Dogs live with us, watch us, and often reflect our lives back at us. When routines shift, they shift. When stress builds, they sense it. 



Scientists wanted to know just how much these changes affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/">dogs</a>, particularly during the upheaval of the pandemic. That curiosity led to one of the largest studies ever on canine behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-dog-behavior-and-health">Tracking dog behavior and health</h2>



Researchers at Virginia Tech and the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> studied over 47,000 dogs between 2020 and 2023. 



The work was conducted as part of the Dog Aging Project, a massive effort that tracks the lives and health of dogs across the United States.



"Most importantly, with these data, we're excited to now have a starting point from which we can continue to follow changes in the behaviors of tens of thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-may-respond-to-each-other-through-blinking/">dogs</a> as they age, which will ultimately help us understand how behavior and health are linked," said Courtney Sexton, lead researcher from Virginia Tech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-changes-in-dogs">Detecting changes in dogs</h2>



Behavior in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/">dogs</a> is more than personality. A sudden change can point to illness, pain, or stress. Small shifts in aggression, fear, or trainability can signal bigger problems. 



By establishing a baseline, researchers now have a way to spot meaningful changes across time. 



The team relied on a widely used survey known as C-BARQ, in which owners reported on 14 aspects of their dogs’ behavior - from aggression to trainability. 



Researchers then organized these traits into four broad categories: Fear, Attention and Excitability, Aggression, and Trainability. This framework allowed them to track and compare behavior patterns over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strength-of-the-data">Strength of the data</h2>



The dataset was huge. It included dogs from every region of the United States. Nearly half of the dogs were mixed breeds, while the rest were single breeds. Ages ranged from puppies to seniors.



"When you have a data set this big, you really do have power in numbers," Sexton explained. "While we can't understand all the factors, when we find statistical significance, there is likely something there worth thinking about in its real-world context."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-behavior-during-the-pandemic">Dog behavior during the pandemic </h2>



The original goal was clear. Researchers wanted to see how the pandemic shaped dog behavior. People spent more time at home. Many adopted new pets, and social interactions declined.



Routines changed overnight. Did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/">dogs</a> change too? Scientists hoped to uncover whether these new conditions led to lasting behavioral shifts, from training challenges to changes in aggression or fear. They wanted to know if dogs adapted or struggled alongside humans.



The data showed that dogs remained surprisingly consistent from 2020 through 2023. "We saw that certain factors, such as a dog's life stage, sex, and size had some influence on their behavior," Sexton said.



"Interestingly, we found that throughout the COVID-19 pandemic time period, there were not substantial changes in dogs' overall behavioral profiles from year to year despite what we might have expected given the changes in environment and routines that many were experiencing at that time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-puppy-struggles">Pandemic puppy struggles</h2>



One behavior did shift: trainability. Dogs enrolled in 2020 scored higher than those added in later years. Scores dropped in 2021, 2022, and 2023. 



Researchers think the dip reflects “pandemic puppy” struggles. New owners often lacked time or access to training. Dogs had fewer chances to socialize. Stress in households added to the mix.



By 2023, trainability scores started to climb back toward earlier levels. That rebound suggests that as people regained stable routines, dogs did too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-gender-breed-and-size">The role of gender, breed, and size</h2>



The study also revealed differences tied to breed and body size. Mixed-breed dogs scored higher on fear, attention-seeking, and aggression than purebred dogs. Shelter backgrounds and early trauma may play a role.



Small dogs were more fearful, more aggressive, and less trainable than larger dogs. 



Puppies needed more attention, were less fearful and less aggressive, but also harder to train. Males were more aggressive and less trainable than females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-owners-bounced-back">Dogs and owners bounced back</h2>



Owners in 2020 reported more aggression than those in 2023. That drop may reflect less household stress and more opportunities for dogs to interact as restrictions lifted.



“What was interesting was that the difference in reported trainability between the first year and the last year was the smallest of any in the averages,” Sexton noted. 



“It’s a small statistical significance but could show that dogs, or their owners, are bouncing back.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dog-behavior">Future research on dog behavior</h2>



This is only the beginning. <a href="https://dogagingproject.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Dog Aging Project</a> will keep tracking these dogs as they grow older. Researchers want to see how location, health, and age shape behavior over time. 



The ultimate goal is to connect behavior with health so owners can better care for their pets.



Dogs adapted through the pandemic. They struggled in some ways, especially with training, but showed remarkable resilience. Their story mirrors ours. 



As life changed, dogs adjusted, and as routines returned, they found steadier ground. This study now offers the first large-scale baseline of canine behavior - a reference point that will guide both researchers and dog owners for years to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0330257" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How the pandemic changed dog behavior over 3 years

Dogs live with us, watch us, and often reflect our lives back at us. When routines shift, they shift. When stress builds, they sense it. Scientists wanted to know just how much these changes affect dogs, particularly during the upheaval of the pandemic. That curiosity led to one of the largest studies ever on canine behavior. Tracking dog behavior and health Researchers at Virginia Tech and the University of Washington studied over 47,000 dogs between 2020 and 2023. The work was conducted as part of the Dog...

Fiddler <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/95-million-year-crab-cousin/">crabs</a> can see the polarization of light, which helps give them an advantage over their predators, and new research has discovered how crabs process this information in the brain. 

Light is an electromagnetic wave. If you think of these waves moving or vibrating in different directions, vertically and horizontally, light polarization is where the light is only traveling in one defined direction, or on a single plane. 

The fiddler crab uses this light polarizing ability to watch out for rival crabs or evade a predator. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> investigated the underlying mechanisms that allow the fiddler crab to see the polarization of light and it all boils down to being able to separate polarization and brightness information when an approaching object is detected. 

The researchers used a special computer monitor system to test how fiddler crabs respond to objects. The monitor allowed the researchers to change brightness and polarization levels of different visual stimuli to see what combinations canceled the other out. 

To the human eye, the way we see the polarization of light also impacts brightness. 

“If you look through Polaroid sunglasses at the sky, you will notice that the brightness changes when you tilt your head,” said Sam Smithers, an author of the study. “This is because the light from the sky is polarised and your sunglasses allow you to see differences in polarisation as differences in brightness.” 

For the fiddler crab, separate visual channels allow the crab to process a broader range of information and light polarization has no impact on brightness. 

[caption id="attachment_1876870" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Fiddler-crabs-can-separate-light-polarization-and-brightness-.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1876870" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Fiddler-crabs-can-separate-light-polarization-and-brightness-.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="500" /></a> Fiddler crab Afruca tangeri. Image Credit: Kate Feller, University of Minnesota[/caption]

“For our experiments we tested whether fiddler crabs see the same effect,” said Smithers. “However, we discovered that the crabs detect polarisation in a completely different way to this and polarisation has no effect on how the crabs detect the brightness of a scene.”

Future research will focus on how brightness and polarization are processed in deeper recesses of the brain to see why and how one might provide an advantage over the other.

The study was published in the journal Science Advances. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Wuttichok Panichiwarapun

Fiddler crabs can separate light polarization and brightness

Fiddler crabs can see the polarization of light, which helps...

Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s Disease, was once feared to be highly contagious but is now known to be a curable bacteria disease that is not easily transmitted. Research suggests that 95% of humans are immune to leprosy, making it a mystery how the disease is spread at all. 

According to the <a href="https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/contagious-skin-diseases/leprosy">American Academy of Dermatology</a>, a healthy person must have months of contact with an infected person to catch leprosy. Often thought of in the context of biblical times, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), there were 211,009 new cases of leprosy reported globally in 2017. 

Leprosy is a strange disease that may show symptoms within a year or may be asymptomatic for up to 20 years. Although <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/amazonian-armadillos-leprosy/">leprosy</a> is often thought of as exotic or ancient, there are still cases of the disease in the US even as it remains rare. Most leprosy cases in the US are from people who traveled abroad and caught the disease from another person. Perhaps the most interesting and tragic history of leprosy in the US comes from Hawaii, starting before the islands were even part of the US.

In a remote part of the island of Molokai, 8,000 patients were kept in misguided isolation from the outside world to stop the spread of leprosy. According to the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/kala/pdf/B3LepHawaii.pdf">National Park Service</a>, the leper colony was created by an act of the legislative assembly of the Hawaiian island, approved by King Kamehameha V. 

The new law made isolation in the leper colony compulsory. The last few leper patients in the colony still remain; according to <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/hawaii-still-has-a-leprosy-colony-with-six-patients?ref=scroll">The Daily Beast</a>, there are still six patients. Patients were allowed to transfer to other medical facilities in 1969 but some preferred their isolated home. 

Initially, the leper colony was not provided with food but instead expected to farm the lands. Over time, the isolated colony grew into a community with churches, marriages and children who upon birth were removed for adoption outside the colony. The case of the Molokai leprosy colony illustrates the hysteria and confusion surrounding the disease. Although leprosy isn’t easily spread from one person to another, it can and is carried across national borders by travelers. 

No one is quite sure how leprosy came to Hawaii; the only certainty is that before contact with the outside world, Hawaii was free of the disease. Most likely, leprosy came to Hawaii by traders or others that visited the islands from outside. Another idea is that a Hawaiian chief travelled abroad and brought the disease back with him. Either way, the establishment of leprosy and its spread throughout several islands combined with a history of fear to cause the forced isolation. 

Fear and forced isolation of leprosy patients has lingered in many parts of the world. The <a href="https://www.leprosy.org/leprosy-history/">Leprosy Foundation</a> reports that it wasn’t until 1996 that forced isolation of patients was abolished in Japan. Another leper colony where people were confined in the US was in Louisiana. Lepers in the Louisiana colony weren’t allowed to vote until the right was restored in 1946, according to the <a href="https://www.hrsa.gov/hansens-disease/history.html">Health Resources &amp; Services Administration</a>. Patients in the colony were guarded as prisoners and called ‘inmates’ until being allowed to leave for two month periods in the 1970s, and eventually the colony became an outpatient treatment facility in the 1980s. 

The fact that the second leper colony in the US was in Louisiana is an important fact because leprosy is more prevalent in the southeastern US than any other part of the country. 

The southeast is a stronghold for leprosy due to another strange quirk in its natural history. Although the disease isn’t easily transferred to another person, there is one animal that is a ready carrier for the bacteria that cause leprosy. 

It was discovered in 2011 that armadillos actually carry the bacteria that causes leprosy and eventually contract the disease symptoms as humans do. Armadillos are the only other known animal (besides humans) to carry the disease. Nine-banded armadillos are only found in the southern US. Research suggests that the armadillos in the southwest don’t carry the disease but this doesn’t exclude parts of Texas. Of course, armadillos are found outside of the United States as well.

<a href="https://cvmbs.source.colostate.edu/new-evidence-that-wild-armadillos-spread-leprosy-to-humans/">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) reported last year that researchers found 62% of armadillos in the western Brazilian state of Pará were infected with the bacteria that causes leprosy. The rates of leprosy in Brazilian armadillos are three times higher than those in Louisiana or Texas. Furthermore, the research showed that people who kill, hunt or eat armadillos are at a greater risk of contracting leprosy. 

Considering the rates of infection in the southeastern US, it’s likely that people there also face a greater risk of infection from hunting or eating armadillos as well. Taking this into account, it’s easy to see why armadillos might be demonized as disease reservoirs. 

Although it’s true that armadillos carry leprosy, researchers believe that humans first transmitted leprosy (an old world disease) to armadillos (new world animals). Leprosy was first brought to Brazil by the slave trade more than 500 years ago and later spread to armadillos. 

A recent report in <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-08-humans-gave-leprosy-armadillos.html">The Conversation</a> shows evidence that armadillos in the United States were only infected with leprosy since the 1960s. Although it’s unknown how armadillos were first infected by humans, it’s possible the small mammal first contracted the disease by digging in infected soil. 

Armadillos often dig for food or to create burrows. Leprosy and armadillos seems a strange case of humans spreading a disease to an animal and then catching it from that animal through hunting. So although many people seek to eradicate armadillos due to misunderstanding the odd little creature, doing so may actually increase the risk of leprosy. 

It seems the best way to prevent catching leprosy is to leave the shy, armored mammal alone and simply observe them from a reasonable distance. Perhaps humans can learn a bit about zoonotic disease as well as dehumanizing hysteria by looking at the history of leprosy in the new world. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Heiko Kiera

The strange story of armadillos and leprosy in the Americas

Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s Disease, was once feared to...

Just a few years ago, there was a significant decline in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/drinking-stations-koala-bears-hydrated/">koala</a> population of Cape Otway in Victoria, Australia. 

“In 2013 the koala population reached very high densities, leading them to defoliate their preferred food tree species, manna gum,” explains Dr. Michaela Blyton of the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, an author on a new study published in <a href="https://animalmicrobiome.biomedcentral.com/">Animal Microbiome</a>. “This led to 70 per cent mortality due to starvation, which was very distressing.”

Blyton noticed that even though the koalas were dying of starvation, many of them refused to start eating their less-preferred tree species, known as messmate. This was made stranger by the fact that some koalas feed only on messmate.

“This led me and colleague Dr. Ben Moore at Western Sydney University to wonder if the microbes present in koalas’ guts - their microbiomes - were limiting which species they could eat, and if we could allow them to expand their diet with fecal inoculations,” says Blyton. 

Thus began Blyton’s messy experiment of catching wild koalas and keeping them in temporary captivity in order to collect the end stage product of their messmate diets – less formally known as “poo.”

“We collected poo from radio-collared wild koalas that ate messmate, concentrated the microorganisms in the poo, packaged it into acid-resistant capsules and gave them to the captive koalas,” explains Dr. Blyton. “We then monitored how much messmate the koalas were willing to eat over an 18-day period and assessed how the microbiomes changed after the inoculations, comparing their diets to those of control koalas that received manna gum microbes.”

The results at the end of this period showed that the fecal inoculations actually changed the koalas’ microbiomes and allowed them to eat messmate. 

“This could affect all aspects of their ecology including nutrition, habitat selection and resource use,” says Blyton. “Koalas may naturally have trouble adapting to new diets when their usual food trees become over browsed or after being moved to a new location. This study provides a proof of concept for the use of encapsulated fecal material to successfully introduce and establish new microbes in koalas’ guts.”

Blyton believes that this procedure could be used to help adjust koalas’ microbiomes before they are moved to environments where they have the habitat and food source to survive. The inoculation may also serve as a source of probiotics during and after antibiotic treatment. So next time you complain about needing to swallow a pill, just be thankful that its contents are bound to be more appetizing than a koala’s fecal inoculation. 

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: The University of Queensland

How fecal inoculations could help save koalas

Just a few years ago, there was a significant decline...

A new study has revealed that Asian tiger mosquitoes are adapting to colder winters and pushing the limits of their northern range by using their eggs as ‘time capsules.’  

The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, first arrived in the US in the 1980s and successfully spread from Houston, Texas to St. Louis, Missouri in just a year. 

Researchers from <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a> have discovered that mosquitoes further north are finding ways to rapidly adapt to the cold, which could impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tick-mosquito-borne-disease-spreading/">disease prevention efforts</a> as the mosquitoes spread beyond their known territory. 

Tiger mosquitoes can spread West Nile virus, dengue fever, and Zika. 

“This all happened within a period of 30 years,” said Kim Medley, the first author of the new study. “This disease vector has evolved rapidly to adapt to the United States. The fact that this has occurred at a range limit may suggest that there is potential for the species to continue to creep farther northward.”

When the days get shorter and winter is on the way, the mosquito responds by laying egg “time capsules” that will hatch later when conditions are right. This kind of delayed development egg is called a diapause egg. 

Mosquito larvae need standing water to hatch, but diapause eggs can survive not only cold conditions but dry periods as well. 

In this new study, the researchers were able to understand how northern eggs perform and hatch when conditions are favorable. 

The researchers collected mosquito eggs and larvae from Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. In a lab setting, the researchers raised the mosquitos and monitored their growth and development through differing generations.  

Next, the mosquitoes were exposed to longer periods of darkness to simulate the oncoming of winter. 

When the mosquitoes in the lab laid diapause eggs, the researchers collected and placed them in different locations in field sites at the northern edge of their typical range, an optimal climate-controlled setting and a site well outside their northern range in Wisconsin. 

The following summer, the researchers returned to the sites to collect new eggs.

“We counted all of the eggs to see how many survived the winter in all of these locations,” said Medley. “What we learned was that the northern mosquitoes’ diapause eggs survived northern winters significantly better than the southern mosquitoes’ eggs did. 

[caption id="attachment_1876802" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/overwintering-and-collection-sites.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1876802" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/overwintering-and-collection-sites.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="503" /></a> Overwintering and collection sites, Image Credit: Journal of Applied Ecology[/caption]

The only eggs that didn’t survive were the mosquitos in Wisconsin. 

Not only are northern mosquitoes laying more diapause eggs, but these eggs perform better through the winter, the researchers found. 

The tiger mosquito may be testing the bounds of what ecologists know about animals adapting to new conditions. 

“Based on theory, we expect that populations at range limits will be small, they will be fragmented and that they will be low in genetic diversity,” said Medley. “It’s thought that these populations will not have the demographic and genetic robustness to adapt, so they remain at this state of maladaptation. That may not be the case with this species.” 

The study findings were published in the Journal of Applied Ecology. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/InsectWorld

Tiger mosquitoes may be quickly adapting to colder climates

A new study has revealed that Asian tiger mosquitoes are...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>, the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, and the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>, have concluded that the brain evolution of anthropoid primates — a diverse family of both modern and extinct monkeys, humans, and their nearest relatives — was much more complex earlier on in history than previously realized. 

By studying a 20-million-year-old Chilean primate skull (the only skull and known specimen of the Chilecebus carrascoensis) the researchers saw that the brain enlarged repeatedly and independently throughout anthropoid history. 

These findings are published in <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

"Human beings have exceptionally enlarged brains, but we know very little about how far back this key trait started to develop," said lead author Xijun Ni, a research associate at the Museum and a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. "This is in part because of the scarcity of well-preserved fossil skulls of much more ancient relatives."

"Through more than three decades of partnership and close collaboration with the National Museum of Chile, we have recovered many remarkable new fossils from unexpected places in the rugged volcanic terrain of the Andes," said John Flynn, the Museum's Frick Curator of Fossil Mammals. "Chilecebus is one of those rare and truly spectacular fossils, revealing new insights and surprising conclusions every time new analytical methods are applied to studying it."

[caption id="attachment_1876798" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/brain-sizes.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1876798" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/brain-sizes.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="672" /></a> Comparing the brain sizes of a variety of primates, Image © Xiaocong Guo/Xijun Ni[/caption]

Flynn, Ni, and their colleagues had previously studied Chilecebus and gathered a rough outline of the species’ encephalization, or the brain size relative to body size. Most primate species have encephalization quotients (EQs) relative to other mammals, however some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-brains-impulsive-behavior/">primates</a> have higher EQs than others, such as humans and their closest kin.

To look deeper into the EQ history of anthropoids, the researchers used Chilecebus to map out patterns across the anthropoid family tree, which resulted in a phylogenetic encephalization quotient (PEQ). Most modern monkeys have PEQs of 0.86 to 3.39, whereas Chilecebus had a PEQ of 0.79. And humans have a PEQ of 13.46.

Using this framework, the researchers were able to confirm that cerebral enlargement happened repeatedly and independently throughout anthropoid evolution, as did occasional cerebral reduction. 

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image © AMNH/N. Wong and M. Ellison

Ancient skull reveals complex brain evolution in apes and monkeys

A team of researchers from the American Museum of Natural...

Increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-booms-oxygen-levels/">oxygen levels</a> in North America gave rise to dinosaurs 215 million years ago, according to a new study.  

Researchers from <a href="https://www.rpi.edu/">Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute</a> in New York created a new method for measuring the compositions of gas trapped in carbonate minerals.  

The researchers were able to measure the oxygen in ancient rocks with this new technique and assess the atmospheric concentrations of oxygen when dinosaurs first started to appear in North America.  

A spike in oxygen over a three million year period correlates with the rise of dinosaurs in the North American fossil record, but the researchers still aren’t sure exactly what sparked this rise in air concentrations.

After analyzing small amounts of gas extracted from rocks from the Colorado Plateau and the Newark Basin with a spectrometer, the researchers found that oxygen levels increased by a third in a relatively short amount of time. 

“Our results show that over a period of around 3 million years - which is very rapid in geological terms - the oxygen levels in the atmosphere jumped from around 15% to around 19%,” said Professor Morgan Schaller, the lead researcher for the study. “For comparison, there is 21% oxygen in today's atmosphere. We really don't know what might have caused this increase, but we also see a drop in CO2 levels at that time.”  

When the gasses were trapped in the rocks, both the Colorado Plateau and the Newark Basin were near the equator and part of the supercontinent Pangea. 

However, despite both regions being close to the equator, the areas were far enough apart that the researchers hypothesize that the increase in oxygen was a worldwide phenomenon. 

“We expect that this change in oxygen concentration would have been global change, and in fact we found the change in samples which were 1000km apart,” said Schaller. “What is remarkable is that right at the oxygen peak we see the first dinosaurs appearing in the North American tropics, the Chindesaurus. The Sauropods followed soon afterwards.” 

It’s important to note that there may be other factors influencing the rise of North American dinosaurs, Schaller added.

“Again, we can't yet say if this was a global development, and the dinosaurs don’t rise to ecological dominance in the tropics until after the End-Triassic extinction,” said Schaller. “What we can say is that this shows that the changing environment 215 M years ago was right for their evolutionary diversification, but of course oxygen levels may not have been the only factor.”  

The researchers presented their findings at the<a href="https://goldschmidt.info/2019/"> Goldschmidt Geochemistry Conference</a> in Barcelona. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/AmeliAU

Increases in oxygen levels helped give rise to the dinosaurs

Increasing oxygen levels in North America gave rise to dinosaurs...

Changes in the young brains of humans and primates cause impulsive behavior. Impulsive decision-making is not a growing phase that is unique to teenagers, but is actually experienced by other <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/demand-commodities-primates-extinction/">primates</a> as well.

This life process is directly influenced by changes in the brain structure, primarily in regions that affect self-control. In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, researchers have compared the adolescent brains of humans and macaque monkeys.

"As is widely known, adolescence is a time of heightened impulsivity and sensation seeking, leading to questionable choices. However, this behavioral tendency is based on an adaptive neurobiological process that is crucial for molding the brain based on gaining new experiences," said study co-author Beatriz Luna.

Structural and functional comparisons have shown that macaque monkeys, like humans, have difficulty controlling their reactive responses during puberty.

"The monkey is really the most powerful animal model that comes closest to the human condition," explained study co-author Christos Constantinidis. "They have a developed prefrontal cortex and follow a similar trajectory with the same patterns of maturation between adolescence and adulthood."

According to the researchers, risk-taking and thrill-seeking during this time is not necessarily a bad thing. 

"You don't have this perfect inhibitory control system in adolescence, but that's happening for a reason. It has survived evolution because it's actually allowing for new experiences to provide information about the environment that is critical form optimal specialization of the brain to occur," said Luna. "Understanding the neural mechanisms that underlie this transitional period in our primate counterparts is critical to informing us about this period of brain and cognitive maturation."

During adolescence in humans, the brain network is undergoing critical changes where redundant and unused neural connections are being pruned, or eliminated. Meanwhile, white matter tracts - which will regulate learning and other functions in the adult brain - are strengthened. Changes in the young brains of humans and primates cause impulsive behavior

As the adolescent brain is refined, one key aspect is the development of neural activity patterns that allow for the preparation of a response.

"Executive function involves not only reflexive responses but actually being prepared ahead of time to create an appropriate plan. This is the change between the adolescent and adult brain and it is strikingly clear both in the human data and animal data," said Constantinidis.

Luna explained that it is necessary for humans and animals to have an exploratory time in adolescence because these new experiences are needed to help shape the adult brain. 

"It's important to have this conversation and comparison between human and animal models so that we can understand the neural mechanisms that underlie vulnerability during this time for impaired development such as in mental illness, which often emerges in adolescence, but importantly to inform us on how to find ways to correct those trajectories."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/neurosciences/home">Trends in Neurosciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Pavel Chagochkin

Changes in the young brains of humans and primates

Changes in the young brains of humans and primates cause...

Washington dam removal is controversial but may be the best chance for salmon. Wheat in Washington State is dependent on dams built and maintained by the federal government, but not for the reasons you may perhaps suspect. 

Wheat farmers in Washington harvested 2.2 million acres of their crop in 2018, bearing 153.2 million bushels of the grain, according to the <a href="http://wagrains.org/all-about-wheat/varieties-of-wheat/">Washington Grain Commission</a>. Washington is ranked number four in the top wheat producing states in the US. Wheat production in Washington represents almost $691 million annually. The only Washington crop that puts more into the economy is apples. 

Of the wheat produced in Washington, 85 to 90 percent is exported per year, much of it to Asia, where it’s made into noodles and other products. The wheat producers in Washington are dependent on dams in the state to transport the wheat by barge down the Snake and Columbia Rivers to Portland and Seattle where the wheat is then loaded onto ships for international export. 

Although some of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rising-co2-levels-wheat-yield/">wheat</a> is moved by rail, over half of it is transported by barge along the rivers. Unfortunately for wheat farmers, they’re not the only ones dependent on the Snake and other rivers. 

Washington is home to all five species of Pacific salmon. According to the <a href="https://www.rco.wa.gov/salmon_recovery/">Washington State Recreation and Conservation Office</a>, salmon in the state have long been in decline. In 1991, the federal government declared the first species of salmon in the Pacific Northwest, the Snake River sockeye, to be endangered. Since that time, 18 varieties of salmonid and salmon in Washington have been declared <a href="https://www.rco.wa.gov/salmon_recovery/listed_species.shtml">threatened or endangered</a>. The decline of salmon isn’t isolated, and like all organisms, salmon are connected to larger ecosystems that affect and are affected by them.      

Traditionally, Washington state has been home to both commercial and sport fishing for salmon. Salmon are also a key ingredient to the marine and freshwater ecosystems. The <a href="https://www.critfc.org/salmon-culture/tribal-salmon-culture/">Columbia River Inter-tribal Fish Commission</a> points out the long history of cultural importance of salmon to native groups in the Pacific Northwest. Today, salmon is still used as an important part of ceremonies, and the fish are also of course still important sources of food. 

The annual return of migrating salmon is still cause for celebration. <a href="https://www.wildsalmoncenter.org/work/why-protect-salmon/">Wild Salmon Center</a> reports that salmon are also the foundation of animal life in river ecosystems. Throughout the United States, salmon give food to bears, seals and orcas. Salmon are also important sources of nutrition for plants growing along stream banks. In Alaska spawning salmon <a href="http://www.biol.wwu.edu/hooper/Helfield%26Naiman2001Ecol_Salmon-derivedN%26ForestGrowth.pdf">provide up to 25% of the nitrogen</a> in trees and other forest plants in the spawning area. <a href="https://www.westcoast.fisheries.noaa.gov/publications/protected_species/marine_mammals/killer_whales/srkw-salmon-sources-factsheet.pdf">NOAA</a> reports that endangered Southern Resident Killer Whales feed primarily on Chinook Salmon. The orcas visit the mouths of the Columbia, Snake, Klamath and Sacramento Rivers in search of their favorite salmon prey. The decline of salmon in Washington is a factor in the decline of the killer whales as well. The potential fate of two iconic Pacific northwestern animals has pushed Washington state salmon recovery programs.

Habitat restoration, like removing dikes and culverts and blocking migrations on some rivers, has helped. But <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/environment/after-20-years-and-1-billion-spent-on-washington-state-salmon-programs-fish-still-declining-new-report-says/">The Seattle Times</a> reports that salmon are still declining. Official reports show some improvement in localized salmon populations but also declines. 

These worrying numbers suggest that more must be done. Part of the problem is that as fast as habitat is restored, other habitat is damaged. Over the last decade, salmon recovery efforts have only received 16% of funding estimated to be required for salmon habitat restoration. Urban development has taken a huge toll as well. Up to 90% of coho salmon in the urban Puget sound watershed have died from toxic storm water run off before they could even spawn. With almost a billion dollars spent in 20 years of work, the salmon are still in trouble. It’s stark realities like these that have pitted the interests of the wheat farmers against what’s best for the salmon and the endangered orcas that eat them. 

Washington State’s operating budget passed earlier this year with $750,000 for a ‘stakeholder group’ to be formed to look at the consequences of removing or altering dams on the lower Snake River, <a href="https://www.opb.org/news/article/washington-budget-snake-river-dam-removal-study/">Oregon Public Broadcast</a> reported. Critics of the move note that the federal government is already undergoing a review process looking at removing the dams. Supporters feel that this will allow Washington residents to have a say in proceedings. Washington dam removal is controversial but may be the best chance for salmon

The removal of dams on the Snake River would undoubtedly benefit salmon. At the moment, salmon are loaded onto trucks and driven past dams only to be released back into the river upstream where they continue to make their way to ancestral spawning grounds. Meanwhile, barges with wheat occupy the river. Some argue that tax payer dollars could be used in a better way to help wheat farmers by improving road and railroad infrastructure and opening rivers for salmon.

Previously, plans have been made to make dams safer for salmon and allow the fish to swim past these obstacles. The federal agencies managing dams on the Snake and Columbia Rivers have lost five lawsuits over their plans for protecting salmon. 

The plans for salmon protection are called a Biological Opinion (BiOp). The BiOp for the dams has changed several times, under Presidents Clinton, George W. Bush and Obama. The lawsuit against the federal government’s 2014 BiOp was brought by conservation organizations, the Nez Perce Tribe, and the state of Oregon, according to <a href="https://www.opb.org/news/article/judge-rejects-latest-federal-plan-for-columbia-river-dams/?_ga=2.268054666.521949485.1556555825-562760037.1556555825?_ga=2.268054666.521949485.1556555825-562760037.1556555825">Oregon Public Broadcasting</a>. The continued failure of the federal government to defend its salmon protection plan in light of federal law, including the Endangered Species Act, makes dam removal one of the few options left open.

For the salmon, the situation is already dire. <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">Natural Resource Defense Coalition</a> reports that in the 1950s, there were as many as 130,000 salmon that swam up the Snake River to spawn. In 2017, there were less than 10,000 salmon spawning in the same river. Trucking salmon hasn’t seemed to work, but returning the river to a more natural state, simply allowing salmon to act as salmon, is perhaps the best option.        

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Bill Perry

Washington dam removal is controversial but may be the best chance for salmon

Washington dam removal is controversial but may be the best...

During the spring and summer, cold water is released from Lake Shasta into the Sacramento River to create favorable spawning conditions for the winter-run chinook salmon. These fish became threatened after being cut off from their historical spawning grounds when Shasta Dam was built. 

But while <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/threatened-salmon-economic-benefits/">salmon</a> eggs need cold water for survival, the influx of colder temperatures can be detrimental to young green sturgeon in the river, who depend on warmer waters to grow and thrive. 

To resolve this conflict, a team of scientists at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a> and the National Marine Fisheries Service have developed a water management strategy that will benefit both species. Using statistical modeling, the experts found that dam releases can be managed - in times without severe drought - to support the fish as well as the needs of agricultural water users downstream.

"It's a win-win-win here in the sense that we're not giving up anything to get an improvement for the green sturgeon," said study co-author Professor Eric Palkovacs. "Currently, the primary management objectives are keeping it cold for the salmon eggs and delivering enough water downstream. As a result, we've been refrigerating the river in regions where historically the green sturgeon have been spawning."

The team found that discharge rates and water temperatures strongly influence the body condition of larval green sturgeon. In years with large cold water releases, egg survival for winter-run chinook salmon was high, yet the condition of juvenile green sturgeon was poor. On the other hand, drought years with low flows and warmer water helped the green sturgeon flourish while salmon egg survival was low. 

Study first author Liam Zarri, who conducted the research as a graduate student, explained that the key to meeting the needs of both species is that they spawn at slightly different times of the year. 

"We're able to suggest a management scenario which uses the differential timing of spawning in these two species. When they overlap, our model gives us the ideal temperature and flow for when both species are present," said Zarri.

He noted that the dam releases can draw either cold water from the bottom of the lake or warmer water from closer to the surface. Under the proposed management solution, low flows of warmer water can be released early in the season to support green sturgeon, and high flows of cold water can be released late in the season to benefit salmon and meet agricultural water needs.

Both salmon and sturgeon are present in the part of the river most affected by the dam releases in June or July, making management more complicated during this overlap period. The researchers pinpointed the ideal conditions of temperature and water flow that dam managers can pursue in an effort to keep the river cool enough for salmon and warm enough for sturgeon.

"Under the current management, there is quite a long period of cold water releases starting very early in the season before the chinook salmon have really started showing up in earnest. We're saying that you can wait until the green sturgeon have matured and moved out of the system," said Professor Palkovacs. "That has a side benefit in drought years, when limiting those early releases saves water for later in the year when it's more valuable, both for salmon and for downstream water demand."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

New strategy will support two fish species with different needs

During the spring and summer, cold water is released from...

During long migrations, birds will risk their safety for a nap when needed. Most <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/metal-pollution-personality-changes/">songbirds</a> have to make rest stops to recharge and build up their energy during long migrations. In a new study, researchers have discovered that the birds essentially risk their lives for some good sleep when they need it the most.

According to the study authors, birds that are low on fat reserves will tuck their heads under their feathers for deeper sleep. Even though this is a more restful sleeping position, it slows their reaction to the sound of danger. 

On the other hand, birds who did not need sleep as badly were found to sleep with their head facing forward, untucked, and more alert.

"We discovered that migratory birds trade off safety for lower energy expenditure," said lead author Leonida Fusani. "If they sleep with their head tucked in the scapular feathers, they enter a sort of deeper sleep that is associated with lower energy consumption but exposes them to a higher predation risk."

"Consequently, birds in good condition sacrifice some energy to sleep more safely with the head untucked, whereas birds in poor condition sacrifice vigilance to save energy while sleeping unsafely tucked in."

The researchers wondered how small migratory songbirds cope with sleep deprivation. To investigate, they analyzed the sleeping patterns of Garden Warblers at a stopover site in the Mediterranean.

At night, the Garden Warblers in poor physical condition slept with their head turned and covered in their feathers. The researchers demonstrated that this behavior is associated with lower respiratory and metabolic rates. By tucking their heads, the birds lose less heat. 

While conserving their energy, however, the birds became much less vigilant. For example, when the sleeping birds were exposed to the sound of crunching leaves, the birds with covered heads were slower to respond than birds whose heads were facing forward.During long migrations, birds will risk their safety for a nap when needed

"We did not expect to find such a strong difference between the two sleeping postures in terms of metabolic rate - the amount of energy required to fuel the bird's physiological functions," said study co-author Andrea Ferretti. 

"Although there was good reason to think that birds reduce heat loss by tucking their heads in their feathers, we were surprised to see that they actually reduce their alertness when sleeping in this position."

The findings suggest that migratory songbirds may benefit from stopover habitats that not only provide sufficient food, but which are also conducive to undisturbed sleep, said Fusani.

The team will continue to study the physiological basis of birds' decision making during migration. "Migratory songbirds appear to be very well suited for studying the role of sleep in both brain and body maintenance," said Ferretti.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/PavlovaSvetlana

During long migrations birds will risk their safety for a nap when needed

During long migrations, birds will risk their safety for a...

At least 228 million years ago, an ancient reptile species roamed the massive southern supercontinent known as Gondwana.

The land mass would someday split to become Africa, India, Australia, South America and Antarctica. The reptiles – known as sphenodontians – would eventually go extinct, for the most part, although one living descendant species still lives in New Zealand.

But a jaw and some skull bones discovered in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil is changing what paleontologists and other scientists thought they knew about the diverse sphenodontians – lizards and snakes that lived during the time of the dinosaurs.

The fossils belonged to a member of Clevosaurus hadroprodon, a newly described species about the size of a gecko. The ancient reptile species lived during the late Triassic and early Jurassic periods, and is now the oldest known member of the Clevosauridae family.

But the fossils held some surprises for researchers.

"Clevosaurus hadroprodon is an important discovery because it combines a relatively primitive sphenodontian-type tooth row with the presence of massive tusk-like teeth that were possibly not for feeding, but rather used for mate competition or defense. If correct, this means that non-feeding dental specializations predated changes in the sphenodontian dentition related to feeding strategies. This is a very exciting discovery." co-author Dr. Randall Nydam of <a href="https://www.midwestern.edu/">Midwestern University</a> said.

Until this discovery, scientists had believed that the tusk-like teeth had developed later.

“This feature is typically observed only in later sphenodontian lineages," lead author Dr. Annie Schmaltz Hsiou of the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/">University of São Paulo</a> said. 

The new fossils from the ancient reptile species also hint that sphenodontians may have seen early diversification in separate areas of Gondwana – one that would become South America, and another that would become India.

The team described the newly discovered species in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-48297-9">Scientific Reports</a>. Funding for the research was provided by the <a href="http://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/index_eng.asp">Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Fossils found in Brazil were from ancient reptile species

At least 228 million years ago, an ancient reptile species...

Enormous cave bears roamed throughout prehistoric Europe for more than 100,000 years, munching on the plant life that grew on the continent.

All that changed when modern humans arrived in the region. A new genetic study hints that humans played a large role in cave bears going extinct.

The cave bears – about the size of a modern grizzly – died off during the last glacial maximum about 26,000 years ago. That led some researchers to suspect the ice age led to their extinction, but new research indicates that humans may have left the population weak and vulnerable.

The clue was in the bears’ DNA. Dr. Verena Schünemann of the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> and a team of researchers studied mitochondrial DNA from 123 different bears. They discovered that, about 40,000 years ago, the genetic diversity of the species dropped drastically, pointing to a declining population.

“There [were] still a few around, but there is this massive loss of diversity,” Schünemann said.

The decline came right around when modern humans moved into Europe, displacing the Neanderthals that lived alongside the cave bears. The researchers suspect that they claimed the caves where the bears hibernated, leaving them homeless. Since the bears preferred caves near the plants they are, this may have also cut them off from abundant food sources.

“If they lose that, they also lose their feeding possibilities,” Schünemann said.

That shrunken population – with fewer opportunities for food and shelter – simply couldn’t survive the frigid climate, even though they’d survived cold periods before, the researchers believe.

“They might have survived if there wasn’t this decline before,” Schünemann said.

The extinction of the cave bears is the clearest European example of modern humans wiping out a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-extinction-megafauna/">megafauna species</a>, the researchers said.

The researchers' work has been published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47073-z">Scientific Reports</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

In prehistoric Europe, cave bears lost out to invading humans

Enormous cave bears roamed throughout prehistoric Europe for more than...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

News coming your way