Around 3.7 billion years ago, early molecules on the young Earth learned to copy themselves. Over time, this simple act of replication - with help from chance and chemistry - blossomed into the plants and animals we see today.



Charles Darwin later explained how slow, steady change - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> acting on isolated populations - could split one species into two.



Yet in the plant kingdom, an alternative route to diversity exists. It is called autopolyploidy, and a new theoretical study of a woodland herb known as beetleweed (Galax urceolata) shows just how powerful - and complicated - this mechanism can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-mistake-sparks-new-species">DNA mistake sparks new species</h2>



Most organisms, humans included, are diploid: they carry two complete sets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a>, one from each parent.



In autopolyploidy, something unusual happens during the production of sperm or egg cells. Instead of halving the chromosome count, the cell leaves the full complement intact. When such a gamete meets another, the resulting embryo inherits double - or even triple - the usual DNA.



The newcomer may still manage to reproduce with its diploid relatives, but the hybrid offspring generally fare poorly. That mismatch in fertility often pushes the polyploid lineage to mate among its own kind, launching an instant reproductive barrier and, effectively, a new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-types-one-plant">Three types, one plant</h2>



For decades botanists assumed these chromosome copycats were evolutionary curiosities - unlikely to survive, let alone thrive, alongside their diploid parents.



Field surveys later overturned that view: autopolyploids are widespread and resilient. 



The lingering mystery was whether several cytotypes - diploids, triploids, tetraploids - could share the same patch of ground without one eventually eliminating the others through sheer competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-herb-with-three-identities">Mountain herb with three identities</h2>



Beetleweed, a low evergreen that carpets portions of the Appalachian Mountains, provided the perfect natural experiment. Earlier surveys revealed that some stands contain plants with two, three, or four chromosome sets.



“Through my fieldwork, I discovered that a single population could have a mishmash of cytotypes, which fascinated me,” remarked Shelly Gaynor, lead author of the new study that she&nbsp;completed at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



“With this study, I set out to understand if these populations could persist over time. Would one cytotype eventually outcompete the others, or could all three cytotypes persist?”



Answering that required tools beyond the transect tape and microscope. Gaynor and colleagues designed a mathematical framework that treats population change as inherently noisy - subject to random swings in birth, death, climate, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> flow.



Their model tracks how diploids, triploids, and autotetraploids form, spread, and interact when gene flow keeps tossing new genetic combinations into the mix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chromosomes-coexist-in-plants">Chromosomes coexist in plants</h2>



Two ingredients emerged as critical for long-term coexistence. First, self-fertilization rates matter. 



The more often a plant can pollinate itself, the easier it becomes for an odd-ploidy seedling to find a genetically compatible mate - sometimes its own flowers - without relying on scarce partners.



Second, partial reproductive isolation improves balance. If crosses between cytotypes rarely succeed, each form can maintain its numbers without being swamped by unfit hybrids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-favors-the-strongest">Stress favors the strongest</h2>



Environmental hardship then tilts the playing field. Under harsh conditions and intense competition, the model predicts that autotetraploids gain an edge over their diploid ancestors.



Extra chromosome copies may buffer them against stress, confer broader ecological tolerance or fuel faster adaptation. Triploids, by contrast, often act as a genetic bridge, forming when diploids and tetraploids interbreed but typically suffer lower fertility.



Because Gaynor’s simulations embed both demographic randomness and shifting weather, they reveal outcomes conventional equations might miss.



Sometimes all three cytotypes coexist for centuries; other times one prevails after a long stalemate. The key lesson is that stochasticity - the roll of the “evolutionary dice” - cannot be ignored when forecasting which lineages persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-beyond-one-plant">Impacts beyond one plant</h2>



Although the work focuses on a single Appalachia endemic plant, its reach extends far. Crop breeders deliberately create autopolyploids to enlarge fruit, boost resilience, or break <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-disease-experts-discover-how-bacteria-hijack-plant-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a> cycles.



Understanding how mixed-ploidy fields behave over time could help manage gene flow between improved varieties and their wild relatives.



Conservationists, meanwhile, wrestle with how best to protect rare plants that harbor multiple chromosome races within the same reserve; the new model offers a scaffold for predicting viability under climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-evolutionary-assumptions">Challenging evolutionary assumptions</h2>



The research also nudges evolutionary theory. Instant speciation via autopolyploidy sits at one extreme of the continuum of reproductive isolation. 



By showing that such sudden splits can persist even when parents and offspring rub shoulders, the beetleweed study challenges the tidy notion that new species must always occupy distinct niches or territories to survive.



Gaynor’s findings do not close the book on polyploid dynamics; rather, they open new chapters. 



Field experiments that monitor marked plants through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>, fires, and pathogen outbreaks could test whether tetraploids really weather adversity better.



Genetic analyses might uncover which genes, duplicated in extra copies, underpin that resilience. And satellite imagery paired with ecological modelling may reveal whether mixed-cytotype populations correlate with particular microclimates across the Appalachian ridges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-evolutionary-pathways">New evolutionary pathways </h2>



For now, the humble beetleweed stands as living proof that life need not wait for continental drift or glacial cycles to carve new evolutionary pathways.



Sometimes a single cellular hiccup - one missed step in plant chromosome division - is enough to spin off an enduring lineage. 



In the grand narrative that began with rogue molecules self-assembling eons ago, autopolyploidy writes its own rapid-fire chapter, reminding us that the processes that generate biodiversity can be as swift as they are surprising.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/734411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>.



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Plant chromosome glitch fast-tracks evolution

Around 3.7 billion years ago, early molecules on the young Earth learned to copy themselves. Over time, this simple act of replication - with help from chance and chemistry - blossomed into the plants and animals we see today. Charles Darwin later explained how slow, steady change - natural selection acting on isolated populations - could split one species into two. Yet in the plant kingdom, an alternative route to diversity exists. It is called autopolyploidy, and a new theoretical study of a woodland herb known as...

Ocean whispers, hums and resonates with its very own concert of life. However, noise pollution from human activities is beginning to override this melodious orchestra, introducing a cacophony of decibels that our marine friends, especially baby oysters, find disturbingly loud.



“The ocean's natural sound is gradually hushing due to habitat loss, leading to a quieter natural environment increasingly drowned out by the crescendo of human-made noise pollution,” explained Dr. Brittany Williams from the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Adelaide</a>’s Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, and lead author of the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-oysters-and-noise-from-human-activity">Baby oysters and noise from human activity</h2>



Marine organisms, including the delicate oysters, rely heavily on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-is-getting-louder-what-does-this-mean-for-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean's natural acoustics</a> for their survival. 



Like the conductor of an orchestra, these acoustics guide their activities - sense their surroundings, navigate, communicate, avoid predators, find mates and food. 



Reliant on these natural acoustic cues, baby oysters specifically settle in environments that resonate with the right note. Unfortunately, this ‘note’ is increasingly being drowned by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noises of human activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noise-is-an-unseen-threat-to-oysters">Noise is an unseen threat to oysters</h2>



The humdrum of shipping, machinery, and construction are some of the many human activities that contribute to the rising noise pollution in our oceans. 



The concern isn't just about the loudness of these noises, but also the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-kills-ocean-embryos-during-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant environmental changes</a> these instigate, impacting both terrestrial and marine animals. 



“Noises from shipping, machinery and construction, for example, are pervasive and pose serious environmental change that affects both terrestrial and marine animals,” Dr. Williams pointed out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-struggles-of-restoring-reefs">Struggles of restoring reefs</h2>



Reefs rehabilitation comes with its own sets of challenges. Our previous understanding of using sound to lure oysters back to restored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/self-repairing-oyster-reefs-will-help-protect-coastlines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> is now under scrutiny. 



“Our previous work demonstrated that novel acoustic technology can bolster oyster recruitment in habitat restoration projects, but this new research indicates potential limitations of this speaker technology,” obscured Dr. Dominic McAfee, another researcher from the University of Adelaide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noise-pollution-impact-baby-oysters">Noise pollution impact baby oysters </h2>



In areas heavily polluted with human-made noise, the usage of specialized speaker technology to attract larvae failed. 



These noises might effectively cloak the intrinsic sounds of the ocean, creating serious implications for the marine ecosystem vitality and resilience.



“This suggests that noise pollution might cloak the intrinsic sounds of the ocean, potentially exerting profound ramifications on marine ecosystem vitality and resilience," Professor Sean Connell, a co-author of the research at the University of Adelaide and the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environment Institute</a>, rightly said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silver-lining">Silver lining</h2>



Despite the challenges, hope swims in the horizon. In areas with lesser anthropogenic noise, the acoustic technology seems to work well, enhancing the process of oyster recruitment which is key to habitat restoration success. 



 “Where there is little anthropogenic noise, acoustic enrichment appears to enhance the process of recruitment which is key to restoration success," notes Dr. Williams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-community-engagement">Role of community engagement</h2>



Community involvement is crucial in addressing the challenges posed by noise pollution in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine environments</a>. 



By raising awareness and encouraging local communities to participate in restoration efforts, we can create a more supportive atmosphere for the oceans' symphony to thrive. 



Engaging workshops and educational programs can equip the public with tools to understand the importance of soundscapes in marine ecology, leading to more responsible practices for protecting these vital ecosystems. 



As locals become stewards of their coastal environments, their actions can promote a healthier acoustic ecosystem for all marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-to-fix-the-issue">Next steps to fix the issue</h2>



To combat the detrimental effects of noise pollution, ongoing research is essential. Scientists are exploring innovative methods to integrate acoustic technologies with natural reef rehabilitation strategies effectively. 



Future studies may focus on fine-tuning these technologies to ensure they replicate the acoustic signals prevalent in pristine environments, thus providing optimal cues for marine organisms like oysters. 



By understanding the complexities of marine soundscapes further, researchers hope to develop more effective interventions that bridge the gap between natural and artificial acoustic stimuli, ultimately leading to healthier marine ecosystems.



So, are we still in sync with our oceans? Or are we playing an entirely different tune? 



With the wall of human-made noise rising, it's an important question to ponder upon. The silent underwater world is being silenced further, and in this quiet, one can hear the plea for harmony!



Let's think about it – for the oysters, for all marine life, and for us.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Oyster populations are rapidly declining due to ocean noise

Ocean whispers, hums and resonates with its very own concert...

A new study, published in the scientific journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.11658" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>, has recently explored the potential maximum sizes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-dinosaurs-did-not-necessarily-grow-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, specifically focusing on the famous Tyrannosaurus Rex. 



Dr. Jordan Mallon of the<a href="https://nature.ca/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Canadian Museum of Nature</a> and Dr. David Hone of <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a> used computer modeling to estimate that T. rex might have been 70 percent heavier than current fossil evidence suggests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-largest-animals">Earth's largest animals</h2>



The researchers aimed to understand how dinosaurs could have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/">evolved</a> to such massive sizes. The study highlights that most known dinosaur species come from just a few specimens, making it unlikely that we have discovered the largest individuals.&nbsp;



“Dinosaurs are the largest animals ever to have walked the earth. Accordingly, they inspire awe among the public, and frequently the question is asked: ‘Which is the biggest?’ But which is the biggest dinosaur (or example of some subclade or ecological guild) ever found and which is the biggest that ever lived are two separate considerations,” noted the researchers.



“The first is relatively straightforward to answer, notwithstanding complications in estimating body mass and comparing skeletons of variable completeness. The second consideration is the more difficult to address.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-size-of-t-rex">Analyzing the size of T. rex</h2>



To address this, Mallon and Hone created computer models considering variables like population size, growth rate, lifespan, and the incompleteness of the fossil record. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/were-there-three-distinct-species-of-tyrannosaurus-rex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T. rex</a> was chosen due to the extensive data available on this iconic dinosaur. 



By using living alligators as a reference for body-size variance at adulthood, the researchers modeled size differences with and without considering sex differences.&nbsp;



The team found that the largest known T. rex fossils likely fall in the 99th percentile, representing the top one percent of body size. However, discovering an individual in the top 99.99 percent would require another 1,000 years of fossil excavation at the current rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-size-of-t-rex">Surprising size of T. rex</h2>



According to their computer models, the largest individual T. rex that could have existed may have been 70 percent&nbsp; more massive than the current largest-known specimens, potentially weighing up to 15 tons compared to the previous estimate of 8.8 tons.&nbsp;



Additionally, these giant T. rexes could have been 25 percent longer, reaching up to 15 meters.



Dr. David Hone, from Queen Mary University of London, emphasized the significance of their findings, noting that there are hints of larger individuals in isolated bones and fragments. This suggests that larger dinosaurs existed but have yet to be discovered.&nbsp;



“Some isolated bones and pieces certainly hint at still larger individuals than for which we currently have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-comptonatus-chasei-most-complete-discovered-unique-traits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skeletons</a>,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



The study contributes to ongoing debates about the biggest fossil animals. Many of the largest dinosaurs are known from a single specimen, making it difficult to determine if that individual represents the average size of the species. Thus, the largest displayed skeletons in museums might not be the largest individuals of their species.



“Our study suggests that, for big fossil animals like T. rex, we really have no idea from the fossil record about the absolute sizes they might have reached. It’s fun to think about a 15-ton T. rex, but the implications are also interesting from a biomechanical or ecological perspective,” said Dr. Jordan Mallon, a paleontologist at the Canadian Museum of Nature.



“It’s important to stress that this isn’t really about T. rex, which is the basis of our study, but this issue would apply to all dinosaurs, and lots of other fossil species. Arguing about ‘which is the biggest?’ based on a handful of skeletons really isn’t very meaningful,” Hone added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-true-size-of-t-rex">Understanding the true size of T. rex</h2>



The study provides new insights into the possible sizes of the T. rex and other dinosaurs, suggesting that the largest individuals were likely much bigger than those currently known.&nbsp;



By using computer modeling and considering various factors, the researchers have opened up new possibilities for understanding the true scale of these ancient giants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-sizes-of-fossil-species-nbsp">Body sizes of fossil species&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers noted that the findings serve as an important reminder that body size comparisons of fossil species should entail ontogenetically controlled statistical parameters (e.g., means and variances).&nbsp;



“Simply comparing the largest known individuals ignores the realities of intraspecific variation and sampling intensity, and is more likely to lead to claims that are debatable, if not outright misleading,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“We maintain that the rigid pursuit to establish ‘which is biggest’ can distract from more interesting biological questions posed by the immensity of the non-avian dinosaurs.”



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

T. rex was about 70 percent bigger than we thought

A new study, published in the scientific journal Ecology and...

The quest for gold is not only about the grueling years of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coaches-can-improve-athletes-lives-by-being-authentic-leaders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">training an Olympic athlete</a> endures. It's also about timing. And, not the proverbial "timing is everything." We're delving into the age factor. 



Enter the realm of statistics, where a team from the <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Waterloo</a> has revealed a fascinating insight: the age when a track-and-field athlete's performance hits its pinnacle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-track-and-field">Track and field</h2>



Track-and-field, a conglomerate of running, jumping, throwing, and combined event disciplines, has its athletes' career trajectories often mapped as a bell curve. 



After several years of rigorous training, the athletes finally conquer their personal Everest or "peak" at a particular age, only to see their performance level slowly descend thereafter.



Study lead author David Awosoga, a master’s student in data science, provides a fresh perspective. He points out the uniqueness of track-and-field.



"Unlike other Olympic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-sports-has-a-very-positive-impact-on-mental-and-physical-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sports</a> such as soccer and tennis that have high-profile competitions outside the Games, the Olympics is the largest stage upon which track-and-field athletes compete," said Awosoga.



"Because the Olympics occur only once every four years, track-and-field athletes must carefully consider when and how they should train to maximize their probability of qualifying for the Olympics while at their personal peak."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-peak-athlete-age">Decoding the peak athlete age</h2>



The research team from the University of Waterloo embarked on a statistical journey, examining data from every track and field athlete who participated in an individual event at the Olympics since the 1996 Games in Atlanta. 



The goal was to determine the age at which an Olympic track-and-field athlete reaches their peak performance. The factors taken into account were gender, nationality, event type, duration of elite-level training, and whether the year was Olympic or not.



Here's what the team discovered: the average age of participation for both genders over the past three decades is remarkably consistent, standing just shy of 27 years old. 



"Interestingly enough, our analysis also demonstrated that the median peak age for these athletes was 27," said Awosoga.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-going-downhill-after-27">Going downhill after 27?</h2>



The analysis also revealed that after 27, there's only a 44 percent chance that an athlete's peak lies in the future, and the percentage drops every subsequent year.



"Age, however, isn’t the only factor in an athlete’s peak. What’s really exciting is that we also found that knowing it’s an Olympic year actually helps predict an athlete’s performance," noted study co-author Matthew Chow, an undergraduate economics student.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experience-and-athlete-age">Experience and athlete age</h2>



As athletes approach their peak ages, experience becomes a vital asset in their performance. Many track-and-field athletes hone their skills through years of competition, learning to navigate the pressures of high-stakes events. 



This accumulated wisdom often allows them to adjust their strategies and tactics effectively, enhancing their overall performance. 



For athletes beyond their mid-twenties, this combination of physical capability and seasoned judgment can lead to remarkable breakthroughs, often allowing them to defy age-related trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-factors-affecting-peaks">Psychological factors affecting peaks</h2>



Equally important to the discussion of peak performance is the psychological component. Mental fortitude plays a significant role in an athlete's ability to compete at their highest level. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embracing-stress-mindset-is-actually-a-good-thing-for-athletes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Factors</a> such as motivation, focus, and confidence are critical, particularly during the crucial moments of the Olympics. Studies reveal that athletes who cultivate a strong mental game often perform better, regardless of their age. 



The pressure of the Olympic stage can either elevate or hinder performance, making the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-fatigue-impairs-athletic-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological aspect</a> a key focus area for athletes and coaches alike. 



Understanding how to manage anxiety and leverage support systems can be instrumental in ensuring that an athlete not only reaches but also sustains their peak.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-guide-to-hitting-the-peak">A guide to hitting the peak</h2>



While the researchers stress that their analysis is primarily theoretical, they envision the findings proving beneficial for athletes and fans alike. They present a list of variables that can be instrumental in predicting an athlete's peak. 



"You can’t change the year of the Olympics, your genetics, or your nationality, but you might modify your training regimes to better align with these biological and external factors," said Awosoga.



When we watch these athletes compete, we are looking at a statistical rarity, someone at the peak of their physical prowess and simultaneously enjoying the perfect timing.



"This kind of research really helps us appreciate how hard it is to make it to the Olympics in the first place," said Chow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jrssig/article/21/3/6/7686552" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Significance</a>.



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At what age do Olympic athletes perform their best?

The quest for gold is not only about the grueling...

The world's largest living species of monitor lizard, the formidable Komodo dragon, has recently offered science another fascinating insight into its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-strategies-of-komodo-dragons-mimic-prehistoric-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deadly arsenal</a>. This time, it is not inside their venomous saliva, but rather in their teeth. 



Researchers from <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King’s College London</a>, led by Dr. Aaron LeBlanc, have discovered that the serrated edges of Komodo dragons’ teeth are actually tipped with iron.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-komodo-dragon-teeth">Komodo dragon teeth</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-big-do-komodo-dragons-get/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo</a> dragons, hailing from Indonesia, are known for their predatory efficiency. They sport sharp, curved teeth that are reminiscent of many carnivorous dinosaurs and capable of tearing apart various types of meat.



Whether it's small reptiles and birds, or larger game like deer, horses, or water buffalo, nothing stands a chance against the ferocious bite of the Komodo dragon.



The research team found that many reptiles contain iron in their teeth. Still, the Komodo dragons have managed to concentrate this iron along the cutting edges and tips of their teeth, staining them with an identifiable orange hue.



This is a stark contrast to crocodiles and other monitor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-lizards-have-evolved-to-resist-deadly-snake-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> where the iron presence is so small, it's virtually invisible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concentrated-iron-coating">Concentrated iron coating</h2>



To delve deeper into this unexpected discovery, the team collected skulls and teeth of Komodo dragons from various museums. 



Also, they studied the teeth of Ganas, a 15-year-old Komodo dragon who had spent his life at ZSL conservation zoo, London Zoo. Using advanced imaging and chemical analysis, the researchers were able to understand the peculiar makeup of the lethal <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/komodo-dragon-varanus-komodoensis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo</a> teeth. 



They found a concentrated iron coating on top of their tooth serrations and tips. This sturdy layer keeps the teeth sharp, ready to rip flesh apart at a moment’s notice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-eating-dinosaurs">Meat-eating dinosaurs </h2>



The implications of this research are far-reaching. The findings open up new queries and opportunities for studying how extinct species such as dinosaurs lived and hunted.



Dr. Aaron LeBlanc, the study's lead author and lecturer in Dental Biosciences at King’s College London, emphasized the plan to use this research to learn more about the lifestyles of carnivorous dinosaurs. However, he pointed out a crucial obstacle in their path.



According to Dr. LeBlanc, current technology is unable to identify whether fossilized dinosaur teeth contained high iron levels due to chemical alterations during the fossilization process.



What the researchers did find is that larger meat-eating dinosaurs, like tyrannosaurs, had altered the structure of their teeth.



Hence, they concluded that while Komodo dragons altered their teeth's chemistry, some dinosaurs changed their dental enamel structure to maintain a sharp cutting edge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-steps">The next steps</h2>



Dr. LeBlanc and his team hope that further analysis will uncover other markers in the iron coating unaffected by fossilization. Identifying these markers could confirm whether dinosaurs indeed had iron-coated teeth, dramatically enriching our understanding of these fearsome predators.



The Komodo dragon, despite its fascinating biology, faces serious threats to its survival including habitat loss, tourism, and poaching.



Conservation efforts led by organizations like the WWF focus on protecting their habitats and ensuring these ancient predators thrive through the establishment of protected areas and sustainable tourism practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-komodo-dragon">Protecting the Komodo dragon</h2>



Educating the public about the Komodo dragon's ecological significance and the challenges it faces is crucial for its conservation. By fostering an appreciation for these unique reptiles, communities can be encouraged to participate in protective measures and support conservation initiatives.



Schools and institutions around the world can raise awareness about biodiversity. They can implement programs that showcase its importance. Apex predators like the Komodo dragon play a critical role in maintaining healthy ecosystems. Educating others about this is essential.



Increased public engagement can lead to a collective effort to safeguard these extraordinary creatures and their habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-komodo-dragons">Understanding Komodo dragons </h2>



This fascinating discovery adds more depth to our understanding of these majestic creatures, aiding conservation efforts aimed at their protection.



“As the world’s largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sea-lizard-khinjaria-had-teeth-like-daggers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a>, Komodo dragons are inarguably impressive animals. Having worked with them for 12 years at London Zoo, I continue to be fascinated by them and these findings further emphasize just how incredible they are," explained 



Study co-author Dr. Benjamin Tapley is Curator of Reptiles and Amphibians at ZSL.



“Komodo dragons are sadly endangered, so in addition to strengthening our understanding of how iconic dinosaurs might have lived, this discovery also helps us build a deeper understanding of these amazing reptiles as we work to protect them,” said Dr. Tapley.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02477-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Komodo dragons have iron-tipped teeth to rip apart flesh

The world's largest living species of monitor lizard, the formidable...

The marvel of symbiosis highlights the intricate interplay between different organisms, each playing a crucial part in their mutual survival and progress.



This biological phenomenon demonstrates how life forms, despite their differences, can forge beneficial relationships that enhance their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-bacteria-symbiosis-in-action">Plant-bacteria symbiosis in action</h2>



A particular and striking example of such interdependence is found in the relationship between leguminous plants and soil bacteria, also known as Rhizobia. This fascinating partnership allows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-legumes-and-their-symbiotic-bacteria-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legumes</a> to thrive in low-nitrogen environments, a feat that is challenging for many plants.



Rhizobia have a unique ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form the plants can utilize - ammonium. This nitrogen fixation process is vital for the legumes' growth and development, enabling them to flourish even in nutrient-poor soils.



But where do these beneficial bacteria reside? Quite intriguingly, they find a home within specialized structures called root nodules that form on the roots of leguminous plants.



These nodules provide a protective environment where the Rhizobia can live and function, facilitating a continuous exchange of nutrients that supports the health and productivity of both partners in this remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-symbiotic-relationships-evolve-between-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic relationship</a>.



This mutualistic interaction not only underscores the complexity and elegance of natural processes but also has significant implications for sustainable agriculture and ecosystem management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-plant-bacteria-interaction">Unraveling plant-bacteria interaction</h2>



The interaction, however, is far from simplistic. An uncontrolled formation of numerous root nodules can significantly hinder root function, impeding the plant's ability to absorb water and nutrients effectively.



A precise regulation over both the distribution and the amount of root nodules is required for the plants to survive. The intricate mechanisms underpinning this regulation remained largely undiscovered.



However, recent studies on Lotus japonicus, a model legume plant, have begun to unveil these complexities.



The studies have shed light on the sophisticated biological controls that manage nodule formation, ensuring that the symbiotic relationship between legumes and Rhizobia is both efficient and beneficial.



This groundbreaking research is a collaborative effort conducted by the National Institute for Basic Biology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Kwansei Gakuin University, RIKEN, and Aichi University of Education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dancing-with-the-rhythm">Dancing with the rhythm</h2>



The interaction between legume <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationship-plant-roots-underground-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roots</a> and Rhizobia is dictated by a rhythmic gene expression occurring every six hours. This rhythmic pattern influences the root regions susceptible to Rhizobial infection and the distribution of nodules.



"When Rhizobia infect legume roots, root epidermal cells form infection threads, membranous tube-like structures guiding the bacteria to the inner root tissue where they can fix <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-produce-their-own-nitrogen-fertilizer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a>," explained study co-author Dr. Takashi Soyano.



"We noticed that these oscillation regions coincide with areas where infection threads are densely formed, leading us to think that this rhythmic gene expression might be related to the determination of nodule formation sites."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cytokinin-the-symbiotic-maestro">Cytokinin: The symbiotic maestro</h2>



Moreover, another key discovery centered on the crucial role of the plant hormone cytokinin in this intricate process. This hormone is pivotal for maintaining the rhythmic gene expression that governs the interaction between legume roots and Rhizobia.



The research team observed distinct oscillatory patterns of genes involved in cytokinin biosynthesis, metabolism, and signaling following rhizobial inoculation. 



The findings suggest that cytokinin is not only essential for initiating nodule formation but also for regulating the periodic responses that ensure an optimal balance of root nodules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-symbiosis-and-evolution">Linking symbiosis and evolution</h2>



Root nodule symbiosis is not an isolated phenomenon. It occurs in the monophyletic nitrogen-fixing clade, inclusive of four orders - Fabales, Rosales, Cucurbitales, and Fagales - indicating a shared evolutionary acquisition to interact with nitrogen-fixing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-bacteria-provide-nutrients-to-seagrasses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>.



The legume family in the order Fabales, where most species engage in root nodule symbiosis, uniquely incorporated the cytokinin pathway as an important regulatory module for the symbiosis.



"The discovery of periodic cytokinin responses was unexpected, raising several questions, including the molecular mechanisms that establish this periodicity and how these periodic responses shape the infection regions," said Dr. Soyano.



Addressing these questions can further our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of root nodule symbiosis and propel research on the spatial control of organ development through periodic responses mediated by plant hormones.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk5589" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Plants keep up a precise rhythm to partner with bacteria

The marvel of symbiosis highlights the intricate interplay between different...

In a compelling display of cosmic detective work, scientists have leveraged the Universe's most precise timekeepers -- pulsars -- to potentially uncover evidence of dark matter.



These rapidly spinning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-star-collisions-push-the-limits-of-extreme-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron stars</a> emit beams of radiation at exact intervals, akin to cosmic lighthouses, making them exceptionally reliable for measuring time.



Pulsars are offering insights beyond cosmic time. Their steady 'ticking' might have brought us closer to unlocking one of the Universe's greatest mysteries.



By meticulously analyzing the timing irregularities in their pulses, scientists are gathering clues that could help unravel the enigmatic nature of dark matter, which comprises about 27% of the Universe.



Leading these discoveries is Professor John LoSecco from the <a href="https://www.nd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Notre Dame</a>, presenting his research at the <a href="https://nam2024.hull.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Astronomy Meeting</a> at the University of Hull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-dark-matter-with-pulsar-precision">Tracking dark matter with pulsar precision</h2>



"Science has developed very precise methods to measure time," Professor LoSecco explained. "On Earth we have atomic clocks and in space we have pulsars."



Pulsars' clockwork-like precision has long captivated astronomers. These dense, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-mystery-solved-the-puzzling-behavior-of-a-pulsar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rapidly spinning remnants</a> of massive stars emit beams of radiation that sweep across the cosmos like a lighthouse beam. 



As these beams intersect with Earth, we perceive them as regular pulses of radio waves. The accuracy of these pulses is astonishing, measurable to nanosecond precision, making pulsars some of the universe's most precise natural clocks.



This extraordinary precision transforms them into invaluable tools for studying various cosmic phenomena, including the elusive presence of dark matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravitational-lensing-pulsars-and-dark-matter">Gravitational lensing, pulsars, and dark matter</h2>



Dark matter has puzzled astronomers for decades. Though we can't directly observe it, we know it exists due to its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-detect-highest-energy-gamma-rays-ever-from-a-pulsar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational effects</a> on visible matter. 



Unlike ordinary matter, dark matter doesn't interact with light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation, making it invisible to our telescopes.



Scientists estimate that dark matter comprises about 85% of the Universe's matter. Its presence is deduced from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-gravity-exists-without-mass-so-dark-matter-does-not-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational influences</a> on visible matter, yet its nature remains one of modern physics' most significant unsolved mysteries. 



Professor LoSecco's research leverages the fascinating phenomenon known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxy-jwst-er1g-dark-matter-einstein-ring-mystery-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational lensing</a>. Predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity, this effect occurs when the gravity of a massive object bends the path of light traveling near it. 



"While gravitation has been known to slow down light for more than a century, there have been very few applications so far," Professor LoSecco noted.



In this case, the researchers were looking for tiny delays in the arrival times of radio pulses from pulsars. These delays could indicate that the radio waves had traveled around an unseen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-might-be-driving-force-behind-black-hole-mergers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">concentration of mass</a> - potentially a dark matter object - somewhere between the pulsar and our telescopes on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-hide-and-seek">Cosmic hide and seek</h2>



Professor LoSecco and his team analyzed data from the PPTA2 survey release from the <a href="https://www.atnf.csiro.au/research/pulsar/ppta/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parkes Pulsar Timing Array</a>. 



This ongoing project collects precise measurements of pulse arrival times using data from seven different radio telescopes around the world.



The team studied the timing of pulses from 65 'millisecond pulsars', which rotate hundreds of times per second. 



They were looking for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-energy-flash-brighter-than-a-galaxy-traveled-8-billion-light-years-to-reach-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specific patterns of deviation</a> in the arrival times of these pulses that could indicate the presence of dark matter.



"We take advantage of the fact that the Earth is moving, the Sun is moving, the pulsar is moving, and even the dark matter is moving," Professor LoSecco explained. 



"We observe the deviations in the arrival time caused by the change in distance between the mass we are observing and the line of sight to our 'clock' pulsar."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tantalizing-results">Tantalizing results</h2>



The results of this cosmic hunt were nothing short of fascinating. Professor LoSecco's team identified approximately a dozen incidents that appear to be interactions with dark matter.



One particularly compelling finding suggested a distortion caused by an object with about 20% of the Sun's mass.



"This object could be a candidate for dark matter," Professor LoSecco noted.



To put this in perspective, a mass the size of the Sun can produce a delay of about 10 microseconds in the arrival time of pulsar signals.



The observations made by Professor LoSecco's team boast resolutions on the order of nanoseconds - 10,000 times smaller.



This remarkable precision enables the detection of much smaller masses that could be candidates for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-does-not-exist-universe-27-billion-years-old-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter objects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-pulsar-paths-to-dark-matter">Following pulsar paths to dark matter</h2>



In summary, this important research provides tantalizing evidence of dark matter while holding vast implications for other areas of astrophysics. 



As a side effect, it improves the pulsar timing data sample, which is used to search for low-frequency gravitational radiation.



Dark matter objects add 'noise' to that data. By identifying and removing this noise, researchers can clean the samples of some variability, potentially improving the accuracy of searches for gravitational waves.



"The true nature of dark matter is a mystery," Professor LoSecco concluded. "This research sheds new light on the nature of dark matter and its distribution in the Milky Way and may also improve the accuracy of the precision pulsar data."



These findings invite us to ponder the broader implications of dark matter in our universe. As we continue to explore these cosmic mysteries, we stand on the brink of revolutionary discoveries that could reshape our understanding of the cosmos.



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Pulsars are helping astronomers pinpoint dark matter

In a compelling display of cosmic detective work, scientists have...

A team of researchers has recently captured unprecedented footage of an endangered basking shark being struck by a boat off the coast of Ireland in April. This incident provided unique data on the impact of ship strikes on large marine animals. 



“This is the first ever direct observation of a ship strike on any marine megafauna that we’re aware of,” said study lead author Taylor Chapple, a shark researcher at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> (OSU)'s Hatfield Marine Science Center. 



“The shark was struck while feeding on the surface of the water and it immediately swam to the seafloor into deeper, offshore waters, a stark contrast to its behavior prior to the strike. Our findings demonstrate the risk and impact of vessel strikes and the need for measures to reduce this risk.”



Unfortunately, researchers could not determine if the shark recovered, as the tag released itself seven hours later, showing no resumption of normal activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-issue-of-ship-strikes">Addressing the issue of ship strikes</h2>



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1430961/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>, highlights the importance of addressing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-whales-are-killed-by-ship-strikes-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vessel strikes</a>, which pose significant risks to marine life. 



“Overlap between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-megafauna-extinctions-will-compromise-critical-ecosystem-services/">marine megafauna</a> and maritime activities has long been, and is increasingly, a topic of concern, especially given the increase in maritime traffic and the continued declines of some species. It has been demonstrated that phenomena such as the formation of ‘marine roads’ (i.e., shipping routes) pose significant risk to large surface-active marine megafauna,” wrote the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basking-sharks-feeding-habits-nbsp">Basking sharks’ feeding habits&nbsp;</h2>



Basking sharks, the second-largest known fish, are particularly vulnerable due to their surface feeding habits, similar to some whales. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaws-of-most-shark-species-show-little-variation-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> are listed as globally endangered, and Ireland is a crucial aggregation site for them.



In 2022, basking sharks in Ireland gained protection under the country’s Wildlife Act. The establishment of Ireland’s first National Marine Park earlier this year, protecting 70,000 acres of land and sea in County Kerry, aims to safeguard these sharks.&nbsp;



Researchers conducted a study within the park's boundaries, tagging the basking shark to study its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nurse-sharks-have-surprisingly-flexible-foraging-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraging behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ship-strikes-have-lasting-impacts-nbsp">Ship strikes have lasting impacts&nbsp;</h2>



After tagging, data showed the shark continued normal feeding for several hours, occasionally diving, until it made a quick evasive movement followed by the keel of a boat cutting across its back.&nbsp;



The shark then swam rapidly to the seafloor. Video footage revealed visible damage but no open wounds. Vessel strikes, even if non-lethal, can have lasting impacts on marine animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerability-of-basking-sharks-nbsp">Vulnerability of basking sharks&nbsp;</h2>



Nicholas Payne, co-author and assistant professor at <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a>, stressed the vulnerability of basking sharks to boats due to their surface feeding behavior. 



“The fact that a shark we fitted our ‘Fitbit’ to was struck in this area within a few hours underlines just how vulnerable these animals are to boats and highlights the need for greater education in how to mitigate against such strikes.”&nbsp;



The incident underscores the need for greater education and measures to mitigate such strikes.



Further research is necessary to understand how often basking sharks occupy habitats where they are not visible at the surface.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-an-endangered-species-nbsp">Protecting an endangered species&nbsp;</h2>



Alexandra McInturf, a research associate in Chapple’s Big Fish Lab at OSU and co-coordinator of the <a href="https://www.baskingshark.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Irish Basking Shark Group</a>, emphasized the critical need to study basking shark behavior in Ireland, one of the few places globally where they are still observed regularly. 



“This research raises additional questions about whether and how often the sharks are actually occupying such habitats when they are not clearly visible at the surface,” said McInturf.



“Given that Ireland is one of the only locations globally where basking sharks are still observed persistently, addressing such questions will be critical to informing not only our ecological understanding of the basking shark, but also the conservation of this globally endangered species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-life-and-human-activities">Marine life and human activities</h2>



The incident highlights the pressing need for continued efforts to protect marine life from human activities and ensure the survival of endangered species like the basking shark.&nbsp;



The data gathered from this event provide crucial insights into the risks these animals face and underscore the necessity for protective measures to mitigate vessel strikes.&nbsp;



The findings also offer valuable information for future conservation strategies and reinforce the importance of ongoing research to better understand and protect marine megafauna.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Basking sharks are exceptionally vulnerable to ship strikes

A team of researchers has recently captured unprecedented footage of...

Forests may hold an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-timber-forest-products-provide-opportunities-to-reduce-poverty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overlooked solution</a> to food scarcity in low- and middle-income countries - one that also promotes sustainable practices and carbon capture. This solution, standing tall around us for centuries, has remained largely underexplored in this context. 



A recent research project has highlighted the potential of forests to drastically reduce&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carolina-azolla-plant-could-help-reduce-global-food-insecurity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food insecurity</a>, particularly in countries like Liberia.&nbsp;



In this West African nation, an impressive 84% drop in food insecurity was observed among households participating in forest-based activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liberia-a-case-study">Liberia: A case study</h2>



Liberia was the focus of the study, which was led by experts from the <a href="https://www.nd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Notre Dame</a> and <a href="https://www.fgcu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Gulf Coast University</a>. 



In collaboration with the Liberian government and the World Bank, the team conducted an extensive survey in 2019, collecting data from nearly 3,000 households living adjacent to forests across all 15 counties of Liberia.



The scientists discovered that when households reported engaging in forest-based activities like collecting and processing timber, hunting bushmeat or gathering edible plants, their food insecurity dropped dramatically. The study showed that these households experienced almost three fewer months of food insecurity per year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-for-food-security">Forests for food security</h2>



"Forests are a vital source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seed-systems-will-play-a-key-role-in-future-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a> for forest-adjacent households in Liberia," said Professor Daniel C. Miller from Notre Dame’s Keough School of Global Affairs. 



Unfortunately, food insecurity is severe in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. In Liberia, most rural households lack access to enough food for their daily caloric intake requirements throughout the year.



While the causes range from extreme weather events to political instability and poor agricultural productivity, the researchers argue that forests may prove more resilient to these stressors. 



They suggest that forests could become increasingly vital in countries like Liberia where forests make up nearly 69 percent of the country's land area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-an-essential-food-source">Forests: An essential food source</h2>



The study authors argue that the manifold contributions of forests are tragically understudied and undocumented. While forest resources can never substitute for large scale agriculture, they can serve as an essential food source, particularly in lean times.



The study involved strategies such as using forest-specific data obtained at the national level. The researchers believe that the same approach could be useful in other economically poor yet forest-rich countries in West Africa and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-development-and-well-being">Human development and well-being </h2>



Forests are not only beneficial for their climate and environmental benefits but also for their potential to support human development and well-being. This research further strengthens the argument that forests are invaluable resources.



Going forward, the researchers plan to explore how forest governance, particularly at the community level, can influence the benefits that can be accessed by people living near forest. 



The study findings could be useful for policymakers focused on forest management and conservation.



“The benefits that forests create for the citizens of a country are yet another reason why forests are worth managing well and conserving,” said Miller. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policy-implications-and-future-directions">Policy implications and future directions</h2>



The findings of this study have significant implications for policy development in forest-rich countries facing food insecurity.&nbsp;



Policymakers can leverage this data to create integrated strategies that not only focus on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/market-based-strategies-fall-short-on-forest-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest conservation</a>&nbsp;but also harness the potential of forests to alleviate food scarcity. By instituting community-level forest management programs, governments can ensure that local populations derive maximum benefits from forest resources while maintaining ecological balance.



Furthermore, international organizations and donors could support such initiatives by funding research and development programs that aim to understand the multifaceted benefits of forests. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The study advocates for a holistic approach to protect and sustainably manage forest resources. Forest conservation should be intertwined with human development goals to ensure that the benefits of forests are shared equitably among those most in need.



This integrated model could serve as a blueprint for other countries in the region and beyond. It demonstrates how natural resources can be utilized sustainably to foster development and well-being.



In conclusion, forests are more than just carbon sinks and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> hotspots; they are vital lifelines for millions of people. The integration of forest-based activities into national food security strategies could revolutionize the way we address hunger and malnutrition, providing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable</a> and resilient solution for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12571-024-01468-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Security</a>.



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Forests help reduce food insecurity in rural communities

Forests may hold an overlooked solution to food scarcity in...

The popularity of small electric vehicles, especially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/direct-evidence-electric-vehicles-measurably-reduce-carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e-scooters and e-bikes</a>, has skyrocketed over the past few years. These vehicles are no longer just interesting curiosities but are now woven into the fabric of urban transport, changing how we navigate our cities. However, with this rapid rise in electric vehicle use comes a surge in accidents.



The boom of these "micromobility" devices has led to a worrisome increase in injuries and hospitalizations, as discovered by researchers at the University of California, San Francisco (<a href="https://www.ucsf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSF</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accidents-with-electric-vehicles">Accidents with electric vehicles</h2>



The study was led by Dr. Adrian Fernandez, chief resident in the Department of Urology at UCSF. The team analyzed the injuries and hospitalizations from various small electric vehicles. The results reveal a pressing issue that needs to be addressed.



According to the analysis, e-bike injuries have doubled every year from 2017 to 2022, while e-scooter injuries have risen by 45 percent. The research suggest that e-riders are slightly older than traditional riders and use helmets less often.



Furthermore, e-scooter riders were more prone to internal injuries than traditional scooter riders. In contrast, non-electric vehicle riders were more likely to experience upper extremity injuries.



“The U.S. had a remarkable increase in micromobility injuries during the study period. This increase in accidents not only introduced a demographic shift but also underscores an urgency for added safety measures. We can't deny the health and environmental benefits of micromobility vehicle use, but we need to make structural adjustments to promote safe riding,” noted Dr. Fernandez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-cost-electric-vehicles">Low-cost electric vehicles</h2>



Micromobility has grown 50-fold in the last decade, especially in populated regions with the roll-out of electric-powered vehicles and ride-sharing platforms. 



These low-cost, green scooters and bikes zipping up to 28 miles an hour have become a convenient and affordable option, easing congestion and aiding riders to cover more distance with lesser effort. However, the study shows that these vehicles could be potentially dangerous, particularly for beginners.



For the investigation, the researchers analyzed data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission.



This system has been capturing statistics from emergency departments about consumer product-related injuries since 1978. The scientists examined various factors such as type of injury (blunt, orthopedic, neurological, dental); the injury region (head, neck, trunk, extremities); and helmet usage.



Following the crumb trail of data, the researchers discovered that e-bike injuries surged from 751 in 2017 to 23,493 in 2022. E-scooter injuries escalated from 8,566 to 56,847 in the same period. In total, close to 2.5 million bicycle injuries and 304,000 scooter injuries were recorded, including 45,586 e-bike injuries and 189,517 e-scooter injuries in the U.S.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-from-electric-vehicle-accidents">Injuries from electric vehicle accidents</h2>



It turns out, both traditional and electric bike and scooter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-system-detects-animals-on-roads-to-prevent-accidents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">injuries</a> were more common in urban areas compared to rural settings. 



Furthermore, electric bike and scooter riders were older and more prone to indulge in risky behaviors like riding without a helmet or while under the influence. Shockingly, the median age for injured e-scooter riders was 30 years, higher compared to just 11 years for conventional scooter riders.



“Our findings stress a worrying trend: helmet usage is conspicuously lower among electric vehicle users, and risky behaviors like riding under the influence are more common,” said study co-first author Kevin D. Li.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safety-challenges-of-micromobility-vehicles">Safety challenges of micromobility vehicles</h2>



To mitigate these escalating hazards, a multi-pronged response is vital. This includes building a better infrastructure to accommodate these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-car-batteries-may-soon-be-made-of-rock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compact vehicles</a>, educating people about the importance of helmet usage and sober riding. 



"Understanding and addressing the safety challenges posed by micromobility vehicles is critical as they become more embedded in our daily lives," noted study senior author Dr. Benjamin N. Breyer.



"This not only involves adapting our urban landscapes but also fostering a culture of safety among riders. By doing so, we can harness the full potential of micromobility to create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-is-electric-epa-sets-strictest-ever-vehicle-emission-rules/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more sustainable</a>, healthy, and safe urban environments."



So America, as we shift gears towards a greener future, let’s ensure this exciting ride is a safe one.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2821387" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Network Open</a>.



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Are small electric vehicles safe? Rising accident rates say no

The popularity of small electric vehicles, especially e-scooters and e-bikes,...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07592-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> has found that tree bark surfaces play a crucial role in removing methane gas from the atmosphere.



While scientists have long known that trees have an amazing capacity to sequester carbon dioxide, this research reveals an additional climate benefit: microbes within tree bark can absorb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-are-higher-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a>, a greenhouse gas more potent in the short term than CO2, from the atmosphere.



“Methane is an important greenhouse gas, but the role of trees in the methane budget remains uncertain,” noted the researchers. “Although it has been shown that wetland and some upland trees can emit soil-derived methane at the stem base, it has also been suggested that upland trees can serve as a net sink for atmospheric methane.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-are-more-beneficial-than-expected">Trees are more beneficial than expected</h2>



The international research team, led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>, has now provided clear evidence that microbes in bark or wood remove atmospheric methane on a scale comparable to or greater than that of soil. 



The scientists estimate that this newly discovered process makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> ten percent more beneficial for the climate overall than previously believed.



Methane is responsible for nearly 30 percent of global warming since pre-industrial times, and its emissions are currently increasing at an unprecedented rate.&nbsp;



Although atmospheric processes remove most methane, experts previously believed that soil bacteria which absorb and break down methane for energy are the only terrestrial methane sink. These new findings, though, unmistakably show that trees are equally or even more significant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-vital-climate-service-nbsp">A vital climate service&nbsp;</h2>



“The main ways in which we consider the contribution of trees to the environment is through absorbing carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, and storing it as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a>,” explained lead researcher Vincent Gauci, an expert in biogeochemistry at Birmingham. “These results, however, show a remarkable new way in which trees provide a vital climate service.”



The researchers studied upland tropical, temperate, and boreal forest trees. They measured methane exchange in tropical forests in the Amazon and Panama, temperate broadleaf trees in Wytham Woods, Oxfordshire, UK, and boreal coniferous forests in Sweden.&nbsp;



Methane absorption was strongest in tropical forests, likely due to the warm, wet conditions that favor microbial activity. On average, this newly discovered methane absorption adds approximately&nbsp; ten percent to the climate benefit provided by temperate and tropical trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-bark-and-methane-removal-nbsp">Tree bark and methane removal&nbsp;</h2>



By examining methane exchange between the atmosphere and tree bark at various heights, the researchers found that while trees might emit a small amount of methane at soil level, they consume methane from the atmosphere a few meters up.&nbsp;



Additionally, the team used laser scanning methods to quantify the global forest tree bark surface area. Preliminary calculations indicate that the global contribution of trees to methane removal is between 24.6-49.9 Tg (millions of tons) of methane. This discovery fills a significant gap in understanding global methane sources and sinks.



The tree shape analysis also shows that if all the bark of all the trees worldwide were laid flat, the area would be equal to the Earth's land surface.&nbsp;



“Tree woody surfaces add a third dimension to the way life on Earth interacts with the atmosphere, and this third dimension is teeming with life, and with surprises,” said co-author Yadvinder Malhi, a professor of ecosystem science at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Gauci and colleagues at Birmingham are now planning a new research program to determine if deforestation has led to increased atmospheric methane concentrations.&nbsp;



The experts also aim to learn more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> themselves, the mechanisms they use to absorb methane, and whether this atmospheric methane removal by trees can be enhanced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-role-of-tree-bark">Surprising role of tree bark</h2>



The implications of this research are profound, suggesting that trees not only help combat climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide but also by removing methane from the atmosphere.&nbsp;



This dual function underscores the importance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/market-based-strategies-fall-short-on-forest-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest conservation</a> and reforestation efforts. Planting more trees and protecting existing forests could play a significant role in mitigating climate change and enhancing global biodiversity.



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Tree bark removes methane from the atmosphere

A new study published in the journal Nature has found...

A 2022 study from the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a> suggested that blocking a molecule called caspase 11 could prevent severe COVID-19. This finding led to a $15 million <a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a> grant to investigate further, with a focus on long COVID. 



The original research demonstrated that inhibiting caspase 11 in mice reduced inflammation, tissue damage, and blood clots. The new NIH-funded study aims to explore how SARS-CoV-2 triggers caspase 11 and caspase 4 in humans, which are linked to severe COVID-19, and to develop treatments that could alleviate both acute infections and long COVID symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-long-covid-nbsp">Addressing long COVID&nbsp;</h2>



Amal Amer, a professor at Ohio State and the principal investigator of the grant, emphasized the need to understand the mechanism of caspase 11 in driving inflammation and clotting, particularly in the brain and lungs.&nbsp;



“Once you know the mechanism, then you can design what to target, where to target it and how to target it in order to reduce the damage being done,” he said. This understanding is crucial for addressing long COVID, which can affect various organs and lead to prolonged symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-caspase-11">Impact of caspase 11</h2>



The research will encompass three scientific projects and four core activities, involving experts from Ohio State, <a href="https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nationwide Children’s Hospital</a>, and the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>. Estelle Cormet-Boyaka, another principal investigator, will study the impact of caspase 11 on different cell types, particularly those in the lungs. 



“Having access to human primary epithelial cells is a strength because those are the cells that the virus infects first,” she noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virus-replication-and-severe-covid-19">Virus replication and severe COVID-19 </h2>



Jianrong Li, a virologist at Ohio State, will focus on how SARS-CoV-2 induces RNA modifications in host cells and will work on developing inhibitors to prevent these changes.&nbsp;



“The two major causes of death from COVID are the cytokine storm and uncontrolled virus replication,” Li explained. “If we inhibit both, that can lead to a better therapeutic approach.”



The team will also look into caspase 11 inhibitors and RNA modification blockers to reduce virus replication, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-impacts-the-brain-through-inflammation-not-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inflammation</a>, and clotting. Professor Amer mentioned the importance of minimizing side effects when designing these inhibitors. 



“When you inhibit caspase 11, you get rid of many cytokines, which damage the lung tissue and the blood-brain barrier and brain tissue,” said Professor Amer. Combining these inhibitors with strategies to stop viral replication could be highly effective in treating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19s-impact-on-life-expectancy-is-worse-than-anticipated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> and long COVID.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-the-virus-from-different-angles-nbsp">Tackling the virus from different angles&nbsp;</h2>



The multidisciplinary approach of this research program aims to accelerate the pace of discovery. Prosper Boyaka, chair of veterinary biosciences at Ohio State, highlighted the benefits of simultaneous studies on different aspects of the disease.&nbsp;



“Having a team like this one allows us to look at those interactions and processes at the same time by experts in different fields, which makes it more likely we will capture information that would be difficult to capture otherwise,” explained Boyaka.



Xiaoli Zhang, an associate professor in the Department of Biomedical Informatics at Ohio State, will oversee bioinformatics and statistical analysis. Her expertise will ensure the robustness of the research findings.&nbsp;



Professor Amer pointed out that the program grant is highly competitive, and their successful application reflects the team's proven track record of collaboration and significant research contributions.&nbsp;



“Being at Ohio State, we have people specializing in everything we needed for this grant, and we provided a huge list of publications going back ten years showing we have continuously worked together and published together on cutting-edge science,” said Professor Amer. “And the NIH was convinced that this group is the one that can do this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeted-therapies-to-prevent-severe-covid-19">Targeted therapies to prevent severe COVID-19 </h2>



The potential impact of this research is vast. By understanding the specific roles of caspase 11 and caspase 4 in SARS-CoV-2 infections, the team aims to develop targeted therapies that can prevent severe illness and long-term complications.&nbsp;



The combination of blocking caspase 11 to reduce inflammation and stopping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-compounds-in-muscadine-grapes-block-coronavirus-replication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viral replication</a> could offer a comprehensive approach to treating COVID-19 and long COVID, addressing both immediate and chronic effects of the virus.



Moreover, the insights gained from this research could extend beyond COVID-19. Understanding the mechanisms of inflammation and clotting in viral infections could inform treatments for other diseases with similar pathological features.&nbsp;



The collaborative efforts of experts in various fields, from virology to immunology to bioinformatics, will ensure a thorough exploration of these complex processes and the development of effective interventions.



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Identifying new targets to prevent severe COVID-19 

A 2022 study from the Ohio State University suggested that...

In the silent depths beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet, submarine canyons are silently playing a massive part in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-melting-new-tipping-point-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice sheet's instability</a>. 



A captivating new study casts these underwater formations in the role of critical conduits, channeling relatively warm Circumpolar Deep Water up from yawning abyssal depths to the continental shelf. This warmer water then trails to the base of the ice sheet, contributing to its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-natural-process-is-making-antarcticas-ice-melt-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slow but steady melting</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-submarine-canyons-and-antarctic-glaciers">Submarine canyons and Antarctic glaciers</h2>



The extensive research, led by the National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics (<a href="https://www.ogs.it/it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OGS</a>), including experts from the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a>, shines a spotlight on sedimentary bodies within these canyon systems.



These bodies bear the geological traces of persistent bottom currents coursing along these canyons, carrying the ocean's heat like a silent, creeping courier to the Antarctic landmass.



“The intrusion of relatively warm water onto the continental shelf is widely recognised as a threat to the Antarctic ice sheet,” said study lead author Federica Donda, a marine geologist in the OGS Geophysics Department.



“Our endeavor to constrain the extent and long-term persistence of this phenomenon is crucial in deciphering potential responses of the ice sheet to global warming.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-totten-and-ninnis-glaciers">Totten and Ninnis glaciers</h2>



The team's dedication drew them to Totten and Ninnis glaciers, the gatekeepers to the two most significant subglacial features in East Antarctica: Aurora-Sabrina and Wilkes sub-glacial basins.



A goldmine of discovery awaited the team. Their rigorous analysis unearthed dome-shaped sedimentary bodies (or sediment drifts) spanning several thousand meters wide and measuring 40 to 80 meters thick. 



The properties of these bodies strongly suggest they were sculpted by bottom currents streaming towards the continental shelf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-through-the-submarine-canyons">Water through the submarine canyons</h2>



Recent data collected from one of the canyons flowing off Totten Glacier reported currents of about 10 cm/s near the seafloor, a startling discovery at a depth of about 3,500 meters. 



This current is part of an oceanic circulation characterized by large cyclonic eddies transporting different water masses, including the warm waters of the Circumpolar Deep Water. A portion of these eddies find their way southward through these canyons, paving easy routes to transport these warmer water masses toward the continent.



“This thickness of the sedimentary bodies identified within the canyons is an indirect testament to the continuation of oceanic heat transfer for at least the past one million years,” noted Donda.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-of-east-antarctic-glaciers">Melting of East Antarctic glaciers</h2>



“Until a few years ago we thought that the East Antarctic Ice Sheet was stable. But the evidence today doesn't just reveal that some East Antarctic glaciers are melting," said Dr. Alessandro Silvano from the University of Southampton. 



"We have crucial new insights that there are preferred pathways for warm waters to constantly reach two of the largest glaciers on Earth and melt them from below.”



The East Antarctic ice sheet has recently started piquing the interest of the scientific world, because even a partial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-low-antarctic-sea-ice-and-rapid-melting-pace-stuns-climate-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting of this ice giant</a> could drive a significant rise in sea level. 



To put this in perspective, the Aurora-Sabrina and Wilkes sub-glacial basins alone bear the equivalent of over 8 meters of global mean sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-sea-level-rise">Implications for global sea level rise</h2>



The repercussions of these findings stretch far beyond the icy realms of Antarctica. As the warmer water continues its journey beneath the ice, the gradual melting of glaciers poses a looming threat to global sea levels. 



Scientists are increasingly concerned that even a moderate increase in melting could displace millions of people in coastal regions worldwide. 



Understanding the dynamics of submarine canyons and their influence on ice sheet stability is vital for modeling future sea-level scenarios and preparing for inevitable environmental changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-research">Next steps in research</h2>



The research team underscores the importance of ongoing exploration of Antarctic submarine canyons, advocating for further studies that will enhance our understanding of the region's complex interactions between the ocean and the ice sheet. 



Implementing advanced technologies, such as autonomous underwater vehicles and high-resolution sonar mapping, will allow researchers to gather more precise data on ocean currents and temperature variations. 



By unveiling more about these critical areas, scientists hope to develop strategies to mitigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-days-getting-longer-rotation-slows-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts of climate change</a> and better predict the future of Earth's ice-covered regions.



The findings of this research elevate submarine canyons to a key position in understanding the mechanisms tied to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-shelves-are-fracturing-from-meltwater-weight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice sheet's melting</a>, both in the past and at present. Consequently, this understanding boosts our ability to predict future sea level rise.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50160-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Stability of Antarctica is threatened by submarine canyons

In the silent depths beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet, submarine...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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