Scenery,Of,The,Ice,Floe,Area,Of,The,Arctic,Ocean,

For years, climate scientists have struggled to explain the warming of the Arctic and why it is heating up three to four times faster than the planet as a whole. 



Traditional climate models capture some of that “Arctic amplification,” but they still fall short of the temperature spikes involving clouds which have been recorded in recent decades.



A new study from Kyushu University points the finger at an unlikely culprit: mixed-phase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-and-arctic-ice-clouds-an-unexpected-connection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clouds</a> that behave like a thermal blanket during the polar night, trapping more heat than most models assume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-arctic-s-thermal-blanket-matters"><a></a>Why the Arctic’s thermal blanket matters</h2>



Mixed-phase clouds - low-lying decks that contain both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-dust-plays-a-hidden-role-in-accelerating-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice crystals</a> and supercooled liquid droplets - dominate Arctic skies. 



In summer, when the sun never sets, they act like a parasol, reflecting incoming sunlight back into space and slowing surface warming.



In winter, when sunlight fades for weeks, those same clouds flip their role. With no solar rays to reflect, they trap long-wave radiation emitted by the ice and ocean below and reradiate it downward, warming the surface.



“However, how well these mixed-phase clouds trap heat depends on their ratio of ice to liquid,” explained lead author Momoka Nakanishi, a graduate researcher at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a>.



“The more liquid water the clouds contain, the better they are at trapping heat. But many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a> have a large bias in representing this ratio, causing incorrect predictions.”



Nakanishi and her adviser, associate professor Takuro Michibata of Kyushu University’s Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, suspected that inaccurate cloud physics might be hiding a large chunk of the Arctic’s missing heat.



To test the idea, they examined 30 leading climate models and compared their simulated wintertime cloud properties with a decade of satellite observations over the polar seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-heavy-models-miss-today-s-heat"><a></a>Ice-heavy models miss today’s heat</h2>



The comparison yielded a stark result: 21 of the 30 models over-predicted the proportion of ice crystals relative to liquid droplets in Arctic winter clouds. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-class-of-ice-called-ice-0/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice-heavy clouds</a> emit less infrared radiation back to the surface than liquid-rich ones, so models with too much ice systematically underestimate the present-day greenhouse effect of clouds.



“These ice-dominant models are not properly accounting for the present-day warming potential of the clouds during the winter. That’s why they cannot account for the rapid warming we are currently seeing,” Nakanishi said.



By adjusting the models to match observed ice-to-liquid ratios, the researchers closed much of the gap between simulated and observed warming. 



The finding suggests that fine-scale cloud microphysics - droplet nucleation, crystal growth, and the freezing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-beauty-revealed-in-ice-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-cooled water</a> - hold outsized influence over regional climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-arctic-clouds-on-the-ceiling">Warming Arctic: Clouds on the ceiling</h2>



Paradoxically, the same modeling error means many simulations may overstate future warming. In a warmer Arctic, mixed-phase clouds naturally shift toward higher liquid content, enhancing their heat-trapping ability in a mechanism known as cloud emissivity feedback.



But there is a ceiling: once a cloud becomes mostly liquid, it behaves like a near-perfect blackbody, fully absorbing and re-emitting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcare-reveals-the-power-of-clouds-and-aerosols/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermal radiation</a>. Beyond that point, additional warming does not greatly increase its greenhouse effect.



Many of the surveyed models, because they start out too icy, anticipate a larger future shift toward liquid content than observations justify. 



They therefore project a stronger, longer-lasting emissivity feedback and exaggerate the Arctic’s eventual temperature rise. Correcting present-day biases narrows that projection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-climate-prediction"><a></a>Implications for global climate prediction</h2>



Cloud processes remain one of the largest uncertainties in climate science. “The biggest uncertainty in our forecasts is due to clouds,” Michibata said. 



“Fixing these models is essential not just for the Arctic, but for understanding its impact on weather and climate change across the globe.”



The stakes extend well beyond the high latitudes. A warmer Arctic can warp the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet stream</a>, influencing extreme weather events in North America, Europe, and Asia - involving much more than clouds.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-alters-the-color-of-ocean-light-and-life-struggles-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea-ice losses</a> accelerate, opening shipping routes but also exposing darker ocean water that absorbs more heat. 



Permafrost thaws, releasing carbon and methane that further amplify warming. Getting cloud physics right will sharpen projections for all these knock-on effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cloud-radar-helps-prevent-arctic-warming">Cloud radar helps prevent Arctic warming</h2>



The team drew on satellite data from NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/cloudsat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CloudSat</a> and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/calipso/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CALIPSO</a> missions, which use radar and lidar to distinguish ice and liquid layers inside clouds.



They then compared these observations with outputs from models participating in the <a href="https://wcrp-cmip.org/cmip-phases/cmip6/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6</a> (CMIP6), the same ensemble that informs the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> reports.



By ranking models according to their liquid-fraction bias, the researchers could quantify how that bias translated into temperature error.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-toward-better-microphysics"><a></a>Next steps: Toward better microphysics</h2>



Fixing the problem will require both new observations and refined parameterizations of microphysical processes inside model grid cells.



Small-scale experiments using aircraft and ground-based lidar could reveal how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, humidity, and temperature cooperate to keep droplets liquid at −20 °C or colder - a common state in the Arctic. 



Incorporating those insights into global models could, in turn, tighten projections for mid-latitude storm tracks and even tropical rainfall.



For now, the study delivers a clear message: the Arctic’s runaway warming cannot be understood - or slowed - without an accurate account of what happens inside its low, grey winter clouds. Addressing that microscopic uncertainty could make a macroscopic difference for the entire planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0089" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</a>.



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Clouds also fuel Arctic warming, not just carbon emissions

For years, climate scientists have struggled to explain the warming of the Arctic and why it is heating up three to four times faster than the planet as a whole. Traditional climate models capture some of that “Arctic amplification,” but they still fall short of the temperature spikes involving clouds which have been recorded in recent decades. A new study from Kyushu University points the finger at an unlikely culprit: mixed-phase clouds that behave like a thermal blanket during the polar night, trapping more heat than most...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clouds-have-an-amplifying-effect-on-global-warming/">Clouds</a> come in a large variety of shapes, sizes, and types. All of these features control the effect they have on the climate. For instance, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> (UW) has found that splintering of frozen liquid droplets to form ice shards inside Antarctic clouds dramatically affect these clouds’ ability to reflect sunlight back into the atmosphere, leading to a substantial warming of the Southern Ocean.



“Southern Ocean low clouds shouldn’t be treated as liquid clouds,” said study lead author&nbsp;Rachel Atlas, a doctoral student in Atmospheric Sciences at UW. “Ice formation in Southern Ocean low clouds has a substantial effect on the cloud properties and needs to be accounted for in global models.”



Atlas and her colleagues used observations from a <a href="https://www.washington.edu/news/2018/02/05/uw-atmospheric-scientists-flying-through-clouds-above-antarcticas-southern-ocean/">2018 field campaign</a> focused on an in-depth investigation of Southern Ocean clouds, as well as data collected by NASA’s CERES satellite and the Japanese satellite Himawari-8.&nbsp;



Their analyses revealed that the peculiar nature of Antarctic clouds has a strong impact on the Southern Ocean and climate in general. Since ice particles form, grow, and fall out of the clouds very efficiently, the clouds’ coverage and reflectance are significantly reduced, allowing more sunlight to reach the waters.&nbsp;



“The ice crystals deplete much of the thinner cloud entirely, therefore reducing the horizontal coverage. Ice crystals also deplete some of the liquid in the thick cores of the cloud. So the ice particles both reduce the cloud cover and dim the remaining cloud,” Atlas explained.



Since in February – which is summer in the Southern Ocean – approximately 90 percent of the sky is covered with clouds, and at least 25 percent of these clouds are affected by the type of ice formation that decreases their reflectance, a massive amount of solar radiation can reach the ocean, substantially warming its upper layers.



“The Southern Ocean is a massive global heat sink, but its ability to take heat from the atmosphere depends on the temperature structure of the upper ocean, which relates to the cloud cover,” Atlas concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021AV000454">AGU Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ice shards in Antarctic clouds heat up the Southern Ocean

Clouds come in a large variety of shapes, sizes, and...

Species of living organisms are often given scientific names that honor famous people, such as the frog Rhinoderma darwinii, or that reflect where the species is found, as in the southern African wild rosemary, Eriocephalus africanus. One particular species of flowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-force-the-plants-they-infect-to-feed-them/">plant</a>, discovered in the foothills of the Andes Mountains in the mid-1980s, was given a name that foretold of its destiny, or so the scientists thought.&nbsp;



Gasteranthus extinctus is a species of tropical wildflower found only in moist montane forests in Ecuador, South America. It belongs to the family Gesneriaceae, along with other species that have showy flowers, such as the African violet. The generic name, Gasteranthus is Greek for “belly flower” – the beautiful, orange flowers have petals that form a small, stomach-shaped lobe with an opening at the top where pollinators, such as hummingbirds, can obtain nectar.&nbsp;



The plant’s specific name, extinctus, was chosen by the scientists when the plant was discovered because they predicted that this new species would be extinct by the time it was officially described and named. Its distribution was limited to moist montane forest along the Centinela Ridge in Ecuador, a region that is notorious among biologists because the cloud forests there were almost completely destroyed by intensive deforestation in the 1980s. The unique plants that inhabited these forests vanished along with their habitat, or so the scientists thought.&nbsp;



In 2000, G. extinctus was officially named and described to science, by which time the cloud forest habitats along the Centinela Ridge had long since been destroyed. The late biologist E. O. Wilson even coined the term “Centinelan extinction” to describe species that went extinct almost overnight as their habitat was destroyed.&nbsp;



Because of the deforestation in the Centinela, few botanists undertook field trips to the area to confirm that this was indeed the case for G. extinctus. Now, in a paper published today in&nbsp;the journal <a href="https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/">PhytoKeys</a>, researchers report the first confirmed sightings of&nbsp;this beautiful, forest-floor inhabitant in 40 years.



“Extinctus&nbsp;was given its striking name in light of the extensive deforestation in western Ecuador,” says Dawson White, a postdoctoral researcher at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and co-lead author of the paper. “But if you claim something's gone, then no one is really going to go out and look for it anymore. There are a lot of important species that are still out there, even though overall, we're in this age of extinction.”



The story of Centinela also drew attention to the fact that over 97% of the forests in the western half of Ecuador have been felled and converted to farmlands. What remains is a fragmented mosaic of tiny islands of forest within a sea of bananas and a handful of other crops.



“Centinela is a mythical place for tropical botanists,” says Pitman. “But because it was described by the top people in the field, no one really double-checked the science. No one went back to confirm that the forest was gone and those things were extinct.”



Since 2009, a few scientists have undertaken expeditions to look for&nbsp;G. extinctus&nbsp;but they were unsuccessful. When White and Pitman received funding from the Field Museum’s Women’s Board to visit the Centinela Ridge, they jumped at the opportunity and began to plan a research trip. They searched through satellite images of the area, trying to identify patches of primary rainforest that were still intact. They found a few possibilities and then put together a team of ten botanists from six different institutions in Ecuador, the US, and France. In November of 2021, they arrived at Centinela.



“It was my first time planning an expedition where we weren’t sure we’d even enter a forest,” says Pitman. “But as soon as we got on the ground we found remnants of intact cloud forest, and we spotted&nbsp;G. extinctus&nbsp;on the first day, within the first couple hours of searching. We didn’t have a photo to compare it to, we only had images of dried herbarium specimens, a line drawing, and a written description, but we were pretty sure that we’d found it based on its poky little hairs and showy “pot-bellied” flowers.”



Pitman recalls mixed emotions upon the team’s finding the flower. “We were really excited, but really tentative in our excitement – we thought, ‘Was it really that easy?’” he says. “We knew we needed to check with a specialist.”



They sent photographs of the flamboyant orange flowers, to taxonomic expert John Clark and he confirmed that these were indeed the flowers of G. extinctus, which was clearly not so extinct any more. Samples of fallen flowers were taken for the museum collection, and some leaves were collected for DNA analysis. The researchers located many of these rare plants nestling on the forest floor, as they visited other forest fragments along the Centinela.&nbsp;



“We walked into Centinela thinking it was going to break our heart, and instead we ended up falling in love,” says Pitman. “Finding&nbsp;G. extinctus&nbsp;was great, but what we’re even more excited about is finding some spectacular forest in a place where scientists had feared everything was gone.”



The team is now working with Ecuadorian conservationists to protect some of the remaining fragments where&nbsp;G. extinctus&nbsp;and the rest of the spectacular Centinelan flora lives on.



“Rediscovering this flower shows that it’s not too late to turn around even the worst-case biodiversity scenarios, and it shows that there’s value in conserving even the smallest, most degraded areas,” says White. “It’s an important piece of evidence that it’s not too late to be exploring and inventorying plants and animals in the heavily degraded forests of western Ecuador. New species are still being found, and we can still save many things that are on the brink of extinction.”



The name, extinctus, will not be changed, says Pitman; it will remain as a warning that, when habitats are destroyed, the species endemic to those habitats remain rare and endangered, even if they do not end up becoming extinct.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Photo by Riley Fortier



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

“Extinctus” wildflower is alive and well, but remains endangered

Species of living organisms are often given scientific names that...

Climate change is driving up temperatures and causing more frequent heatwaves in the American Midwest. However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a>, growing one particular type of perennial grass – the giant miscanthus – could cut Midwest warming by one degree Celsius. These findings offer new insights into nature-based mitigation strategies for climate change, and could have a significant impact on environmental conservation, agricultural sustainability, and food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-grass-could-protect-crops-against-deadly-pathogens/">crop</a> and energy production.   



The giant miscanthus grows up to ten feet tall, and has wide bamboo-like stems and green leaves, creating a large canopy that could help lowering regional summer temperatures, while increasing humidity, rainfall, and overall crop productivity. This plant is noninvasive, water-efficient, requires little fertilizer, and can grow on marginal land, or land with little or no agricultural or industrial value due to poor soil conditions. Thus, the Midwest heartland - known for its large amount of marginal land that often goes unused - could offer the perfect conditions for the cultivation of this grass.



“Growing perennial grasses on marginal land not only can reduce soil erosion, restore carbon stocks, and provide feedstocks for biofuels and bioproducts, but can also be an effective mitigation strategy to contain regional climate change, preventing the U.S. agricultural heartland from the warming-and-drying trend currently projected,” said study co-author Xin-Zhong Liang, an environmental scientist at the University of Maryland.



By pairing a dynamic crop growth model with a regional climate model, Dr. Liang and his colleagues have found that the giant miscanthus has the potential not only to cool the land, but also to increase summer precipitation by 14 to 15 percent. While the temperature declines will be greatest in regions with the most miscanthus, the changes in precipitations could occur even hundreds of miles beyond, due to atmospheric circulation.



“Global temperatures will continue to rise due to climate change, even if we are able to curb greenhouse gas emissions and develop new technologies for carbon removal,” said Laura Lautz, a program director in the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=ear">Division of Earth Sciences</a> of the National Science Foundation (an organization which funded the current study). “This research adds to our toolbox of strategies to minimize the impacts of future warming, increase food security, and improve the resilience of agricultural systems.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcbb.12937">GCB-Bioenergy</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Growing perennial grasses could help curb climate change

Climate change is driving up temperatures and causing more frequent...

Coral reefs are the "canaries in the coal mine" of climate change. They can sense when ecosystems are under stress from rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-new-rna-viruses-identified-in-ocean-waters/">ocean</a> temperatures and warn us when to act. Coral reef ecosystems around the world provide key services to many ocean species. They also provide a source of food and cultural heritage for half a billion people.



An international team of scientists has published a series of recommendations to protect, conserve and better understand coral reefs. The group, known as the <a href="https://www.bloomberg.org/environment/protecting-the-oceans/vibrant-oceans/coral-conservation/">Vibrant Oceans Initiative</a>, presented their findings at the <a href="https://ourocean2022.pw/">Our Oceans Conference</a>.



Forecasts show that coral reefs are likely to become functionally degraded by 2050, if the goals of the Paris Agreement are not met. Even with drastic emission reductions, up to 90 percent of the world’s corals could still vanish in the next three decades.



“Our research has shown that coral reefs have been severely impacted by ocean warming in the past three to four decades, yet some reef locations show lower rates of warming or benefit from mitigating circumstances due to local oceanography," said study co-author Professor Jens Zinke of the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/">University of Leicester</a>.



“Some reefs have the ability to resist or recover from thermal stress faster than others, and these reefs may serve as sanctuaries under future warming. This is a major new research direction – to find those locations and protect them before they are gone."



In 2018, the Vibrant Oceans group <a href="https://www.50reefs.org/map">identified 50 reefs</a> that are most likely to survive climate change. These reefs are located in the Pacific and Indian oceans, the Caribbean and east of Africa.



Drawing on expertise from universities and conservation groups, six recommendations were developed to promote the ‘persistence and survival’ of coral reefs. These recommendations are presented in the paper <a href="https://wcs.org/coral-science-whitepaper">Forecasting Climate Sanctuaries for Securing the Future of Coral Reefs</a>, and include:



<ol><li>Continuation of the 50 Reefs approach as ‘climate change avoidance sanctuaries’ as a priority for investment in coral reef conservation.</li><li>Expansion of the 50 Reefs conservation portfolio for climate change to include coral resistance and recovery sanctuaries.</li><li>Increase in support for regional evaluations of the health of the 50 Reefs portfolio, and sustainable financing initiatives to support the implementation of regional portfolios.</li><li>Catalyzing large-scale, data-driven coral reef monitoring efforts to test and develop new models and predictions of climate sanctuaries.</li><li>Use of the latest climate coral reef science to guide investments, especially as the impacts of climate change accelerate and produce novel environmental stresses and responses among reefs.</li><li>Embracing a far-reaching approach to the management of 50 Reefs sites, including connections to broader seascapes, fisheries and water quality management, mitigation of other pressures (for example, industrial development), so that effective and equitable management has measurable benefits for coral reefs and coastal communities.</li></ol>



The potential for conservation provides the research team with hope for adaptation and persistence of coral reefs that are experiencing unprecedented rapid change.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The paper is available from the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS).



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Without action, coral reefs could disappear in the next three decades

Coral reefs are the "canaries in the coal mine" of...

Starting April 17, 2022, Saturn, Mars, Venus, and Jupiter will appear diagonally aligned in the pre-dawn sky, offering viewers a rare celestial spectacle. While in the northern hemisphere, the planets will be most visible in the south-east on the early morning of April 20, close to the rising sun, in the southern hemisphere they will be visible further east and at a steeper angle. Previously, these four planets aligned in 2005, 2016, and 2020.&nbsp;



“Sunrise will creep ever earlier as the days progress, so it is best to view this alignment sooner rather than later,” advised Jake Forster, an astronomy education officer at the Royal Museums Greenwich. “The tricky part will be catching the planets in the relatively short space of time between when they rise above the horizon and when the Sun follows after them. This allows us a window of time between 5 and 6am BST most mornings from April 20 onwards to view the planets in a neat line across the sky.”&nbsp;



The planets will be easy to spot with the naked eye, and can be distinguished by variations in color and brightness. “Venus will be noticeably the brightest of all four planets, shining a bright white light. Jupiter will be the second brightest, also shining white in color. Saturn will be clearly fainter than the other three, due to its much further distance from the Sun. Mars will have the most distinctive difference from the others because of its coloration, appearing as a bright orange point of light to the naked eye,” explained Forster.



Although the planets will appear to be close to one another when observed from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-emerged-on-earth-earlier-than-previously-thought/">Earth</a>, they are in fact millions of miles apart during an alignment. Moreover, according to Christopher S. Baird, an assistant professor of Physics at <a href="https://www.wtamu.edu/">West Texas A&amp;M University</a>, planetary alignment strongly depends on our viewpoint, and is thus not something fundamental about the planets themselves. In fact, planets never line up perfectly in a straight line.



“If you look at a two-dimensional plot of the planets and their orbits on a piece of paper you may be led to believe that all the planets will circle around to the same line eventually. In reality, the planets do not all orbit perfectly in the same plane. Instead, they swing about on different orbits in three-dimensional space. For this reason, they will never be perfectly aligned,” explained Professor Baird.



Nonetheless, until the end of April, people from all over the world can enjoy&nbsp;this rare and beautiful astronomical event, in preparation for an even more spectacular alignment that will occur on June 24, when all the other planets in our solar system (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) will align in the same region of the pre-dawn sky.&nbsp; &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

April’s night sky is set for a spectacular planetary alignment

Starting April 17, 2022, Saturn, Mars, Venus, and Jupiter will...

The seafloor seems to be getting sluggish, according to a new study published by the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a> (AGU). The researchers analyzed the last 19 million years of seafloor spreading rates and discovered a slowing trend.



In a process that is driven by plate tectonics, new oceanic crust continuously develops along rifts that are thousands of miles long on the seafloor.&nbsp;



As subduction destroys the old crust, new rifts open up and draw hot crust toward the surface. Once here, the crust cools and gets pushed away from the rift as it is replaced by hotter crust.



This continuous cycle, which is known as seafloor spreading, influences major planetary processes such as the carbon cycle and sea level rise. Higher rates of seafloor spreading are associated with more volcanic activity, including the release of greenhouse gases. It is important to understand this rate in order to predict how it may impact Earth's atmosphere.



"The question of whether the speeds of tectonic plates vary over time is controversial but has big-picture implications for our understanding of the forces inside the Earth that drive the plates, the role of volcanoes in controlling climate change over millions of years, and the rise and fall of sea level," explained the researchers.



According to the study, spreading rates today top out at around 140 millimeters per year, but peaked at around 200 millimeters per year just 15 million years ago in some places.



The researchers say it is a complex problem to solve, made more difficult by the seafloor’s slow and steady self-destruction.



“We know more about the surfaces of some other planets than we do our own seafloor,” said Colleen Dalton, a geophysicist at Brown University who led the new study. “One of the challenges is the lack of perfect preservation. The seafloor is destroyed, so we’re left with an incomplete record.”



Dalton and her colleagues analyzed magnetic records for 18 of the world’s largest spreading ridges to calculate how much ocean crust each ridge has produced over the last 19 million years. Some of the ridges had lengthened, some had shrunk, but almost all of them had slowed down.&nbsp;



Overall, the average rate of seafloor spreading was found to be reduced by up to 40 percent. The researchers say that the slower rates may be driven by subduction zones rather than spreading ridges.



“Think of it as increased friction between the two colliding tectonic plates,” said Dalton. “A slowdown in convergence there could ultimately cause a slowdown in spreading at nearby ridges.”  



However, Dalton pointed out, this added friction could not be the only driver of the slowdown, because she found slowing rates globally and mountain growth is regional. This means that larger-scale processes may also be playing a role. In all likelihood, she said, it’s a combination of both.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seafloor spreading has slowed down worldwide

The seafloor seems to be getting sluggish, according to a...

Scientists now have a more accurate method to measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-cause-stingrays-to-move-toward-danger/">climate change</a> thanks to a group of researchers who have discovered a way to include additional information about tropical deforestation in climate models.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Using computer simulations is a popular way for climate researchers to estimate what the planet will look like as our Earth warms. However, to get the most accurate predictions, scientists must be able to include numerous factors.&nbsp;



Some of these factors include the extent that sunlight will warm the planet and how the forests will respond to hotter, drier conditions. The more details they can include, the more reliable a climate model becomes.&nbsp;



One factor that has been difficult to incorporate is how deforestation in tropical rainforests, including the Amazon and the Congo, will affect climate change.



Led by scientists from the University of California, Irvine, the research team was able to calculate the current impact of tropical rainforest deforestation by using models already in place. Then, they looked at satellite images of forest biomass to gauge how nearby forest communities responded to deforestation. The results may not surprise you.&nbsp;



“This paper shows that avoiding deforestation yields carbon benefits in nearby regions as a consequence of climate feedbacks," explained Jim Randerson, UCI professor of Earth System Science.



According to the researchers, when a single patch of the Amazon rainforest is cleared, there is an additional 5.1 percent loss of biomass in the entire Amazon basin. In the Congo, the additional loss is 3.8 percent.&nbsp;



Study co-author Professor Paulo Brando explained why this happens: “Deforestation has ramifications to forests growing elsewhere, because its consequences to the region’s air temperature and precipitation.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Now that researchers have uncovered the wide-ranging negative ramifications of tropical deforestation, climate scientists hope that policymakers will be able to make stronger arguments for why it’s best to avoid deforestation. At the very least, climate scientists now have another tool to help them create more effective solutions to fight global climate change.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation causes biomass loss beyond directly affected areas

Scientists now have a more accurate method to measure climate...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/">University of Melbourne</a> in Australia and the <a href="https://www.iea.org/">International Energy Agency</a> in France, there is only a 10 percent chance of limiting global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels (the aim initially set at the Paris Agreement in 2015). However, the pledges made at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cop26-deal-failure-or-historic-achievement/">COP26</a> climate summit from 2021 to keep warming below 2°C may still be feasible, “if all conditional and unconditional pledges are implemented in full and on time,” as the experts who conducted the study put it.



The scientists analyzed inventory data and climate targets of 196 countries from the time of the Paris Agreement to the COP26 summit, and used computer modelling to predict various climate change scenarios. They found that, although it will be nearly impossible to reach the climate change mitigation targets set at the Paris Agreement, global warming could still be kept at a reasonable value (between 1.9°C and 2°C) if nations stick to the promises that they made last year in Glasgow.



“Our results provide a reason to be optimistic: warming could be limited to 2°C or just below, if the pledges on the table are implemented in full and on time,” wrote the study authors. “Peaking of global greenhouse gas emissions could be achieved this decade. But our results also provide a sobering assessment of how far current pledges are from limiting warming to 1.5°C. Commitments made so far, especially for this decade, fall far short of what is required to limit temperature rise to 1.5°C.”&nbsp;



The researchers argued that countries with net-zero targets should attempt to bring their net-zero dates forward or even aim for net-negative targets.&nbsp;Any delays in reversing the upward trend of greenhouse emissions, phasing out the widespread use of fossil fuels, and developing sustainable options could lead to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ipcc-report-can-we-save-the-planet-from-climate-catastrophe/">climate catastrophe</a> in the near future.



As environmental scientists Zeke Hausfather and Frances Moore concluded in an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00874-1">accompanying commentary</a>, “long-term targets should be treated with skepticism if they are not supported by short-term commitments to put countries on a pathway in the next decade to meet those targets.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04553-z">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Limiting global warming to 1.5°C is out of reach

According to a new study led by the University of...

Modern, industrial agriculture is dependent upon fertilizers - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-in-plastic-packaging-contribute-to-weight-gain/">chemicals</a> often sprayed on fields with abandon. As important as fertilizers are to our way of life, you may not suspect that phosphorus, the main ingredient, is running out; yet it is.&nbsp;



Phosphorus for fertilizer is mined from rocks. It is applied as part of fertilizers to fields then washes out, eventually being buried deep in the ocean. Once fertilizer is washed away, it is not recovered and the finite resource is being used up.&nbsp;



In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/science-of-the-total-environment">Science of the Total Environment</a>, wildlife is raised as a possible solution to dwindling levels of phosphorus. The study authors include Dr. Andrew Abraham, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://nau.edu/">Northern Arizona University</a>, and Chris Doughty, associate professor of Ecoinformatics.



“In the past, animals such as whales, sea birds, fish and bears played a key role in returning phosphorus from ocean depths back onto land," said Dr. Abraham.



"In doing so, they collectively retained this nutrient in the biosphere, supporting a more fertile planet. Today, however, species extinctions, diminished population abundances and the erection of fences and dams have reduced this nutrient transport service by more than 90 percent.”



With wildlife populations shredded and animal mobility diminished by human structures, the main movement of phosphorus is by humans. We tend to be incredibly inefficient with our use of this nutrient, losing much of it to the ocean.&nbsp;



“Through our research, we were able to show that historically, wild animals transported a large amount of phosphorus that is on par with other important flows such as dust deposition and wildfires," said Dr. Abraham.



"Importantly though, wildlife can return phosphorus back to the land. By restoring interconnected animal communities, ancient pathways of natural fertilization can be revitalized, helping to conserve an irreplaceable element.”



Animals naturally move phosphorus through their urine, dung and even their own bodies. This is important not only for agriculture but crucially for the health of natural ecosystems as well.&nbsp;



To maintain this ecological service, the scientists suggest a trading scheme similar to the carbon market. This way local communities could benefit either from mined phosphorus or natural sources like phosphorus from bird dung. Scientists hope that this approach could help restore wildlife populations and maintain the healthy function of the Earth.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildlife may be the answer to dwindling fertilizer ingredient

Modern, industrial agriculture is dependent upon fertilizers - chemicals often...

The report of the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/working-group/wg3/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> was released on April 4, 2022, and it suggests that, while some countries are on track to meet their carbon emission commitments, the world is not on track to limit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agriculture-could-play-a-key-role-in-limiting-global-warming/">global warming</a> to the 1.5oC level. Jacobo Arango, an environmental biologist at the Tropical Forages Program at the Alliance of Bioversity and <a href="https://ciat.cgiar.org/">CIAT</a>, was one of the authors of the report’s chapter on climate change mitigation and he feels there is a lot of scope for agricultural practices to enhance the removal of carbon from the atmosphere in future.



“The agriculture and land-use sector (which includes forestry) has a really invigorating role with this IPCC report,” he said. “It’s not enough only to lower emissions, we also need to actively remove carbon from the atmosphere.”



Although the use of carbon capture technology is an option that will help remove carbon from the atmosphere, or from factory emissions before they are released into the atmosphere, this approach is only being used currently in a total of 18 large-scale units in six countries. These carbon capture and storage (CCU) facilities currently remove 32 million tons of CO2&nbsp;per year, a far cry from the 100 billion tons required in order to keep the Earth’s temperature increase to below 2oC.&nbsp;&nbsp;



While many people envisage carbon storage in terms of depositing captured CO2 into depleted oil or natural gas fields, or disused underground mines, Arango says that another approach could involve using deep-rooted plants, including those used in livestock grazing, to store carbon 2–3 meters underground in the form of organic matter in the soil (soil carbon).&nbsp;



“If you use the right plants, with a long root system, they can transfer the carbon from the atmosphere into the deep soil layers,” he explained. “Instead of big fancy machines taking carbon out of the atmosphere and injecting it into rock formations, agriculture does that naturally with plants, along with higher food production and other environmental benefits, such as water and biodiversity conservation.”



It is usually understood that plants add carbon into shallow layers of soil (the top 30 centimeters), in the form of dead organic matter, or humus. This carbon is, however, readily returned back to the atmosphere through the process of respiration by bacteria and other soil organisms. Carbon deposited deeper down by plants with long roots has a better chance of being stored for much longer.



Ngonidzashe Chirinda, an assistant professor of Sustainable Tropical Agriculture at Morocco's Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, and former IPCC author, says the 30-centimeter depth used in the IPCC greenhouse gas inventory guidelines underestimates carbon uptake linked to tropical forages that develop roots to over 1 meter in depth.



“Few countries currently report soil carbon's climate change mitigation contribution in their national greenhouse gas inventories and the lack of accounting means a vital carbon sink is missed,” Chirinda said, adding that countries need to give accurate account of the carbon added to the soil through mitigation actions such as adopting deep-rooted tropical forages (grasses and other plants grown as food for livestock).&nbsp;



Arango has studied tropical forages, some of which have long roots that deposit carbon deeper down in the soil. In one study in&nbsp;<a href="https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/116231">Colombia’s Orinoquía basin</a>, his team was able to sample soil carbon down much deeper than 30 centimeters and establish that it was accumulating at that depth.&nbsp;Based on these findings, the authors of that study hypothesized that the introduction of the tropical pasture grass Brachiaria humidicola, would increase soil carbon accumulation and soil quality through its abundant root system and rapid turnover. &nbsp;



It would also be possible to breed future varieties of tropical forages with deep roots, while still maintaining yields, says Arango. The key to this process would be to use the genetic diversity stored in the brand-new&nbsp;<a href="https://alliancebioversityciat.org/future-seeds">Future Seeds</a>&nbsp;genebank at CIAT’s headquarters outside Palmira, Colombia. This facility is home to about 68,000 accessions of common beans, tropical forages, and cassava, crops that are a vital source of nourishment and income for millions of smallholder farmers across the globe.&nbsp;



“We’re researching varieties with those long roots that play a role in getting carbon down to those deep soil layers, which can still maintain production for farmers,” Arango said, adding that if farmers in Colombia and other parts of the world can be provided with better forages, they would be able to offset the carbon produced by their cattle.&nbsp;



“If we find alternatives to establish livestock production systems that are net-zero or even negative in emissions, they could even sell carbon credits, opening up a new income source for these farmers by participating in the global carbon market.”



Chirinda explained there are many other examples of agricultural practices that either increase carbon uptake or reduce its loss.&nbsp;“There’s agroforestry (growing crops and trees on the same land), silvopastoral systems (including trees in grasslands), reduced or no soil tillage (avoiding soil disturbance), and having soil covered most of the year through practices such as relay and cover cropping,” he said.&nbsp;



All of these practices would be beneficial in terms of capturing and storing carbon that would otherwise be causing harm in the atmosphere.



Image Credit: CIAT / Georgina Smith



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical plants with long roots may help store carbon underground

The report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)...

Stingrays are on the decline. Overfishing is the main cause, but climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-in-tropical-cities-linked-to-180000-excess-deaths/">pollution</a> aren’t doing them any favors either.&nbsp;



For now, stingrays are still plentiful in the Seychelles, with its clear blue waters, white sand beaches and biodiverse coral reefs. Scientists from the <a href="https://saveourseas.com/sosf-darros-research-centre/">Save Our Seas Foundation D’Arros Research Centre</a> (SOSF-DRC) and the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity have been investigating the lives of stingrays in the Seychelles.&nbsp;



In a new research paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>, researchers looked at the importance of diverse habitat for stingray survival. Sixty individual stingrays from three species were tracked for an average of a year. During the tracking, environmental data such as temperature and tides were also recorded.&nbsp;



The research was carried out on St. Joseph Atoll, where both shallow reefs and a deep enclosed lagoon can be found. The atoll is also a nursery for the three study species - the cowtail stingray, mangrove whipray and the porcupine whipray.&nbsp;



Twenty of each species of stingray were tagged and tracked via passive acoustic telemetry. Forty receivers were placed throughout the different habitats and set to receive sounds from each of the transmitter tags fitted to the rays.&nbsp;



The researchers found that stingrays generally like safer, shallow water, but can be driven by factors like high temperatures to deeper water where they are more vulnerable to predators.&nbsp;



“Stingrays are really important for keeping oceans healthy, especially in tropical places like Seychelles,” said study lead author Chantel Elston, an SOSF project leader. “This research helps to present further evidence that the isolated St Joseph Atoll provides suitable habitat for threatened stingrays and that the newly announced marine protected area will have real conservation benefits.”



The scientists hope that this research can benefit stingrays with more effective protection techniques. This is especially important as those unusually high temperatures that drive rays into deeper water are set to become more and more common.&nbsp;



“When you know what the priority habitats for vulnerable species are and how and when they move around, management plans can be developed for their conservation," said Helena Sims, SOSF Seychelles Ambassador.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change may cause stingrays to move toward danger

Stingrays are on the decline. Overfishing is the main cause,...

During the first three months of 2022, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-in-the-amazon-rainforest-hits-new-records/">deforestation</a> in Brazil’s Amazon rainforest has increased by 64 percent compared to the same period last year, according to a new report published by the National Institute for Space Research (<a href="https://www.gov.br/inpe/pt-br">INPE</a>). The report revealed that 941.34 square kilometers (363 square miles - equivalent to an area larger than the city of Dallas) of rainforest were cleared between January and March this year – the largest amount since INPE started recording deforestation rates seven years ago. This new record is particularly worrisome since Brazil is currently in its rainy season when logging and clearing the land with fires are less common.



“The fact that we are already at a record high and actually [seeing] numbers that are usually to be expected mid-year – when it’s drier and it’s actually easier to access the forest and do some damage – is indeed worrying,” confirmed Raoni Rajao, a professor of Environmental Management at the <a href="https://www.ufmg.br/english/conheca/index.shtml">Federal University of Minas Gerais</a>.&nbsp;



Since President Jair Bolsonaro took office in 2019 and weakened environmental protection actions and policies, the destruction of the world’s largest rainforest has surged. According to United Nations’ estimates, deforestation accounts for about 10 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, the current situation in Brazil is placing an increasing burden on the climate, significantly exacerbating global warming.



“Brazil is an example of what the UN climate report is saying when referring to governments not taking the necessary actions,” said Cristiane Mazzetti, a forest campaigner in Brazil for <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/international/">Greenpeace</a>. “We have a government that goes deliberately against the necessary steps to limit climate change.”



Scientists predict that deforestation rates in Brazil will continue to rise ahead the October presidential elections, as they had before the previous three elections. According to Carlos Souza Jr., a researcher at <a href="https://imazon.org.br/en/">Imazon</a> – a nonprofit organization dedicated to conserving the Amazon rainforest – environmental enforcement usually weakens in election years, with many criminals rushing to deforest vast areas ahead of changes in political governance.&nbsp;



Urgent actions are needed to stop and reverse the massive amount of deforestation in the Amazon in order to protect a multitude of vital ecosystems that have functioned smoothy for millennia in that region, and to help avoid an almost imminent climate catastrophe.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation in the Amazon hits a new record

During the first three months of 2022, deforestation in Brazil’s...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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