In a fascinating new study, scientists documented 34 attempts by wild killer whales to give food to humans. These rare cases spanned four oceans and 20 years. Some happened near boats, others in open water or even from the shore. 



The events highlight the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-use-kelp-to-massage-and-groom-each-other/">orcas</a>’ possible interest in humans and raise important questions about whale intelligence, communication, and social behavior.



“Orcas often share food with each other - it’s a prosocial activity and a way that they build relationships with each other,” said study lead author Jared Towers, of <a href="https://baycetology.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bay Cetology</a> in British Columbia, Canada. “That they also share with humans may show their interest in relating to us as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-lives-of-killer-whales">Social lives of killer whales</h2>



Orcas live some of the most complex social lives in the animal kingdom. They stick together in tight-knit family groups called pods, usually led by an older matriarch. 



These family units aren’t just casual gatherings - they’re lifelong bonds. Calves stay with their mothers for life, swimming, hunting, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photographer-captures-killer-whales-wearing-fish-hats/">playing together</a>. 



In some regions, pods form larger communities or clans that share unique vocal dialects, kind of like cultural accents passed down through generations. This tight social structure helps them coordinate during hunts and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-use-kelp-to-massage-and-groom-each-other/">protect each other</a> from threats.



But it’s not all business. Orcas socialize for the joy of it too. They engage in what clearly looks like play - tossing kelp, breaching dramatically, or nudging one another during underwater games. 



They form friendships beyond their pods and even flirt, showing preferences and personalities. These interactions suggest that orcas have emotional lives and a sense of identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-orcas-gave-humans">What orcas gave humans</h2>



The 34 incidents involved six distinct populations of killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/">whales</a>. They offered humans a total of 18 species: six fish, five mammals, three invertebrates, two birds, one reptile, and even one piece of seaweed.



In 97 percent of these cases, the orcas waited for a human response. Some hovered for several minutes. 



On several occasions, they tried again when the humans ignored or returned the offering. In two especially curious cases, whales retrieved birds after humans returned them, only to offer them again.



This behavior could be a form of interspecies curiosity, communication, or even social learning. As the authors suggest, these events might represent "generalized altruism" - an advanced trait observed in only a few social animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploration-more-than-play">Exploration more than play</h2>



Though play was observed in 38 percent of the interactions, the researchers argue most cases were not playful. The age of the whales varied widely, and many offered whole, fresh prey. 



In over 75 percent of ignored cases, the whales later used the prey for themselves or their group. This suggests the offerings had purpose and value, not just entertainment.



Curiosity-driven behavior, distinct from play, seemed a stronger motivator. As the study explains, animals often explore to reduce uncertainty. 



Offering food to humans might help orcas learn how we respond, just as they would with unfamiliar members of their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-blow-bubble-smoke-rings-near-humans-to-communicate/">species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-social-intelligence-at-work">Deep social intelligence at work</h2>



Some whales returned the same item to humans multiple times. Others acted in pairs or small groups. 



Most of the 34 events involved a single whale separating from a larger group. This suggests the act was not for show. Rather, it might reflect the whale's individual decision to interact.



Interestingly, killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dolphin-brains-evolved-to-see-underwater-by-using-sound-echolocation/">whales</a> have also been documented cooperating with human fishers in places like Australia and Russia. The authors noted that this history could influence modern interactions, especially as human activity increases near their habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-may-view-humans-as-companions">Whales may view humans as companions</h2>



Killer whales rank second only to humans in brain-to-body ratio. They also show advanced emotional and social behavior. 



These traits support complex social learning, reciprocal behavior, and possibly even empathy.



“Offering items to humans could simultaneously include opportunities for killer whales to practice learned cultural behavior, explore or play and in so doing learn about, manipulate or develop relationships with us,” the researchers wrote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-should-not-approach-whales">Humans should not approach whales</h2>



Despite the remarkable nature of these encounters, the researchers urge caution. Orcas can show complex and sometimes unpredictable behavior. 



While no wild killer whale has killed a person, some interactions have been intense. They warn against seeking out such encounters or encouraging the behavior without proper permissions.



Most of these whales belonged to populations that hunt near the surface and share prey frequently. 



No deep-water, fish-only populations were involved. This suggests that cooperative surface hunting may lead to more frequent and visible interspecies interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-minds-of-whales-and-humans">Complex minds of whales and humans</h2>



The findings challenge our assumptions about human-animal relationships. If orcas are experimenting with ways to relate to us, it means they recognize us not as threats, but as potential social partners.



These whales are not just predators. They are thinkers, observers, and maybe, in some way, explorers of culture, curiosity, memory, learning, and emotion. 



Their actions suggest complex minds in both whales and humans, capable of choice, empathy, and communication.



The study is published in the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2026-29805-001.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Psychology</a>. 



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Killer whales are attempting to bond with humans, according to scientists

In a fascinating new study, scientists documented 34 attempts by wild killer whales to give food to humans. These rare cases spanned four oceans and 20 years. Some happened near boats, others in open water or even from the shore. The events highlight the orcas’ possible interest in humans and raise important questions about whale intelligence, communication, and social behavior. “Orcas often share food with each other - it’s a prosocial activity and a way that they build relationships with each other,” said study lead author Jared...

Due to the expansion of unsustainable agriculture and urbanization around the world, there is widespread loss of the swamps, marshes, and free-flowing rivers that dragonflies usually breed in, causing a significant worldwide decline of this species. These findings from the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>’s (IUCN) latest global assessment suggest that one out of six dragonfly species is at risk of extinction.



After the latest update, IUCN’s Red List of endangered species has exceeded 40,000 for the first time. The assessment of the world’s dragonfly and damselfly populations reveals that 16 percent out of 6,016 species are at risk of extinction, due to significant deterioration of their freshwater breeding grounds.



“By revealing the global loss of dragonflies, today’s Red List update underscores the urgent need to protect the world’s wetlands and the rich tapestry of life they harbor. Globally, these ecosystems are disappearing three times faster than forests,”&nbsp;said&nbsp;Dr Bruno Oberle, IUCN’s Director General.&nbsp;



“Marshes and other wetlands may seem unproductive and inhospitable to humans, but in fact they provide us with essential services. They store carbon, give us clean water and food, protect us from floods, as well as offer habitats for one in ten of the world's known species.”



In South and Southeast Asia, over a quarter of dragonfly species are under threat, due to the clearing of wetland and rainforests for agricultural purposes, such as making room for crops like palm oil. In Central and South America, forests are cleared for residential and commercial purposes, while in North America and Europe, the greatest threat to dragonflies are the extensive use of pesticides and other pollutants, as well as the damage brought by climate change.



“Dragonflies are highly sensitive indicators of the state of freshwater ecosystems, and this first global assessment finally reveals the scale of their decline. It also provides an essential baseline we can use to measure the impact of conservation efforts,”&nbsp;said&nbsp;Dr Viola Clausnitzer, Co-chair of the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/ssc-groups/invertebrates/dragonfly">IUCN SSC Dragonfly Specialist Group</a>.&nbsp;



“To conserve these beautiful insects, it is critical that governments, agriculture and industry consider the protection of wetland ecosystems in development projects, for example by protecting key habitats and dedicating space to urban wetlands,” she concluded.&nbsp;



The report’s photos, summary statistics, and translations can be found <a href="https://www.dropbox.com/sh/jk57rxx7xjb29yu/AABZnX8JHqClF5ZV8-6FsHuma?dl=0">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hundreds of dragonfly species at risk of extinction

Due to the expansion of unsustainable agriculture and urbanization around...

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the likelihood increases that it will escape the neutralizing effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">vaccines</a> and other forms of treatment that have been developed to date. In response to this, scientists are intensifying their search for more powerful therapeutic solutions.



In a recent study, Rockefeller scientists&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/896-michael-p-rout/">Michael P. Rout</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/902-brian-t-chait/">Brian T. Chait</a>&nbsp;and their colleagues at the Seattle Children’s Research Institute tested the effectiveness of a range of over one hundred nanobodies that target different parts of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Nanobodies are like small antibodies that bind only to a specific section (domain) of an antigen such as the spike protein. They are found in members of the camel family, including llamas, alpacas and camels.



When llamas are immunized with small doses of coronavirus proteins their immune response is similar to that of humans after being vaccinated. However, instead of producing large, chunky antibodies as humans do, they produce small antibodies that bind to specific regions of the antigen only. These antigen-binding fragments are known as nanobodies.&nbsp;



The researchers collected blood samples from llamas that had been immunized and they identified a range of different nanobodies. They then located the genes in the llama’s genome that were responsible for coding these small antibody molecules and introduced the genetic information into bacterial chromosomes. The genetically modified bacteria were then cultured in the lab and produced large amounts of the nanobodies that could be used in analysis and testing.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests were done to find out which of the different nanobodies were most successful in neutralizing coronavirus particles. Some of the nanobodies targeted the region of the spike protein that attaches to receptors on human cells. This region is key to infection because, once the spike protein attaches to the host cell receptor, viral and host cell membranes fuse and the virus can enter into the host’s cell. Other nanobodies under investigation targeted different regions of the spike protein.



The results showed that several of&nbsp;the nanobodies were highly effective in neutralizing the original coronavirus, as well as its Delta, Beta and Gamma variants.&nbsp; The small size of nanobodies allows them to access hard-to-reach spots on the SARS-CoV-2 virus that larger antibodies may be unable to access. Furthermore, the research showed that up to three different nanobodies could bind to the same small region of the spike protein at the same time, increasing the chances of neutralizing the virus.&nbsp;



The researchers also found that different nanobodies were even more effective when combined. They suggested that this enhanced effect was due to the action of hitting different parts of the virus at the same time, thereby minimizing its chance of escaping neutralization.&nbsp;



“One of the most amazing things we observed with the nanobodies is that they show extraordinary synergy,” Chait says. “The combined effect is much greater than the sum of its parts.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists hope to develop cocktails of nanobodies that target different regions of the virus at the same time, reducing the chance that the virus can escape detection and neutralization. New studies are even underway to test the effectiveness of this technology on the Omicron variant.&nbsp;



Nanobodies are small and nimble, able to squeeze into hard-to-access folds of the viral spike protein. They are also inexpensive to mass-produce&nbsp;using genetically modified yeast or bacteria. This property, along with the fact that they are remarkably stable even in high temperatures and during long periods of storage, means that nanobodies could be developed into a drug suitable for use in different settings all over the world. This is particularly urgent in many developing countries where citizens still await access to vaccines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Llama antibodies have potential to treat coronavirus variants

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the...

Complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-develop-larger-sex-organs-when-co2-levels-are-high/">organs</a> in our own bodies are composed of numerous different types of cells and tissues, all working together cooperatively to achieve a particular function. For example, a heart contains muscle tissue, valves, ligaments and nerves, all of which act to pump blood efficiently. The question is, how did these different types of tissues originally come together to work as an organ?



This question has puzzled evolutionary biologists for decades. Now it seems that new research on a species of rove beetle may be able to cast some light on the issue. Published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>, the research shows how two different types of cells form a specialized gland in the beetle’s abdomen, with the function of making and secreting noxious chemicals for defense.&nbsp;



Rove beetles live in the leaf litter and soil of ecosystems all over the world and use cocktails of unpleasant chemical substances to keep would-be predators at bay. The beetles smear themselves and other, threatening insects, with the secreted compounds, which have the effect of triggering pain receptors in the recipient. In this way, some species of rove beetles are even able to live inside ant colonies without suffering any negative consequences.



“These beetles are fantastic models for understanding how new kinds of ecological relationships emerge during evolution, through changes at the molecular, cellular, and behavioral levels,” says senior author Joseph Parker of the California Institute of Technology.&nbsp;



“As part of this question, we’re very interested in how rove beetles have pieced together these glandular structures in their abdomens, which are made of different cell types that work together. These structures are the embodiment of a major conundrum: how complex organs evolve that are often composed of many different cell types that appear to seamlessly cooperate with each other. How this cooperativity emerges during evolution is challenging to explain.”



Parker and his colleagues focused their research on Dalotia coriaria, a species of rove beetle that synthesizes and releases a defensive chemical from tergal glands in its abdomen. The substance is composed of two different types of compounds: benzoquinones, which are highly toxic solids, and solvents that consist of a blend of an alkane and esters. The solvents, on their own, are harmless, but when they dissolve the benzoquinones, they turn the resultant cocktail into a serious weapon.



Each tergal gland contains two types of cells engaged in synthesizing the different compounds to be used in defense. “One cell type makes the benzoquinones and the other makes the solvents,” Parker explains. “Both are needed to create a functional secretion that confers adaptive value.”



In the study, the investigators used single-cell transcriptomics to uncover novel enzyme pathways that are used in the creation of these substances in each cell type. They then used these findings to dig deeper, exploring how each cell type’s pathway was constructed from pre-existing components that functioned in other, more ancient cell types, elsewhere in the beetle.&nbsp;



“We were able to discover the biosynthetic pathways in each cell type and could then ask how these pathways were stitched together during evolution,” noted Parker.&nbsp;



Interestingly, one of the cell types – the solvent cells that make the alkane and esters – was found to be a hybrid of cuticle cells and other ancient metabolic cells used originally to make pheromones and to produce and store fats. The solvent cells now carry out their function using a mixture of enzymes from each of the ancient parental cell types.&nbsp;



“The beetle has recruited a major gene expression program from these ancient metabolic cell types and installed it into a patch of cuticle, creating a gland,” said Parker.



Further experimental work with the beetles showed that, when the metabolic pathway for the production of either the solvent or the benzoquinones was rendered non-functional (by genetic knockdown), the beetles lost their defensive capabilities.&nbsp;



Since both pathways are needed for the beetles’ chemical defense system, they would both have been under the influence of natural selection during the beetles’ evolutionary history. Thus, the researchers propose that the evolution of each cell type was shaped by coevolution between the two cell types.&nbsp;



“The solvent cells created a niche for a second cell type to produce the solid benzoquinones, which could dissolve in the alkane and esters. A highly toxic secretion emerged that massively raised the gland’s adaptive value, locking the two cell types into a unit where they cooperate. In essence, a new organ emerged,” said Parker.



According to the researchers, their findings illustrate how cooperation between cell types arises, generating new, organ-level behaviors. This new understanding has implications for mapping out the evolution of more sophisticated organs found across the animal kingdom, including in humans.



“Across the animal tree of life, you see complex multicellular organs that are composed of many different cell types functioning collectively,” said Parker. “Think of something like the mammalian eye, which has about 70 different cell types all functioning together to enable our visual system. The scenario we find playing out in the tergal gland – an organ made of only two cell types – you can imagine could go through further rounds as cell types create niches for new ones to be added, eventually generating really elaborate, multicellular complexity.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beetle glands help explain how complex organs evolved

Complex organs in our own bodies are composed of numerous...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a> in Canada has found that dogs are able to understand 89 words and phrases on average, with some canines being able to comprehend up to 215. These words include their names, as well as various commands such as “sit,” “come,” “wait,” or “lie down.”&nbsp;



As early as 1928, scientists attempted to assess dogs’ ability to understand what humans tell them, when psychologists C.J. Warden and L.H. Warner documented the ability of Fellow, a male German Shepherd, to respond to his owner’s spoken commands. According to the psychologists, Fellow was able to respond appropriately to 68 words or phrases.



In the new study, researchers surveyed 165 dog owners of various breeds and ages, by using a questionnaire modeled after parent word checklists used to assess infants’ language. The participants had to identify words to which they believed their dogs were responding. According to the owners, dogs responded to between 15 and 215 words, with a mean of 89, most of the words being commands.



“Due to their evolutionary history and close association with humans, domestic dogs have learned to respond to human verbal and nonverbal cues at a level unmatched by other species. Their ability to respond to communicative cues is critical for the numerous professional and family roles they play in our lives,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Based on owner reports, dogs seem to vary greatly not only in the number but also in the kinds of words to which they purportedly respond. The current study is consistent with existing research suggesting that dogs may be particularly adept at responding to commands rather than object words.”



Moreover, the researchers found that certain dog breeds, such as herding dogs (Australian Shepherd, Border Collie, Cardigan Welsh Corgi, German Shepherd, Miniature American Shepherd, and Shetland Sheepdog), and toy-companion dogs (Bichon Frise, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Chihuahua, and multiple poodles) responded to more words than other breeds.



“There may be breed-related differences in the number of words to which dogs may learn to respond, although additional research is necessary to determine if such differences exist between breeds themselves or between owners of different breeds,” the authors wrote.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105513">Applied Animal Behaviour Science</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs can understand up to 215 words

A new study led by Dalhousie University in Canada has...

The analysis of 131 papers on penguins has confirmed that the marine birds need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-chimpanzees-need-protection-from-human-development/">protection</a>. The research, published in the September issue of <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/marine-policy">Marine Policy</a>, comes as the UN is negotiating a treaty on the sustainable use of international areas in the high seas.&nbsp;



“In the marine environment, coastal states typically retain management of waters up to 200 nautical miles from their shorelines, but beyond that, the high seas, which represent 64 percent of the ocean’s surface and 95 percent of its volume, are considered global commons," explained study first author Jean-Baptiste Thiebot, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nipr.ac.jp/english/">National Institute of Polar Research</a>.



"Penguins are, largely, ocean wanderers: they venture well offshore during some - or all - of their life stages. Hence, while the public may not think of penguins as traveler animals, we show that penguins are indeed extremely mobile. This mobility also widens the range of threats that they may face at sea, and, in particular, human activities that are intensifying in the high seas.”



According to Thiebot, much of this penguin movement is wide ranging and involves international migration.&nbsp;



“Transboundary movements, notably to areas beyond national jurisdiction, are remarkably prevalent among penguin species - there are at least 120 cases of penguins, representing 13 species, using such areas. We highlight that in 16 of the 18 species examined, the birds may undertake spectacular migrations, seasonally or through life-cycle stages.”



Due to their mobility, as well as to the wide range of threats posed to them by pollution, fishing, and climate change, Thiebot suggests there is a need for flexible conservation.



“We show that the use of areas beyond national jurisdiction by penguin species varies throughout the year, a dynamic pattern supporting the pertinence of developing innovative protection tools, such as mobile marine protected areas,” said Thiebot.



Although the research focused on penguins, it can be seen as part of a greater call for more care of the high seas.



“The current paper is part of a large effort by scientists worldwide to explain the stakes of protecting this biodiversity in the high seas. In the present paper, we examined to what extent penguins are known to use the high seas, and to what extent the conservation of penguins may depend on these legally binding developments.”



The scientists see this paper as just the first step with more research needed in the near future.&nbsp;



“Building on our first-step general approach, further analyses will be required to identify exactly which sites in areas beyond national jurisdiction are a priority for conservation," said Thiebot.



"In the meantime, the ongoing expansion of tracking studies will be key to provide a more complete perspective on the use of areas beyond national jurisdiction by penguins across species, sites and seasons.”



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Penguins are more mobile, and more threatened, than expected

The analysis of 131 papers on penguins has confirmed that...

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster&nbsp;spp.) are native to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">coral reefs</a> in the Indo-Pacific. They are a major contributor to coral loss, since they feed on the living tissue of several hard coral species. 



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26786-8">Nature Communications</a> has found that reef fish such as tropical snappers, emperors, or rock cods, help keep the numbers of crown-of-thorn starfish in check on the Great Barrier Reef in the Indo-Pacific, thus protecting coral populations.



“More than 50 years ago concern was raised that removal of predators may contribute to starfish outbreaks. However, at the time only one predator of the starfish was known, the giant triton sea snail,” explained study lead author Dr. Frederieke Kroon, an ecologist at the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a> (AIMS).



“Recent studies have revealed nearly one hundred species of coral reef organisms feed on different life stages of the starfish. Eighty of these are fish, including popular seafood species such as emperors, tropical snappers, and rock cods. Our study is the first to explore how fisheries harvests of these fish species may affect starfish abundance.”



Dr. Kroon and her colleagues compared long-term starfish and reef fish abundance data collected at reefs open and closed for fishing. They discovered that, on reefs closed for fishing, the biomass of emperors, rock cods, and snappers was 1.4 to 2.1 times higher and starfish densities almost three times lower than those on reefs that were open to fishing.



“It is well known that no-take marine reserves increase fish biomass and diversity of large fishes. Previous studies have suggested marine reserves could also influence starfish numbers, but our study provides strong evidence there are fewer crown-of-thorns starfish on reefs with more predatory fish,” said Dr. Kroon.



These findings may help develop new tools for controlling starfish outbreaks on the Great Barrier Reef and the Indo-Pacific region, such as targeted fisheries-based management.



“Starfish outbreaks continue to be a major cause of coral loss, but unlike other pressures like climate change, can be managed at local and regional levels,” Dr Kroon said. “Targeted fisheries-based management, in combination with current crown-of-thorns starfish management interventions such as direct manual control, could assist in further controlling outbreaks.”



“Large-scale, long-term data such as those used this study, as well as experimental studies are the best scientific tools we have to help understand the complexities of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks, and to implement effective and efficient management interventions for their control,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish protect corals by feeding on crown-of-thorns starfish

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster&nbsp;spp.) are native to coral reefs in the...

Researchers have discovered that African and Asian primates evolved a certain resistance to diurnal cobra venoms. The research shows that the last common ancestor of humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-give-us-clues-about-early-human-evolution/">chimpanzees</a> and gorillas had evolved an even greater resistance to venom.&nbsp;



“As primates from Africa gained the ability to walk upright and dispersed throughout Asia, they developed weapons to defend themselves against venomous snakes, this likely sparked an evolutionary arms race and evolving this venom resistance,” said Richard Harris, a PhD candidate at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>.



It’s not just resistance to venom that primates evolved in response to snakes or other predators. The scientists speculate that other traits we take for granted such as good vision could be related to avoiding snakes as well, explaining that primates in areas with fewer venomous snakes have poorer eyesight.&nbsp;



“But Madagascan Lemurs and Central and South American monkeys, which live in regions that haven’t been colonized by or come in close contact with neurotoxic venomous snakes, didn’t evolve this kind of resistance to snake venoms and have poorer eyesight," said Harris.&nbsp;



"It’s been long-theorized that snakes have strongly influenced primate evolution, but we now have additional biological evidence to support this theory.”&nbsp;



The researchers, looking at the reaction between various venoms and synthetic nerve receptors, compared Asian and mainland African primates with those of Madagascar and the Americas. Cobras live in Africa and Asia, there are no venomous snakes in Madagascar and the cobra-related coral snake of the Americas is small and burrowing.&nbsp;



“Our movement down from the trees and more commonly on land meant more interactions with venomous snakes, thus driving the evolutionary selection of this increased resistance," said Professor Bryan Fry.



"It is important to note that this resistance is not absolute – we are not immune to cobra venom, just much less likely to die than other primates.”



Resistance to cobra venom has a cost - receptors that are resistant to cobra venom don’t work quite as well. To develop them, pressure to survive a cobra bite is necessary. This research is just one piece of a greater puzzle of human evolution enmeshed in the greater evolution of all life on Earth.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Early humans developed an immunity to cobra venom

Researchers have discovered that African and Asian primates evolved a...

Wild pigs are often considered to be sweet and intelligent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-in-the-mediterranean-are-moving-to-deeper-water-to-survive/">animals</a>, but the unfortunate reality is they contribute to $1.5 billion of property and crop damage in the U.S. each year. It is becoming increasingly difficult to quantify the pig population and their movements due to the massive population of around 9 million animals in the U.S, and therefore mitigation efforts are complicated.



New research from the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> is aiming to help resolve this issue by tracking wild pigs across the 310-square-mile area of the Savannah River Site in South Carolina. The tracking aims to provide insights into how pigs move and choose habitats, with most areas being chosen due to habitat preferences and air temperature.&nbsp;



“The idea was to provide knowledge of wild pig movements at a temporal scale, at which most management practices and decisions occur,” said study first author Lindsay Clontz. “The variables we incorporated were intended to be universal (i.e., habitat quality, weather, landscape characteristics), making it practical for landowners and managers to make informed management decisions on a week-by-week basis.”&nbsp;



The research team temporarily captured 49 wild pigs through baited traps in order to fit radio collars to track their movements over a year, and the resulting data confirmed that pigs generally choose bottomland hardwood swamps as their habitat. This is due to the availability of forage and water, allowing the pigs to regulate their body temperature within the hot climate.



The experts also discovered that female pigs stay closer to their desired habitats than males on average. “In most mammals, females are more tied to resources than males,” said Beasley. “Males often move around more throughout the landscape to gain access to females - especially pigs, which can breed year-round.”&nbsp;



Furthermore, the study revealed that reductions in air pressure resulted in less pig movement. “You’ve probably heard people talk about pets or animals responding before a storm,” said Beasley. “That’s exactly what we see with pigs: When these bad weather events hit, pigs tend to concentrate their movements, probably in areas of cover to stay out of the elements. That has a direct application in how we implement trapping or other control programs and deciding where and when to concentrate efforts.”&nbsp;



While the core aim of this study was to reduce crop and property damage, the researchers are hoping that it could have more important applications in the future. An example of this would be to track the movements of pigs to mitigate the spreading of diseases such as African Swine Flu, a situation that can pose a huge threat to the meat industry.



“From the domestic standpoint, anytime there’s a detection of an outbreak like that, they often have to go in and slaughter millions of pigs and dispose of them and shut down exports,” Beasley said. “So it’s a major economic and ecological issue.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15264998">Pest Management Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tracking study on wild pigs reveals when they move and why

Wild pigs are often considered to be sweet and intelligent...

With a wingspan of almost 40 feet, the giant pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus is the largest known flying animal. However, since only a few fossilized bones were discovered in West Texas in 1971, how such a massive creature managed to fly has remained a mystery. A new research <a href="https://utexas.box.com/s/xuynecqota9hs9ft7o2kaxajk3j0uflr">collection</a> published by the <a href="https://vertpaleo.org/">Society of Vertebrate Paleontology</a> provides the most comprehensive study of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">dinosaur</a> species yet, shedding new light on its habitat, morphology, and behavior.



“This is the first time that we have had any kind of comprehensive study,” said co-editor of the collection Matthew Brown, the director of the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a>’s <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu/vpl/">Vertebrate Paleontology Collections</a>. “Even though&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus&nbsp;has been known for 50 years, it has been poorly known.”&nbsp;



The in-depth study of all confirmed and suspected&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus&nbsp;bones led to the identification of two new pterosaur species, including a smaller one, with an 18-to-20-foot wingspan, which was named Quetzalcoatlus&nbsp;lawsoni, in the honor of Douglas Lawson, the geologist who discovered the bones in 1971.



While the larger species is known from only around a dozen bones, hundreds of fossils from the smaller species were discovered. This offered the scientists the possibility to reconstruct an almost complete skeleton and study the ways in which it moved and flew. Later on, they applied their insights to its larger cousin too.&nbsp;



“Pterosaurs have huge breast bones, which is where the flight muscles attach, so there is no doubt that they were terrific flyers," said collection co-editor Kevin Padian, an emeritus professor and emeritus curator at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>.&nbsp;



Although scientists previously assumed that the pterosaur rocked forward on its wingtips like a vampire bat, or built up speed by running and flapping like an albatross, these new analyses suggest that it may have initially jumped at least eight feet into the air before lifting off by flipping its wings.



The researchers also found more details about these dinosaurs’ possible habitats and behaviors. While the larger&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus&nbsp;might have lived like today’s herons, hunting alone in rivers and streams, the smaller species appeared to flock together in lakes with at least 30 individuals found at a single fossil site.



“Never before has so much detailed information on azhdarchids (the pterosaur family that includes&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus) been gathered in the same place, this meaning that the work will serve as the standard go-to study of this group for years – probably decades – to come,” concluded vertebrate paleontologist Darren Naish.



Image Credit: James Kuether



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The world’s largest flying dinosaur jumped before takeoff

With a wingspan of almost 40 feet, the giant pterosaur...

Thousands of square meters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-destroyed-14-percent-of-the-worlds-coral-reefs/">corals</a> are currently being grown on previously destroyed coral reefs in central Indonesia. Until recently, it has not been clear whether these new corals can revive the local reef ecosystem. 



However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has identified a diverse soundscape emerging from these restored coral reefs. According to the scientists, this rich array of whoops, croaks, raspberries, foghorns, and growls, are clear signs that the ecosystem is recovering.&nbsp;



"Restoration projects can be successful at growing coral, but that’s only part of the ecosystem," said study lead author Dr. Tim Lamont, a researcher at the University of Exeter and the&nbsp;<a href="http://www.buildingcoral.com/">Mars Coral Reef Restoration Project</a>. “This study provides exciting evidence that restoration really works for the other reef creatures too – by listening to the reefs, we’ve documented the return of a diverse range of animals."&nbsp;



The scientists used acoustic recordings taken in 2018 and 2019 as part of the monitoring program for the restoration of central Indonesia’s coral reefs, which involved the use of hexagonal metal frames called “Reef Stars” that were seeded with coral and laid over a large area in order to stabilize loose rubble and initiate rapid coral growth.



"We have been restoring and monitoring these reefs here in Indonesia for many years. Now it is amazing to see more and more evidence that our work is helping the reefs come back to life," said study co-author Mochyudho Prasetya, a researcher in the Mars Coral Reef Restoration Project.&nbsp;



“When the soundscape comes back like this, the reef has a better chance of becoming self-sustaining because those sounds attract more animals that maintain and diversify reef populations," explained study co-author Professor David Smith, a marine scientist at the University of Exeter.



However, there are multiple threats that coral reefs are currently facing all over the world, including climate change and water pollution, which must be urgently addressed in order to offer long-term protection to these vital ecosystems.



"Our study shows that reef restoration can really work, but it's only part of a solution that must also include rapid action on climate change and other threats to reefs worldwide," Dr. Lamont concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14089">Journal of Applied Ecology.</a>



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish songs are proof of coral restoration success

Thousands of square meters of corals are currently being grown...

While bumblebees fly from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflowers-face-east-to-get-more-attention-from-bees/">flower</a> to flower, they probably don’t waste much time learning the details of each one, but rather focus on the basic color of the landing area. This is one of the findings of new research, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



The researchers trained bees to forage on artificial flowers consisting of circles of blue or yellow, or half and half, with sugar solution in the center. The flowers were positioned upright, meaning that as bees flew in to land, they saw mostly the bottom half of the colored circle. The team then tested the bees’ approach behavior when they were presented with new and different flower options on their flight paths.



During these tests, no sugar solution was provided in the artificial flowers. The bumblebees were therefore not attracted to the flowers by the presence of sugar. Instead, they flew around in front of the flowers, making choices about where to land. This allowed the researchers see which color they were drawn to.



The results showed that, when faced with an artificial flower that had a different arrangement of the two colors from the one used in training, bees paid most attention to whatever color was found on the lower half of the flower they had been trained on and were used to. This suggests that they learned only this basic attribute of the flower, rather than inspecting and memorizing details of the whole flower before landing.&nbsp;



"We know bees have the cognitive capacity to learn a lot of information about a flower," said&nbsp;<a href="https://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Natalie_Hempel_de_Ibarra">Professor Natalie Hempel de Ibarra</a>, Associate Professor at Exeter's Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour. "However, our study suggests a simple, low-effort form of learning is good enough in some situations.”



“The bees in our experiments extracted just the information they needed, rather than learning everything that was available to them," said study first author Dr Keri Langridge. "Like humans, most animals like easy forms of learning. Why learn a hidden route to the top of the hill when one could simply follow a trail with a big color sign?”



Some bumblebees were trained with a circle split into two uneven color parts – either mostly yellow or mostly blue, which changed their flight patterns. The test results in this case were more complex than after learning on circles that were split 50/50. This suggests that the bees had paid some attention to contrast edges as well as to color during training flights.



Professor Hempel de Ibarra said the study findings may provide insights about the evolution of colorful patterns in flowers, particularly those that can help pollinators such as bees to land quickly and safely.



The results of the study are published today in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology">Frontiers in Physiology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bumblebees don’t waste time on the details

While bumblebees fly from flower to flower, they probably don’t...

Climate change is making life more challenging for the Antarctic fur seal, including a limited supply of krill during the summer months. As a result, female Antarctic fur seals have less reproductive success.



Furthermore, leopard seals have become a bigger threat to fur seal pups in areas where there is a lower abundance of penguins, which are their main prey.&nbsp;



Despite these challenges for Antarctic fur seals in the summer months, little is known about how climate change may impact them in the winter. A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.ub.edu/web/portal/en/">University of Barcelona</a> set out to investigate.



The Antarctic fur seal is found exclusively in the Southern Ocean, and feeds mainly on krill. The team conducted the research during the austral summer season of 2019 in the Antarctic research station Gabriel de Castilla on Deception Island within the Southern Shetland Islands.&nbsp;



"Little is known about the winter habitat of male Antarctic fur seals and no habitat suitability model has been developed for them. The Antarctic fur seal is often qualified as ice-tolerant, but not ice-dependent, and some authors have characterized adult males as ice-free oceanic foragers," wrote the study authors.



"Antarctic fur seals are highly sexually dimorphic, and differences between sexes in winter habitat use could be related to differences in body mass, which in turn is a major determinant of their thermoregulatory skills and diving performance."&nbsp;



"The study of juvenile and immature males, whose body mass is in between that of adult females and adult males, can be particularly useful to improve our understanding of habitat use by male Antarctic fur seals in winter."



The researchers used satellite tracking to monitor juvenile and immature males, which represent more than the 80 percent of the seals that remain in Antarctic waters during winter.&nbsp;



Females leave Antarctica during this period when the breeding season is over. They move to warmer areas near South America, while the male seals stay behind in Antarctica.



"Males spend most of the winter time in the Antarctic Ocean, without going to the mainland, and they preferentially select areas of less than 1,000 meters deep, located about 200 kilometers from the ice borders and with high levels of chlorophyll and a surface temperature below 2ºC," explained study co-author Lluís Cardona, director of the Antarctic research project Flexseal.



"This coincides with the favorite habitat of the Antarctic krill, the main prey of these otariids. Due to the seasonal dynamics of ice, the krill-friendly habitat moves north during winter and so do the fur seals. As winter progresses, krill migrate deeper into the water and males dive deeper to eat, sometimes up to 180 meters deep."



According to the researchers, the differences in habitats during the austral winter may explain the sexual dimorphism of the species. Adult females weigh about 44 to 110 pounds, and adult males weigh up to 300 pounds. Even the juvenile males are larger than females. 



"An increased body mass involves more capacity to store oxygen, which allows adult males to dive deeper when searching for food," said Cardona.



The experts noted that the most important reproductive population of the Antarctic fur seal is in the South Georgia islands, where the greatest abundance of krill has been available in the summer over the last two decades.&nbsp;



"When this food source decreases, fur seals increase their fish intake but the reproductive success decreases. Therefore, the species can survive without krill but the population of the Antarctic fur seal is less abundant, like in the Kerguelen Islands."



The climate crisis will continue to alter the ecosystems of the Antarctic peninsula and the Southern Ocean. Both male and female fur seals will be increasingly exposed to these environmental changes.&nbsp;



"To adapt to the external changes, the colonies of the Antarctic fur seal should move south across the Antarctic peninsula, but this is an extremely slow process," said Cardona.



"In the future, we will need to manage properly the krill fishing activities in these areas, and this will require to consider not only the female consumption during summer but also the consumption associated with males of all ages during the four seasons of the year," concludes the researcher.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antarctic fur seals are struggling in a warmer climate

Climate change is making life more challenging for the Antarctic...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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