistance</a> has revealed that the hookworms infecting greyhound dogs in the United States have become resistant to all the drugs veterinarians used to kill them.&nbsp;



Hookworms are some of the most common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasites-help-worker-ants-live-much-longer-lives/">parasites</a> infecting dogs and they can be transmitted to humans too. They live in the animals’ intestines, often causing weight loss, anemia, bloody stools, and lethargy. According to research led by the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a>, these parasites have recently become resistant to all the types of drugs that veterinarians generally used to kill them.



A research team led by Professor Ray Kaplan analyzed fecal samples from greyhound adoption kennels, an active racing kennel, and three veterinary practices that cooperate with adoptions groups. Four out of every five greyhounds were found to be infected by hookworms. Even more alarming, Professor Kaplan and his colleagues discovered that the dogs still had high levels of infection even after they were treated with well-known medications that previously managed to kill these worms.



The researchers claim that in places where there is a high number of dogs simultaneously infected by hookworms, such as racing dog kennels and breeding farms, there is a high chance for the hookworms to mutate and evade dewormer medications. The more often the medications are used, the more tolerance the parasites will develop.



"There's a very committed greyhound adoption industry because they are lovely dogs. I used to own one. But as those dogs are adopted, the drug-resistant hookworms are going to show up in other pet dogs," said Professor Kaplan.&nbsp;



A possible breeding ground for drug-resistant hookworm outbreaks are dog parks. "Personally, I would not take my dog to a dog park. If your dog picks up these resistant hookworms, it's not as easy as just treating them with medication anymore. Until new types of drugs are available, taking your dog to a dog park has to be considered a risky activity," explained Professor Kaplan.



Luckily, scientists found that these multiple drug-resistant hookworms seem to be susceptible to emodepside, a dewormer that was previously used only for cats. However, this treatment can only be performed in veterinary clinics, since it requires expertise and careful supervision after administration. Moreover, it is not yet known how long hookworms will take to build mutations that could evade this treatment too.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dog parasites have become resistant to medications

A new study published in the International Journal for Parasitology:...

It is notoriously difficult to determine the age of a lobster. In a new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA) have managed to identify a way of accurately determining age based on modifications in the lobster’s DNA.



For decades, experts have pondered how old lobsters can get, with some estimates rising even to a century or more. However, scientists could not find reliable methods to determine their exact age. This has been a problem, since knowing how many individuals of particular ages are present in a given area is important in order for them to be sustainably harvested.



“Until now, a lobster's age has usually been estimated using its size - but this is inaccurate as individual lobsters grow at different rates,” explained Dr. Martin Taylor from UEA’s <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/about/school-of-biological-sciences">School of Biological Sciences</a>. 



“For a long time, it appeared that there was no accurate way to quantify a lobster’s age. Some research suggested that you could tell a lobsters age by counting the rings in parts of their eyestalks and stomach – a little like counting tree rings. But you can’t do that for a living lobster.”



Recently, UEA scientists, in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.nationallobsterhatchery.co.uk/">National Lobster Hatchery</a> and the <a href="https://www.cefas.co.uk/">Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science</a> (CEFAS), have developed a new DNA technique&nbsp;that could solve this problem. By quantifying DNA changes that accumulate within lobsters as they age, accurate indications of their ages have been found.



“We identified a very strong relationship between age and DNA modifications, which allowed us to accurately estimate the ages of individual lobsters,” said Dr. Taylor. 



“Applying this method to wild lobsters predicted ages that generally aligned with minimum estimates of age based on size.&nbsp;Our method shows great promise as a tool for improved management of the European lobster where information regarding the age-structure of stocks is currently missing.”



According to Dr. Carly Daniels, head of production science and development at the National Lobster Hatchery, knowing lobsters’ precise ages will help fisheries, scientists and conservationists alike to understand, manage and conserve our vulnerable lobster stocks.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17524571">Evolutionary Applications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

DNA technique can help estimate the age of lobsters

It is notoriously difficult to determine the age of a...

A new <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.09.14.460388v1">study</a> led by <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/">New York University Langone Health</a> has found that a certain genetic mutation is responsible for a profound anatomical change that Charles Darwin first recognized with immense puzzlement in the 19th century: the loss of tails in humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-politely-end-their-social-interactions/">apes</a>, which occurred roughly 25 million years ago.



For over half a billion years, our ancestord sprouted tails. Fish used them to swim through the Cambrian seas, and later on, primates managed to keep their balance while rushing from branch to branch in the Eocene jungles with the help of their tails.



Paleoanthropologists have found that the oldest known primates, dating back 66 million years, had full-fledged tails that were crucial for their locomotion. Although most of today’s living primates still have them, fossil records of apes had shown animals with no tails at all since about 20 million years ago. 



“This question - where’s my tail? - has been in my head since I was a kid,” said lead author Bo Xia, a doctoral student in stem cell biology at <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/our-community/about-us">N.Y.U. Grossman School of Medicine</a>. After a car accident in 2019, when he injured his coccyx (a set of vertebrae extending beyond the pelvis that scientists think it is a vestigial remain of a tail), Xia decided to investigate scientifically this puzzling absence in humans and other great apes.



Xia and his team investigated how tails form in the early stages of embryonic development and identified over 30 genes that play a fundamental role in these processes.&nbsp;



One of these genes, called TBXT, exhibited a significant mutation in humans and other tailless apes. The gene apparently emerged about 20 million years ago and caused apes to grow just a stump of a tail, or even to not grow one at all.



However, even if geneticists such as Xia and his colleagues begin to explain how our tails disappeared, they are still far from understanding why this happened. Since the first apes were larger than monkeys, they would have probably fallen off branches more frequently and with often fatal consequences. Thus, tail loss might have put them at a significant evolutionary disadvantage. Furthermore, the lack of tail brings a whole series of spinal cord defects that modern humans struggle with as well.&nbsp;



“It’s very confusing why they lost their tail,” said Gabrielle Russo, an evolutionary morphologist at <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/">Stony Brook University</a>, New York. “That’s the next outstanding question: What on earth would the advantage be?”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetic mutation may explain how humans lost their tails

A new study led by New York University Langone Health...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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