Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

Scientists from the <a href="https://www.mbari.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute</a> (MBARI) have recently spotted off the Californian coast a very rarely seen giant phantom jellyfish with 32 feet long tentacles. This elusive deep-sea creature was first officially documented in 1899. It has only been spotted 110 times in over 120 years, and has been captured on camera just nine times.&nbsp;



The giant phantom jellyfish (Stygiomedusa gigantea) is one of then largest invertebrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-predators-have-outsmarted-monarch-butterflies/">predators</a> in the deep-sea ecosystem. It has an umbrella-shaped bell which can be up to 3.3ft wide, and four “paddle-like” arms that can reach a length of 32ft and are used to trap prey. 



This purple-colored creature lives in the depths of the oceans, in regions up to 21,900ft deep. Although it has been spotted only off the coast of the Pacific, in the Gulf of Mexico, and near Japan, scientists believe it resides in all oceans, besides the Arctic. According to the sparse knowledge gathered so far, the giant phantom jellyfish feeds mostly on plankton and a variety of small fish that live deep underwater. However, more than a century after its discovery, not much is known about this strange animal.



“Even now, scientists still know very little about this animal,” the researchers from MBARI said.&nbsp;“The challenges of accessing its deep-water habitat contribute to the relative scarcity of sightings for such a large and broadly distributed species.” The most recent recording was done at a depth of 3,200ft in the Monterey Bay, with the help of an underwater robot.



Before underwater robots, or “remotely operated vehicles” (ROVs), were invented, experts used trawling nets to study creatures such as the giant phantom jellyfish. However, when such animals are captured and brought to the surface, their usually silky-looking frames turn to “gelatinous goo.” Thus, underwater robots remain the best tool to observe this mesmerizing creature in its natural habitat.



A recording of the recent sighting of the giant phantom jellyfish can be found <a href="https://youtu.be/9bzQYKm3xTA">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant phantom jellyfish spotted in Monterey Bay

Scientists from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) have...

Forest animals often benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of monkeys, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>. The researchers found that animals eavesdrop on monkeys while they are eating in hopes of snatching up discarded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-swap-spit-to-share-food-and-special-fluids/">food</a>.



"Monkeys are messy eaters. After just a few bites of a fruit, they let it fall to the ground. Other species benefit from this habit. But to do so most effectively, they need to know where and when the monkeys are eating. Here, our study demonstrates that mammals use eavesdropping," said study lead author, Linnea W. Havmøller.



The team spent nine months in a rainforest in Panama studying how various types of fruit-eating animals, including coatis and agoutis, listen to capuchin and spider monkeys as they eat in the trees.&nbsp;



When the half-eaten fruit often falls to forest floor below, the researchers discovered that animals are ready to pounce the moment they hear the food hit the ground.



"It is clear that, when terrestrial animals hear monkeys in a tree, they head towards that tree. It’s as if their ears are telescoped, which lets them hear the lunch bell from wherever it’s ringing. This gives them access to food that would otherwise be inaccessible at the time," explained Rasmus W. Havmøller, a postdoctoral researcher at the Natural History Museum of Denmark.



The study authors explained that the eavesdropping strategy is not just a convenient way to get a little extra food for themselves – it can play a vital role for animals. There is a season each year when food becomes very scarce in Panama, and many species must depend on almond trees for the majority of their food, including the groups observed for the study.&nbsp;



"During this season, there is incredibly little to eat in the forest – other than the prodigious quantities of fruit from this one type of tree. However, terrestrial animals can’t access these fruits unless monkeys drop them. For these animals, the eavesdropping method means that they gain access to food in greater quantities and far sooner than the long time it would take if the fruits were left to fall on their own. And during some periods, it is crucial for their food gathering," said Linnea W. Havmøller.



Ramus W. Havmøller said that in the bigger picture, this means that in areas where monkeys have been removed from the local environment, there can be a negative cascading effect. "Not only will the species of mammals which depend on the fruit being dropped by monkeys suffer – there can be an impact on the entire rainforest ecosystem because terrestrial fruit-eating animals help disperse the seeds that allow the forest to reproduce."



For the investigation, the researchers collected data using GPS collars, cameras, speakers playing monkey sounds, and traps that collected fallen fruit. The analysis revealed that over 90 percent of the fruit which landed in the traps had bite marks and was half-eaten by monkeys. The fruit that fell outside of the traps was eaten almost immediately.



“I think we've underestimated how much mammals interact with each other and how many ways they're actually connected," said Rasmus Havmøller. "Eavesdropping between species is a new chapter in the behavioral biology of mammals, which provides us with important knowledge about how much the disappearance of one species can impact an entire ecosystem."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17447429">Biotropica</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of monkeys

Forest animals often benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of...

Through an analysis of fossil footprint tracks, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.unirioja.es/">University of La Rioja</a> has found that, about 100 million years ago in what is now La Rioja province in northern Spain, two bipedal meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">theropods</a> reached running speeds of almost 45 kilometers per hour.



About 35 years ago, researchers discovered a few three-toed dinosaur footprints in La Rioja. Recently, further excavations at the site revealed more prints forming two short trails. The analysis of the footprints suggest that they were made by two medium-sized dinosaurs, each about four to five meters long and two meters tall, belonging to either the spinosaur or the carcharodontosaur family of predatory therapods.&nbsp;



By analyzing the distance between consecutive footprints (the stride length), a research team from the University of La Rioja has found that the two dinosaurs were incredibly fast, reaching speeds of up to 45 kilometers per hour. Moreover, abrupt changes in speed suggested that the creatures switched directions as they ran.



“High-velocity trackways are very scarce around the world,” said study senior author <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Angelica-Torices">Angélica Torices</a>, a paleontologist at the University of La Rioja. According to her, speed helped these dinosaurs not only in hunting, but also in fleeing danger such as "bigger theropods that could see them as their prey."



"Their capacity to run very quickly and their maneuvering abilities surely allowed them to chase prey very efficiently. And of course I wouldn't like to be caught by this guy on a riverbank," added study lead author Pablo Navarro-Lorbes, a doctoral student at the same university.



"There are several factors that dictate the running ability of a dinosaur," Navarro-Lorbes explained. "One of them is size. Some paleontologists think that theropods with sizes between 100 and 1,000 kilograms (220-2,200 pounds) could have been some of the best dinosaur runners because of the relationship between their weight and muscular performance.” Another factor is the dinosaurs’ elongated legs, which was of crucial importance for allowing them reach such speeds.



Further research is needed to clarify the precise mechanics characterizing these theropods’ movements, as well as their relations with other animal species with which they shared their environment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02557-9">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flesh-eating theropods were extremely fast

Through an analysis of fossil footprint tracks, a new study...

Turkish ichthyologists have made an amazing discovery of the critically endangered Batman River Loach, which had last been seen in 1974. In fact, this is the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-protect-corals-by-feeding-on-crown-of-thorns-starfish/">fish</a> to be found as part of a more ambitious plan. 



Nonprofit organizations Shoal and Re:Wild have teamed up to create a top 10 most wanted lost fishes list. The Batman RIver Loach is the first on this list to be found after the project launched in June 2021.&nbsp;



"When I first heard about the Search for the Lost Fishes project, I was very happy," said Cüynet Kaya, associate professor with Recep Tayyip Erdogan University in Turkey.



"Moreover, two of the 10 most wanted fish species were distributed in my country. It is a very different feeling when you see naturalists from foreign countries caring about an endemic species in your country and making efforts to save it."&nbsp;



"As a freshwater fish taxonomist, I thought that I should do my best for this project, and fortunately our efforts resulted in finding the first lost endemic and critically endangered Batman River loach.”&nbsp;



The Batman River Loach is the smallest loach in the Middle East. With a length of approximately 1.4 inches, it is smaller than any loaches in Europe.&nbsp;



Scientists had previously searched in the last known locations for the loach but to no avail. Kaya and Münevver Oral, a research fellow with Recep Tayyip Erdogan University together took a different approach.&nbsp;



The scientists analyzed the possible habitats where the Batman River Loach could survive and searched the Sarim Stream, upstream from the Batman Dam. Using tightly knit nets, they found 14 fish in Sarim Stream. Nine more fish were found in Han Stream.&nbsp;



The researchers said the population of fish seems stable but they worry about the impact of pollution, drought and invasive species. Such a small number of fish is inherently a fragile population.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Image Credit: Re:Wild



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish rediscovered after being lost for 50 years

Turkish ichthyologists have made an amazing discovery of the critically...

A,Shaggy,Woolly,Mammoth,Stands,In,The,Long,Grass,Of

By investigating ancient DNA found in soil samples pulled from the Klondike region of the central Yukon territory’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-melting-may-release-nuclear-waste-into-the-atmosphere/">permafrost</a>, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca/">McMaster University</a> in Canada has found that ancestral species such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammoths-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change-not-humans/">mammoths</a> or wild horses survived thousands of years longer than initially estimated.



The scientists used DNA capture-enrichment technology to isolate and rebuild in great detail the fluctuating animal and plant communities at different time points during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, an unstable climatic period 11,000 to 14,000 years ago when various species such as mammoths, mastodons, or sabre-toothed cats went extinct.



By analyzing tiny soil samples collected from Canada’s permafrost and containing billions of microscopic genomic sequences from animal and plant species, the researchers managed to shed more light on the status of ancient ecosystems at different historical periods.&nbsp;



They found that although mammoths and horses were already in steep decline before the period of climatic instability marking the passage from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, they did not immediately disappear due to human overhunting as it was initially believed. In fact, the DNA evidence shows that the wooly mammoth and the North American wild horse persisted until about 5,000 years ago – well into the mid-Holocene period.



“The rich data provides a unique window into the population dynamics of megafuana and nuances the discussion around their extinction through more subtle reconstructions of past ecosystems,” said study lead author Hendrik Poinar, an evolutionary geneticist and director of the <a href="https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/mcmaster-ancient-dna-centre">McMaster Ancient DNA Centre</a>.



The genetic analyses that the research team performed have also shown a strong continuity between the genomic structures of ancient and contemporary horses. “Although mammoths are gone forever, horses are not,” said study co-author Ross MacPhee, a senior curator at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>.&nbsp;



“The horse that lived in the Yukon 5,000 years ago is directly related to the horse species we have today,&nbsp;Equus caballus. Biologically, this makes the horse a native North American mammal, and it should be treated as such.”



The researchers stress the need to collect and archive more permafrost samples, which are at risk of being lost forever due to global warming.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient mammoths survived longer than initially thought

By investigating ancient DNA found in soil samples pulled from...

Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) have one of the longest periods of maternal care in the animal kingdom. Offspring are only weaned at between six and nine years of age, and spend all their time prior to weaning in constant, close contact with their mothers. Since they will be solitary as adults, young orangutans have to acquire all their feeding skills before they are weaned.&nbsp;



In order to become independent, immature orangutans must learn to locate, identify and process more than 200 different potential food items, many of which require specific skills in order to process and consume. During this time, mother orangutans are the role models, although the exact extent to which they actively teach their offspring these skills has not been established. 



An immature orangutan learns its foraging skills from its mother in two main ways. It ‘peers’ at its mother while she feeds, observing her every movement from a close range. Offspring tend to peer more intently and for longer when the mother is dealing with more complex food items.&nbsp;



Secondly, an offspring also solicits, or begs, food items from its mother, after which she may share the food or keep it to herself. In both of these orangutan social learning pathways the mother serves as the primary role model but appears to take no active part in teaching the offspring.



In a new study, however, a team of scientists uncovered the first evidence yet of active involvement by orangutan mothers in their offspring’s acquisition of feeding skills. The researchers analyzed the behavior and interactions between 21 immature Sumatran orangutans and their mothers, collected over 13 years, in the Suaq Balimbing forest in Sumatra, Indonesia. They observed 1390 instances of food solicitation and were able to examine the degree to which these interactions represented active teaching by the mother.



“It was puzzling that mothers always seemed so passive during these feeding interactions,” said Caroline Schuppli from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>, who led the study. “Mothers have so much time with their offspring, and maintain such a close connection, but they never appeared to be actively involved in the skill acquisition of their young.” The mystery was compounded by a lack of data. “Past studies had always examined skill learning from the point of view of the offspring, so we didn’t know the role of the role model.”



For the study, Schuppli teamed up with researchers from the University of Zurich in Switzerland, the Universitas Nasional in Indonesia, and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany to investigate the role of food solicitation in the acquisition of foraging skills by immature orangutans. Field researchers recorded each solicitation event and noted whether the mother let the immature take the food from her or not. They then correlated this behavior with information on the offspring’s age and the properties of the food items.



Some food items are easy for orangutans to eat, such as leaves and flowers that require no processing. Others, such as bark, require several steps before consumption – it must be loosened from the tree and have the pith scraped with the teeth to remove the nutritional parts. The most difficult foods require tools, such as sticks that are converted into brushes for excavating honey from bee hives.



The results showed that orangutan mothers do not always respond positively to their offspring’s food solicitation. Mothers adjust their responses depending on the age of the offspring and the skills required for processing the food item. 



Mothers are most likely to transfer food when the offspring is younger and at the age during which food recognition and food processing skills are being acquired. The older the offspring, the less likely it is that its begging will be successful. By doing this, mothers encourage their offspring to find and process their own food, as their competence levels increase.&nbsp;



In addition, orangutan mothers were most likely to transfer food items that were difficult to process, and they continued to do this for the longest time. For items that require tool use, for example, the mothers showed the highest tolerance for begging and remained tolerant throughout the dependency period of their offspring. 



On the other hand, for leaves, which can just be picked and ingested whole, they showed much lower levels of tolerance to begging and stop sharing these food items when the offspring reached a certain age.



These findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, show that mother orangutans adjust their behavior as their offspring become more skilled at finding and processing their own food.



"Our findings suggest that orangutan mothers are actively involved in their offspring’s skill learning," said Schuppli. "However, they do this in a reactive, rather than proactive way. Interestingly, there were very few incidents of active food sharing only. This means that orangutan immatures need to take the initiative during learning. This is very different from humans, where active teaching plays an important role and role models are much more proactive. It is also different from chimpanzees, where mothers seem to be more proactive.”



Whether or not these behavioral adjustments by orangutan mothers classify as functional teaching is still unknown. While the study’s results fulfil some criteria of the teaching definition, other criteria cannot be tested with the data set.&nbsp;



“These findings give us a special insight into the factors that lead to the evolution of teaching,” said Schuppli. “While teaching is quite rare in the animal kingdom, it occurs in widely separated species. Our study shows that these orangutans have at least some, and perhaps all, of the cognitive, ecological, and social conditions to support teaching ability.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Orangutan mothers are actively involved in helping offspring learn

Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) have one of the longest periods...

Due to the expansion of unsustainable agriculture and urbanization around the world, there is widespread loss of the swamps, marshes, and free-flowing rivers that dragonflies usually breed in, causing a significant worldwide decline of this species. These findings from the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>’s (IUCN) latest global assessment suggest that one out of six dragonfly species is at risk of extinction.



After the latest update, IUCN’s Red List of endangered species has exceeded 40,000 for the first time. The assessment of the world’s dragonfly and damselfly populations reveals that 16 percent out of 6,016 species are at risk of extinction, due to significant deterioration of their freshwater breeding grounds.



“By revealing the global loss of dragonflies, today’s Red List update underscores the urgent need to protect the world’s wetlands and the rich tapestry of life they harbor. Globally, these ecosystems are disappearing three times faster than forests,”&nbsp;said&nbsp;Dr Bruno Oberle, IUCN’s Director General.&nbsp;



“Marshes and other wetlands may seem unproductive and inhospitable to humans, but in fact they provide us with essential services. They store carbon, give us clean water and food, protect us from floods, as well as offer habitats for one in ten of the world's known species.”



In South and Southeast Asia, over a quarter of dragonfly species are under threat, due to the clearing of wetland and rainforests for agricultural purposes, such as making room for crops like palm oil. In Central and South America, forests are cleared for residential and commercial purposes, while in North America and Europe, the greatest threat to dragonflies are the extensive use of pesticides and other pollutants, as well as the damage brought by climate change.



“Dragonflies are highly sensitive indicators of the state of freshwater ecosystems, and this first global assessment finally reveals the scale of their decline. It also provides an essential baseline we can use to measure the impact of conservation efforts,”&nbsp;said&nbsp;Dr Viola Clausnitzer, Co-chair of the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/ssc-groups/invertebrates/dragonfly">IUCN SSC Dragonfly Specialist Group</a>.&nbsp;



“To conserve these beautiful insects, it is critical that governments, agriculture and industry consider the protection of wetland ecosystems in development projects, for example by protecting key habitats and dedicating space to urban wetlands,” she concluded.&nbsp;



The report’s photos, summary statistics, and translations can be found <a href="https://www.dropbox.com/sh/jk57rxx7xjb29yu/AABZnX8JHqClF5ZV8-6FsHuma?dl=0">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hundreds of dragonfly species at risk of extinction

Due to the expansion of unsustainable agriculture and urbanization around...

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the likelihood increases that it will escape the neutralizing effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">vaccines</a> and other forms of treatment that have been developed to date. In response to this, scientists are intensifying their search for more powerful therapeutic solutions.



In a recent study, Rockefeller scientists&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/896-michael-p-rout/">Michael P. Rout</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/902-brian-t-chait/">Brian T. Chait</a>&nbsp;and their colleagues at the Seattle Children’s Research Institute tested the effectiveness of a range of over one hundred nanobodies that target different parts of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Nanobodies are like small antibodies that bind only to a specific section (domain) of an antigen such as the spike protein. They are found in members of the camel family, including llamas, alpacas and camels.



When llamas are immunized with small doses of coronavirus proteins their immune response is similar to that of humans after being vaccinated. However, instead of producing large, chunky antibodies as humans do, they produce small antibodies that bind to specific regions of the antigen only. These antigen-binding fragments are known as nanobodies.&nbsp;



The researchers collected blood samples from llamas that had been immunized and they identified a range of different nanobodies. They then located the genes in the llama’s genome that were responsible for coding these small antibody molecules and introduced the genetic information into bacterial chromosomes. The genetically modified bacteria were then cultured in the lab and produced large amounts of the nanobodies that could be used in analysis and testing.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests were done to find out which of the different nanobodies were most successful in neutralizing coronavirus particles. Some of the nanobodies targeted the region of the spike protein that attaches to receptors on human cells. This region is key to infection because, once the spike protein attaches to the host cell receptor, viral and host cell membranes fuse and the virus can enter into the host’s cell. Other nanobodies under investigation targeted different regions of the spike protein.



The results showed that several of&nbsp;the nanobodies were highly effective in neutralizing the original coronavirus, as well as its Delta, Beta and Gamma variants.&nbsp; The small size of nanobodies allows them to access hard-to-reach spots on the SARS-CoV-2 virus that larger antibodies may be unable to access. Furthermore, the research showed that up to three different nanobodies could bind to the same small region of the spike protein at the same time, increasing the chances of neutralizing the virus.&nbsp;



The researchers also found that different nanobodies were even more effective when combined. They suggested that this enhanced effect was due to the action of hitting different parts of the virus at the same time, thereby minimizing its chance of escaping neutralization.&nbsp;



“One of the most amazing things we observed with the nanobodies is that they show extraordinary synergy,” Chait says. “The combined effect is much greater than the sum of its parts.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists hope to develop cocktails of nanobodies that target different regions of the virus at the same time, reducing the chance that the virus can escape detection and neutralization. New studies are even underway to test the effectiveness of this technology on the Omicron variant.&nbsp;



Nanobodies are small and nimble, able to squeeze into hard-to-access folds of the viral spike protein. They are also inexpensive to mass-produce&nbsp;using genetically modified yeast or bacteria. This property, along with the fact that they are remarkably stable even in high temperatures and during long periods of storage, means that nanobodies could be developed into a drug suitable for use in different settings all over the world. This is particularly urgent in many developing countries where citizens still await access to vaccines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Llama antibodies have potential to treat coronavirus variants

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the...

Complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-develop-larger-sex-organs-when-co2-levels-are-high/">organs</a> in our own bodies are composed of numerous different types of cells and tissues, all working together cooperatively to achieve a particular function. For example, a heart contains muscle tissue, valves, ligaments and nerves, all of which act to pump blood efficiently. The question is, how did these different types of tissues originally come together to work as an organ?



This question has puzzled evolutionary biologists for decades. Now it seems that new research on a species of rove beetle may be able to cast some light on the issue. Published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>, the research shows how two different types of cells form a specialized gland in the beetle’s abdomen, with the function of making and secreting noxious chemicals for defense.&nbsp;



Rove beetles live in the leaf litter and soil of ecosystems all over the world and use cocktails of unpleasant chemical substances to keep would-be predators at bay. The beetles smear themselves and other, threatening insects, with the secreted compounds, which have the effect of triggering pain receptors in the recipient. In this way, some species of rove beetles are even able to live inside ant colonies without suffering any negative consequences.



“These beetles are fantastic models for understanding how new kinds of ecological relationships emerge during evolution, through changes at the molecular, cellular, and behavioral levels,” says senior author Joseph Parker of the California Institute of Technology.&nbsp;



“As part of this question, we’re very interested in how rove beetles have pieced together these glandular structures in their abdomens, which are made of different cell types that work together. These structures are the embodiment of a major conundrum: how complex organs evolve that are often composed of many different cell types that appear to seamlessly cooperate with each other. How this cooperativity emerges during evolution is challenging to explain.”



Parker and his colleagues focused their research on Dalotia coriaria, a species of rove beetle that synthesizes and releases a defensive chemical from tergal glands in its abdomen. The substance is composed of two different types of compounds: benzoquinones, which are highly toxic solids, and solvents that consist of a blend of an alkane and esters. The solvents, on their own, are harmless, but when they dissolve the benzoquinones, they turn the resultant cocktail into a serious weapon.



Each tergal gland contains two types of cells engaged in synthesizing the different compounds to be used in defense. “One cell type makes the benzoquinones and the other makes the solvents,” Parker explains. “Both are needed to create a functional secretion that confers adaptive value.”



In the study, the investigators used single-cell transcriptomics to uncover novel enzyme pathways that are used in the creation of these substances in each cell type. They then used these findings to dig deeper, exploring how each cell type’s pathway was constructed from pre-existing components that functioned in other, more ancient cell types, elsewhere in the beetle.&nbsp;



“We were able to discover the biosynthetic pathways in each cell type and could then ask how these pathways were stitched together during evolution,” noted Parker.&nbsp;



Interestingly, one of the cell types – the solvent cells that make the alkane and esters – was found to be a hybrid of cuticle cells and other ancient metabolic cells used originally to make pheromones and to produce and store fats. The solvent cells now carry out their function using a mixture of enzymes from each of the ancient parental cell types.&nbsp;



“The beetle has recruited a major gene expression program from these ancient metabolic cell types and installed it into a patch of cuticle, creating a gland,” said Parker.



Further experimental work with the beetles showed that, when the metabolic pathway for the production of either the solvent or the benzoquinones was rendered non-functional (by genetic knockdown), the beetles lost their defensive capabilities.&nbsp;



Since both pathways are needed for the beetles’ chemical defense system, they would both have been under the influence of natural selection during the beetles’ evolutionary history. Thus, the researchers propose that the evolution of each cell type was shaped by coevolution between the two cell types.&nbsp;



“The solvent cells created a niche for a second cell type to produce the solid benzoquinones, which could dissolve in the alkane and esters. A highly toxic secretion emerged that massively raised the gland’s adaptive value, locking the two cell types into a unit where they cooperate. In essence, a new organ emerged,” said Parker.



According to the researchers, their findings illustrate how cooperation between cell types arises, generating new, organ-level behaviors. This new understanding has implications for mapping out the evolution of more sophisticated organs found across the animal kingdom, including in humans.



“Across the animal tree of life, you see complex multicellular organs that are composed of many different cell types functioning collectively,” said Parker. “Think of something like the mammalian eye, which has about 70 different cell types all functioning together to enable our visual system. The scenario we find playing out in the tergal gland – an organ made of only two cell types – you can imagine could go through further rounds as cell types create niches for new ones to be added, eventually generating really elaborate, multicellular complexity.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beetle glands help explain how complex organs evolved

Complex organs in our own bodies are composed of numerous...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a> in Canada has found that dogs are able to understand 89 words and phrases on average, with some canines being able to comprehend up to 215. These words include their names, as well as various commands such as “sit,” “come,” “wait,” or “lie down.”&nbsp;



As early as 1928, scientists attempted to assess dogs’ ability to understand what humans tell them, when psychologists C.J. Warden and L.H. Warner documented the ability of Fellow, a male German Shepherd, to respond to his owner’s spoken commands. According to the psychologists, Fellow was able to respond appropriately to 68 words or phrases.



In the new study, researchers surveyed 165 dog owners of various breeds and ages, by using a questionnaire modeled after parent word checklists used to assess infants’ language. The participants had to identify words to which they believed their dogs were responding. According to the owners, dogs responded to between 15 and 215 words, with a mean of 89, most of the words being commands.



“Due to their evolutionary history and close association with humans, domestic dogs have learned to respond to human verbal and nonverbal cues at a level unmatched by other species. Their ability to respond to communicative cues is critical for the numerous professional and family roles they play in our lives,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Based on owner reports, dogs seem to vary greatly not only in the number but also in the kinds of words to which they purportedly respond. The current study is consistent with existing research suggesting that dogs may be particularly adept at responding to commands rather than object words.”



Moreover, the researchers found that certain dog breeds, such as herding dogs (Australian Shepherd, Border Collie, Cardigan Welsh Corgi, German Shepherd, Miniature American Shepherd, and Shetland Sheepdog), and toy-companion dogs (Bichon Frise, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Chihuahua, and multiple poodles) responded to more words than other breeds.



“There may be breed-related differences in the number of words to which dogs may learn to respond, although additional research is necessary to determine if such differences exist between breeds themselves or between owners of different breeds,” the authors wrote.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105513">Applied Animal Behaviour Science</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs can understand up to 215 words

A new study led by Dalhousie University in Canada has...

The analysis of 131 papers on penguins has confirmed that the marine birds need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-chimpanzees-need-protection-from-human-development/">protection</a>. The research, published in the September issue of <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/marine-policy">Marine Policy</a>, comes as the UN is negotiating a treaty on the sustainable use of international areas in the high seas.&nbsp;



“In the marine environment, coastal states typically retain management of waters up to 200 nautical miles from their shorelines, but beyond that, the high seas, which represent 64 percent of the ocean’s surface and 95 percent of its volume, are considered global commons," explained study first author Jean-Baptiste Thiebot, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nipr.ac.jp/english/">National Institute of Polar Research</a>.



"Penguins are, largely, ocean wanderers: they venture well offshore during some - or all - of their life stages. Hence, while the public may not think of penguins as traveler animals, we show that penguins are indeed extremely mobile. This mobility also widens the range of threats that they may face at sea, and, in particular, human activities that are intensifying in the high seas.”



According to Thiebot, much of this penguin movement is wide ranging and involves international migration.&nbsp;



“Transboundary movements, notably to areas beyond national jurisdiction, are remarkably prevalent among penguin species - there are at least 120 cases of penguins, representing 13 species, using such areas. We highlight that in 16 of the 18 species examined, the birds may undertake spectacular migrations, seasonally or through life-cycle stages.”



Due to their mobility, as well as to the wide range of threats posed to them by pollution, fishing, and climate change, Thiebot suggests there is a need for flexible conservation.



“We show that the use of areas beyond national jurisdiction by penguin species varies throughout the year, a dynamic pattern supporting the pertinence of developing innovative protection tools, such as mobile marine protected areas,” said Thiebot.



Although the research focused on penguins, it can be seen as part of a greater call for more care of the high seas.



“The current paper is part of a large effort by scientists worldwide to explain the stakes of protecting this biodiversity in the high seas. In the present paper, we examined to what extent penguins are known to use the high seas, and to what extent the conservation of penguins may depend on these legally binding developments.”



The scientists see this paper as just the first step with more research needed in the near future.&nbsp;



“Building on our first-step general approach, further analyses will be required to identify exactly which sites in areas beyond national jurisdiction are a priority for conservation," said Thiebot.



"In the meantime, the ongoing expansion of tracking studies will be key to provide a more complete perspective on the use of areas beyond national jurisdiction by penguins across species, sites and seasons.”



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Penguins are more mobile, and more threatened, than expected

The analysis of 131 papers on penguins has confirmed that...

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster&nbsp;spp.) are native to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">coral reefs</a> in the Indo-Pacific. They are a major contributor to coral loss, since they feed on the living tissue of several hard coral species. 



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26786-8">Nature Communications</a> has found that reef fish such as tropical snappers, emperors, or rock cods, help keep the numbers of crown-of-thorn starfish in check on the Great Barrier Reef in the Indo-Pacific, thus protecting coral populations.



“More than 50 years ago concern was raised that removal of predators may contribute to starfish outbreaks. However, at the time only one predator of the starfish was known, the giant triton sea snail,” explained study lead author Dr. Frederieke Kroon, an ecologist at the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a> (AIMS).



“Recent studies have revealed nearly one hundred species of coral reef organisms feed on different life stages of the starfish. Eighty of these are fish, including popular seafood species such as emperors, tropical snappers, and rock cods. Our study is the first to explore how fisheries harvests of these fish species may affect starfish abundance.”



Dr. Kroon and her colleagues compared long-term starfish and reef fish abundance data collected at reefs open and closed for fishing. They discovered that, on reefs closed for fishing, the biomass of emperors, rock cods, and snappers was 1.4 to 2.1 times higher and starfish densities almost three times lower than those on reefs that were open to fishing.



“It is well known that no-take marine reserves increase fish biomass and diversity of large fishes. Previous studies have suggested marine reserves could also influence starfish numbers, but our study provides strong evidence there are fewer crown-of-thorns starfish on reefs with more predatory fish,” said Dr. Kroon.



These findings may help develop new tools for controlling starfish outbreaks on the Great Barrier Reef and the Indo-Pacific region, such as targeted fisheries-based management.



“Starfish outbreaks continue to be a major cause of coral loss, but unlike other pressures like climate change, can be managed at local and regional levels,” Dr Kroon said. “Targeted fisheries-based management, in combination with current crown-of-thorns starfish management interventions such as direct manual control, could assist in further controlling outbreaks.”



“Large-scale, long-term data such as those used this study, as well as experimental studies are the best scientific tools we have to help understand the complexities of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks, and to implement effective and efficient management interventions for their control,” she concluded.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish protect corals by feeding on crown-of-thorns starfish

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster&nbsp;spp.) are native to coral reefs in the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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