Forests have always been symbols of resilience and endurance. Towering trees stand tall for centuries, forming ecosystems that nurture countless species. They inspire awe, acting as natural archives of Earth’s long history. Yet, today’s rapidly shifting climate is testing this strength like never before.



Scientists now warn that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-forest-farming-is-an-overlooked-climate-solution/">forests</a> might struggle to keep pace with the speed of current climate change. This concern isn’t new, but recent research puts into perspective just how slow forest responses can be.



Long before industrial activities fueled modern warming, forests adapted gradually to changes. Over thousands of years, tree populations shifted according to cooling and warming periods. 



During glacial advances, they migrated southward, following milder climates. When the Earth warmed again, they moved north. This dance of migration was a slow process, unfolding over centuries.



But today, the world faces climate shifts at an alarming rate. Forests are locked in place, unable to shift swiftly enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-struggle-with-climate-change">Forests struggle with climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-forests-cant-realistically-cancel-out-fossil-fuel-emissions/">Trees</a> cannot migrate quickly. They grow slowly, and their seeds disperse over limited distances, despite help from wind and animals. Mature trees may live for hundreds of years, meaning populations shift at a glacial pace.



Current climate change, driven by human activities, is happening faster than many forests can adapt. This creates a worrying gap between the pace of warming and the ability of forests to respond.



A recent study published in the journal Science has brought this issue into sharper focus. Led by David Fastovich, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.syracuse.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Syracuse University</a>, the study provides concrete evidence of how slowly forests react to climate changes.



Fastovich works in the Paleoclimate Dynamics Lab under Tripti Bhattacharya, the Thonis Family Professor of Paleoclimate Dynamics. Their team examined pollen records from lake sediments, revealing tree population shifts over hundreds of thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-adjusting-to-climate-shifts">Forests adjusting to climate shifts</h2>



The study focused on mapping the time required for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">forests</a> to adjust to climate shifts. Some of the sediment cores analyzed date back up to 600,000 years, capturing long-term changes in forest composition.



“We’ve known these time lags have existed, but no one could put a firm number on them,” said Fastovich. 



“We can intuit how long a tree lives. We can count the rings on a tree and estimate from there. But now we know that after one to two centuries, very close to how long a tree lives on average, entire forest ecosystems begin to turnover as trees die and are replaced in response to climate.”



The results emphasize the deep disconnect between the rapid pace of modern climate change and the natural rhythms of forest migration and replacement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-forest-patterns">Revealing forest patterns</h2>



To study these long-term changes, the researchers turned to spectral analysis. This statistical method is common in physics and engineering. It allowed the team to compare the relationship between tree populations and climate shifts across varying time scales, from decades to millennia.



The analysis focused on three key aspects: migration patterns, tree mortality, and disturbances like forest fires. By observing these factors together, the team uncovered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-carbon-credits-are-failing-so-what-needs-to-change/">forests</a> change over both short and long timescales.



Spectral analysis provided a way to create a unified view of forest dynamics. This approach helped bridge the gap between different disciplines that study forests.



“This gives us a common language for people who observe forest change, ecologists, paleoecologists and paleobiologists, to talk to one another about those changes no matter if we study forests on annual or millennial timescales,” said Fastovich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-shift-but-bigger-changes-emerge">Forests shift but bigger changes emerge</h2>



The research showed that, over the span of a few years or decades, forests change slowly. Small adjustments occur gradually, often unnoticed in the short term. However, significant changes begin to emerge over longer periods.



After about eight centuries, the study found that forest shifts tend to grow more dramatic. These larger changes often align with natural fluctuations in the planet’s climate.



“With this new technique, we can think about ecological processes on any timescale and how they are connected,” said Fastovich. “We can understand how dispersal and population changes interact and cause a forest to change from decades to centuries, and even longer timescales. That hasn’t been done before.”



This insight shows that while forests may appear stable, they are slowly shifting in response to deeper climate rhythms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-human-help">Urgent need for human help</h2>



One of the study’s most important findings points to the need for human intervention. Forests are unlikely to adjust fast enough on their own to survive the rapid pace of modern warming.



One promising approach is assisted migration. This method involves deliberately planting tree species from warmer climates into cooler regions. The goal is to help forests adapt by jumpstarting their natural migration processes.



Fastovich emphasized that this kind of intervention is far from simple. Forest adaptation is a slow, complicated process that demands careful, long-term planning.



“There’s a mismatch between the timescales at which forests naturally change to what’s happening today with climate change,” said Fastovich. 



“Population-level changes aren’t going to be fast enough to keep the forests that we care about around. Assisted migration is one tool of many to keep cherished forests around for longer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reminder-of-the-challenges-ahead">Reminder of the challenges ahead</h2>



The research serves as a stark reminder of the challenges ahead. Forests are not static. They are ancient, slow-moving communities shaped by time and climate. While their changes might seem imperceptible over a human lifespan, they remain in constant motion.



Now, humanity must make tough choices. Without careful action, many forests may not survive the speed of climate change. 



The tools we choose, whether assisted migration, conservation efforts, or other interventions, will shape the forests of the future. Their survival depends not only on nature’s resilience but also on human responsibility.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr6700" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Forests are lagging centuries behind in climate adaptation

Forests have always been symbols of resilience and endurance. Towering trees stand tall for centuries, forming ecosystems that nurture countless species. They inspire awe, acting as natural archives of Earth’s long history. Yet, today’s rapidly shifting climate is testing this strength like never before. Scientists now warn that forests might struggle to keep pace with the speed of current climate change. This concern isn’t new, but recent research puts into perspective just how slow forest responses can be. Long before industrial activities fueled modern warming, forests adapted...

Public concern over air pollution can drive action on climate change. Ahead of today's Climate Action Summit, United Nations officials told the <a href="http://bbc.com">BBC</a> that it has proven easier to turn international attention to the issue of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/damaging-air-pollution-agriculture/">air pollution</a> than to convince countries to address greenhouse gas emissions. The good news is that by reducing or eliminating certain air pollutants, harmful greenhouse gases will be largely reduced as well. 

The same industrial activities that release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are also producing short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs), such as black carbon and methane, that also contribute to climate change in a powerful way. According to the <a href="https://www.c2es.org/">Center for Climate and Energy Solutions</a> (C2ES), short-lived pollutants are responsible for as much as 45 percent of global warming to date.

"Unlike carbon dioxide, short-lived climate pollutants have a shorter atmospheric lifetime but have a high global warming potential, meaning they can warm the Earth faster compared to carbon dioxide," states C2ES. "Targeted efforts to reduce these emissions can slow the pace of global warming by 0.6 degrees Celsius by 2050."

In 2012, Bangladesh, Canada, Ghana, Mexico, Sweden, and the United States collaborated with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to launch efforts to urgently address short-lived climate pollutants. Known as the Climate &amp; Clean Air Coalition, the team is spreading awareness that climate change and air pollution are closely linked.

"The main driver of climate change, fossil fuel combustion, also contributes about two-thirds of outdoor air pollution - and the contribution of air pollution alone to poor health is staggering," the Climate and Clean Air Coalition states.

"Each year, air pollution causes 7 million premature deaths (or about 1 in every 8 deaths), costs the global economy an estimated US$ 5.11 trillion (equivalent to all goods and services produced by the entire economy of Japan in 2013) in welfare losses and kills 600,000 children every year."

"Its death toll is similar to that from tobacco smoking, making it one of the largest avoidable risks to human health."

Jian Liu, the chief scientist for UNEP, told the BBC that countries are willing to join this initiative because reducing short-lived air pollutants can produce immediate benefits for public health and air quality, while also benefiting our climate. Furthermore, Liu added that achieving the goals of the Paris agreement is likely impossible without cutting SLCP emissions.

The UN calls for every country to commit to “achieving air quality that is safe for its citizens, and to align its climate change and air pollution policies, by 2030.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Delpixel

Public concern over air pollution can drive action on climate change

Public concern over air pollution can drive action on climate...

Glaciers in Antarctica are speeding towards the ocean. Glaciers in the Antarctic are on a slippery slope, quite literally, as a new study has found that surface meltwater is rapidly accelerating the flow of glaciers toward the sea.

Surface meltwater is widespread across the Antarctic Ice Sheet and melting in the South Pole is expected to double by 2050. 

For the first time, researchers from the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a> have linked surface meltwater to ice flow rates in the Antarctic.

“The direct link between surface melting and glacier flow rates has been well documented in other regions of the world, but this is the first time we have seen this coupling anywhere in Antarctica,” said Pete Tuckett, an author of the study who first discovered the relationship.

The research was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-12039-2">Nature Communications.</a> 

Glaciers move or flow like massive rivers of ice, propelled by gravity and lubricated by liquid water covering the ground as they slide into the sea. 

Meltwater at the surface trickling down through the ice is making the ground at the base of the glacier even more slippery, which in turn is speeding up the flow of ice. 

In some cases, ice flows are accelerating 100 percent faster than average, which could have drastic ramifications for future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-instability-sea-level-rise/">sea-level rise</a>. 

The researchers tested the effects of surface meltwater on the flow of five Antarctic Peninsula outlet glaciers using satellite imagery and climate modeling. 

Spikes in snowmelt at the surface correlated with acceleration in the glacier movements. 

As temperatures continue to rise, glacier flows will speed up, and this dynamic needs to be incorporated into models that predict sea-level rise. 

“Our research shows for the first time that surface meltwater is getting beneath glaciers in the Antarctic Peninsula – causing short bursts of sliding towards the sea 100 per cent faster than normal,” said Dr. Jeremy Ely, an author of the study. “It’s crucial that this factor is considered in models of future sea level rise, so we can prepare for a world with fewer and smaller glaciers.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Christopher Wood

Glaciers in Antarctica are speeding towards the ocean

Glaciers in Antarctica are speeding towards the ocean. Glaciers in...

Global deforestation and the slow progress to protect the forests. Costa Rica previously had one of the fastest rates of deforestation in the world. In just a few decades, forest cover dropped from 70 percent to 20 percent by the 1980s. 

Today, Costa Rica is known for its lush tropical forests, ecotourism, and conservation. Somehow Costa Rica went from rapid rates of deforestation to zero, allowing for forest growth and sustainable land use. This dramatic reversal was only made possible by a shift in <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/06/costa-rica-has-doubled-its-tropical-rainforests-in-just-a-few-decades-here-s-how/">government policies</a>. 

Costa Rica’s government restricted logging permits, and a national forest fund was created to offer incentives to farmers who protected and conserved their land. 

Unfortunately, Costa Rica’s conservation success story is the exception rather than the norm. Many people continue to take and take from our planet, burning through -- quite literally -- its natural resources as if there is no endpoint. 

This summer, thousands of wildfires were recorded across the Amazon Rainforest. According to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/amazon-fires-cause-deforestation-graphic-map/">National Geographic,</a> at the end of August, there were around 76,000 fires, an increase of 80 percent compared to the year prior. 

The increase in fires has been linked to illegal clearing and loosening restrictions on development in the region. 

“The government doesn’t have any governance over what is going on,” Ane Alencar, science director for the <a href="https://ipam.org.br/en/">Amazon Environmental Research Institute (IPAM)</a>, told <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/amazon-still-fire-conservation-groups-blame-illegal-logging-criminal-networks-n1056236">NBC News</a>. 

According to a recent IPAM <a href="https://ipam.org.br/most-amazon-fires-break-out-on-private-properties-and-undesignated-forests/">report</a>, 33 percent of the fires were started on private land, and 20 percent of the fires occurred in public, undesignated forests. 

“The primary trigger that set off this burning season in the Amazon was not drought but high levels of deforestation,” Alencar said in a statement. “This year has not been particularly dry compared to previous years. 

Meanwhile, with all eyes on the Amazon, hundreds of intentionally set fires burned across Indonesian Borneo and Sumatra earlier this month. The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/17/world/asia/indonesia-fires-photos.html">New York Times</a> reported that the fires produced so much smoke schools were forced to close, and thousands of people were breathing in toxic air. 

The purpose of the fires was to clear land for palm plantations, a crop that has resulted in the loss of thousands of acres of rainforest in Southeast Asia. 

The fires pose a threat to orangutans that live in the <a href="http://www.bos-uk.org/programs/mawas/">Mawas Conservation Area</a> on the island of Borneo. 

“The Mawas Conservation Area and the orangutan population are threatened by these fires and if the habitat burns these orangutans have nowhere to go,” said Erin R. Vogel, an endangered orangutan expert, and professor at the Department of Anthropology at <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>. “In addition to the harmful effects of the fires on human health, our past research has shown that the carbon emissions and smoke produced by these fires are extremely harmful to orangutan health.”

Orangutans in Indonesia have become endangered, with populations declining by 50 percent as their habits have grown increasingly fragmented over the years due to demand for palm oil. 

Deforestation is a global issue and one that directly contributes to climate change. 

Logging in Canada to meet the demand for tissue paper results in the loss of thousands of acres of boreal forest each year. <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/resources/issue-tissue-how-americans-are-flushing-forests-down-toilet">One report</a> by the <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">NRDC</a> found that between 1996 and 2018, more than 28 million acres of boreal forest were logged. 

While tree-pulp paper products generate billions of dollars in revenue each year, logging is degrading Canadian forest habitats and threatening indigenous communities that rely on the boreal ecosystem. 

Not only does logging destroy trees, but the practice generates millions of tons of carbon emissions each year which, in turn, accelerates the pace of climate change. 

But if Costa Rica is the exception and fires continue to spread across the Amazon Rainforest at a record-breaking rate, what can be done to protect and restore the world’s forests? 

This question becomes even more complicated when you factor in the predicted increases in food demand due to a growing global population and climate change. 

A recent report by the <a href="https://drive.google.com/open?id=1RRnedA5wgCM0-PFuqu2txA4ZTLwglKIMluz-OrJw73M">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> found that 72 percent of all ice-free land on Earth is used to support the global population. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-agriculture-food-shortages/">Agriculture</a> and forestry make up a considerable part of land use, but without sustainable management of these systems emissions will increase, land degradation and habitat loss will increase, species will become extinct and the very resources we need to feed, clothe, and shelter the human population will grow scarce. 

While there are efforts to stem the tide of deforestation, the progress is slow going and limited. 

That’s the major takeaway of a report by the <a href="https://nydfglobalplatform.org/">New York Declaration on Forests</a> (NYDF). The NYDF began in 2014 and has since gained the support of 200 endorsers, a mix of governments, organizations, and companies all committed to stopping global deforestation. 

Recently, the NYDF released its <a href="https://forestdeclaration.org/images/uploads/resource/2019NYDFReport.pdf">five-year assessment report</a>, and the results show that very little progress has been made in the way of keeping in line with the project’s goals. This is not to say that there has been zero progress, but outpacing climate change and the increasing rates of deforestation in many regions will require a mammoth effort. 

“Protecting forests will require an integrated and comprehensive forest strategy that involves

the coordination of governments — including both producing and importing countries —as well as companies, civil society, and indigenous peoples’ organizations,” the NYDF report concludes. This strategy must explicitly align efforts to preserve primary forests, sustainably manage production forests, and restore natural forests in degraded landscapes.

Sustainable management of land use is the call to action we all must rally behind. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global deforestation and the slow progress to protect the forests

Global deforestation and the slow progress to protect the forests....

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development. It’s easy to look at the loss of wildlife across the United States and feel despair. Grizzly bears, bison, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/domesticated-dogs-prosocial-wolves/">wolves</a> live on a tiny fraction of their former range with pitifully small populations. Passenger pigeons that once filled our skies as living, moving clouds of feathered beings are gone forever. 

Stretching back towards the beginning of human occupation in North America, we’ve lost the mastodon, woolly rhinoceros, and giant ground sloths. Despite their popularity from Game of Thrones, dire wolves are also extinct. 

But there is still plenty of life on Earth, and in North America in particular, to celebrate. Despite centuries as the object of violence, coyotes still live in the United States in enormous numbers. And despite being mismanaged, fought over, and used as political pawns, there are still some wolves, bison and grizzly bears. There are also smaller wild animals that quietly adapt to the changes in their environments and live near us without being given much notice. Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) have indeed shown to be resilient in the face of a rapidly changing landscape. Bobcats live in every state of the contiguous United States except Delaware, as well as southern Canada and much of Mexico. The bobcat has adapted to numerous habitats across that range from deserts to wetlands to cold northern forests. According to the <a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/north-america/bobcat/">International Society for Endangered Cats</a>, bobcats are the most successful of North Americas wild cats.

Humans are still one of the major threats to bobcats, as humans hunt them, destroy their habitat, and accidentally kill them with cars and rat poison. One study showed that the leading cause of death among bobcats is feline scabies, which has been linked to anticoagulant rat poisons. If a bobcat eats a poisoned rat, there’s a strong likelihood that the cat will die as well. 

Bobcat furs also lead the industry in feline skins with an average of 29,772 skins exported annually from the US between 2000 and 2006.  Because the human population is constantly on the rise, bobcats have had to contend more and more with our species. What was once wild habitat has increasingly become backyards, farmland, or golf courses. Because of these threats, conservation laws have protected bobcats throughout their range, with hunting being managed in 38 states, 7 Canadian provinces, and Mexico. The cats for their part have proven their ability to not only live but thrive near and in human dominated landscapes.           

Much of the bobcat’s success comes from the abundance of their prey base. Bobcats <a href="https://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/oz/long-fact-sheets/Bob-cat.php">mainly feed</a> on rabbits and hares, small herbivorous mammals in no shortage almost anywhere in the US. Walk around a city park, there’s probably one of those little rabbits hiding somewhere under a bush nibbling on grass. They visit our lawns and they do well in the deserts, prairies, forests and wetlands outside of city areas as well. Besides their preferred food, bobcats are also flexible, eating lizards, small rodents, birds, snakes, roadkill. Bobcats have even been known to rarely kill a deer. 

Another part of bobcat’s success is that they’re inconspicuous. Like urban coyotes, bobcats are mainly active at night, although they can adjust their schedule a bit depending on the local conditions. In <a href="http://www.urbancarnivores.com/bobcats">urban areas</a> bobcats are especially nocturnal. Bobcats also move around a lot to avoid being caught by a predator and to find their own prey. 

In Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, California, a male bobcat’s home range is typically 3.2 square miles. Females move around less with a typical home range of about 1.5 square miles. Of course, the home range of bobcats vary depending on the habitat. 

Bobcats find temporary dens to rest in during the day and often move to a new den the next day, rarely staying in one spot for very long. Mother bobcats will often create several dens when they are about to have kittens. The mother then moves her kittens from one den to the next. Moving around like this, especially at night is one of the reasons bobcats are easily missed, even if they live in close proximity to humans.

Recently, a photographer published a <a href="https://www.biographic.com/posts/sto/bobcat-manor">photo essay</a> following a mother bobcat that raised her kittens beneath the porch of a house in western Texas. This is one example of a bobcat adapting to a new way of living, raising her cubs in the shade of a house during the day and hunting in the scrublands surrounding the house at dusk and dawn. 

Bobcats have been known to hunt at backyard bird feeders and eat roadkill along city streets. An <a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-05-populations-bobcats-urban-pest.html">article</a> from 2017 reported that bobcats have made homes in Manchester, New Hampshire, Waverly, Iowa and just outside of Los Angeles. One wildlife photographer <a href="http://dfwurbanwildlife.com/2018/05/09/chris-jacksons-dfw-urban-wildlife/are-there-coyotes-and-bobcats-in-your-neighborhood/">claims</a> based on his own observations that almost every neighborhood in the greater Dallas Fort Worth area is home to bobcats.

Indeed, bobcats have made a serious comeback in the United States. A 2010 <a href="https://fwspubs.org/doi/pdf/10.3996/122009-JFWM-026">study</a> estimated a US bobcat population of roughly 2.3 million to almost 3.6 million, as much as triple their population in the 1980s. Relying on data from 2016, the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12521/50655874">IUCN</a> says the bobcat population is stable with no major threat to their survival. A <a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/north-america/bobcat/">2011 survey</a> looked at bobcat populations in 48 states, 7 Canadian provinces and Mexico, finding that bobcat populations have grown everywhere except for Florida. Like coyotes, bobcats have shown themselves capable of adapting, even thriving among humans.

Despite the successful recovery of bobcats from their lowest populations, it’s still worth remembering that although the cats are cunning and adaptable, they still rely on us to allow them to live. The fur trade if not well managed can threaten bobcats, rat poisons still cause the deaths of bobcats, and other predators. For now bobcats are thriving, but that success depends on food, water, places to live either in the wild or in more urban environments. The question for the future is whether humans will be happy to see bobcats living among them or if they will be treated as a nuisance like pigeons, coyotes or prairie dogs?              

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/David Hoffmann Photography

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development. It’s...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> have conducted the first major study to examine whether changes in food availability can lead to a shift toward diets that would be healthier for both humans and the planet. The researchers found that increasing the number of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/vegetarian-diet-boston/">vegetarian options</a> on a menu reduced the number of meat-based sales by between 40 and 80 percent without affecting overall revenue. 

The investigation involved over 94,000 meal choices in three Cambridge college cafeterias. Two of the cafeterias provided sales data on traditional daily menus, while the other cafeteria was used for an experiment where vegetarian plates were doubled from one in four to two in four.

The biggest increases in plant-based purchases were found among customers who usually selected meat or fish before more vegetable options were made available. 

Significantly, the team discovered that opting for a vegetarian lunch did not make it more likely that an individual would consume meat for dinner. 

According to the experts, meat-rich diets are leading drivers of species loss and climate change. The production of meat, fish, dairy, and eggs is responsible for nearly 60 percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions associated with food. Furthermore, while these agricultural sectors require 83 percent of farmland, they account for only 18 percent of the world's calorie intake.

"Shifting to a more plant-based diet is one of the most effective ways of reducing the environmental footprint of food," said study lead author Emma Garnett. "Replacing some meat or fish with more vegetarian options might seem obvious, but as far as we know no one had tested it before. Solutions that seem obvious don't always work, but it would appear that this one does."

"Education is important but generally ineffective at changing diets," added study co-author Professor Theresa Marteau. "Meat taxes are unpopular. Altering the range of available options is more acceptable, and offers a powerful way to influence the health and sustainability of our diets."

The researchers have contributed to food policy changes at Cambridge, where the catering service has now reduced meat options and increased the variety of vegetarian meals. Earlier this month, University cafeterias announced a 33-percent reduction in carbon emissions per kilogram of food purchased, and a 28-percent reduction in land use per kilogram of food purchased.

"Universities are increasingly at the forefront of providing plant-based options that are affordable and delicious, making it easier to choose a more sustainable diet. I think that's what really has to change," said Garnett. "We're not saying all cafeterias and restaurants should turn vegan overnight. But if food were the film industry, vegetarian and vegan meals need to land more starring roles, and meat dishes have got to stop hogging the limelight."

"Flexitarianism is on the rise. Our results show that caterers serving more plant-based options are not just responding to but also reshaping customer demand. Simple changes such as increasing the proportion of vegetarian options could be usefully scaled up, helping to mitigate climate change and biodiversity loss."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Nina Firsova

Making more vegetarian options available can help reduce meat consumption

Scientists at the University of Cambridge have conducted the first...

Tsunamis may have pushed a tropical disease into the Pacific Northwest. Since 1999, hundreds of people and animals in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pacific-northwest-forests-wildfire-birds/">Pacific Northwest</a> have been infected by a tropical fungus, Cryptococcus gattii, which is mainly found in Brazil and other parts of South America. 

An investigation led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.jhsph.edu/">Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health</a> has now revealed that the fungus may have been translocated by the Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964 and its subsequent tsunamis.

The experts propose that ships likely initiated the northward spread of C. gattii by transporting it in their ballast tanks after the 1914 opening of the Panama Canal. Decades later, multiple tsunamis that were triggered by a magnitude 9.2 earthquake in Alaska could have pushed the tropical fungus onshore into coastal forest regions. 

"The big new idea here is that tsunamis may be a significant mechanism by which pathogens spread from oceans and estuarial rivers onto land and then eventually to wildlife and humans," said study co-author Dr. Arturo Casadevall. "If this hypothesis is correct, then we may eventually see similar outbreaks of C. gattii, or similar fungi, in areas inundated by the 2004 Indonesian tsunami and 2011 Japanese tsunami."

Since the first case of C. gattii was reported on Vancouver Island 20 years ago, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has documented more than 300 infections in the Canadian and U.S. Pacific Northwest region. The fungus typically infects people through inhalation, causing a pneumonia-like illness. If the infection spreads to the brain, C. gattii can lead to potentially fatal meningoencephalitis. 

Evidence of C. gattii has been found in soil, water, and trees across coastal areas of British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon. However, experts could not understand how this tropical fungus could establish itself in a northern region with a cool climate. Study co-author and epidemiologist Dr. David Engelthaler was asked by the CDC to investigate. 

Dr. Engelthaler's team applied a "molecular clock" analysis to the DNA sequences of the C. gattii subtypes, and concluded that these strains of the fungus had arrived from an area in or surrounding Brazil 60-100 years earlier. This time frame corresponds with the opening of the Panama Canal. 

Dr. Engelthaler also concluded that the regions which were colonized by several subtypes of C. gattii were the same areas of the Pacific Northwest that were inundated with seawater during the 1964 tsunamis.

"We propose that C. gattii may have lost much of its human-infecting capacity when it was living in seawater, but then when it got to land, amoebas and other soil organisms worked on it for three decades or so until new C. gattii variants arose that were more pathogenic to animals and people," said Dr. Casadevall.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Mark Skalny

Tsunamis may have pushed a tropical disease into the Pacific Northwest

Tsunamis may have pushed a tropical disease into the Pacific...

In a groundbreaking study led by <a href="http://www.ecu.edu.au/">Edith Cowan University</a>, researchers have quantified the amount of carbon dioxide that is being captured and emitted by Australia's marine ecosystems, which is known as blue carbon. The experts found that 20 million tons of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/trees-carbon-dioxide/">carbon dioxide</a> are absorbed annually by Australian seagrass, mangroves, and salt marshes, where it remains stored in the soil for thousands of years.

The study also revealed, however, that three million tons of carbon dioxide is being released each year from the same sources as a result of climate change, human activities, and severe weather events. The findings suggest that the conservation and restoration of these coastal communities will help Australia to uphold its commitment to reducing emissions. 

Study lead author Dr. Oscar Serrano, an expert in ECU's Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, said that blue carbon ecosystems play an enormously important role in climate change mitigation and adaptation.

"When these ecosystems are damaged by storms, heatwaves, dredging or other human development, the carbon dioxide stored in their biomass and soils beneath them can make its way back into the environment, contributing to climate change," explained Dr. Serrano.

"Globally, vegetated coastal ecosystems are being lost twice as fast as tropical rainforests despite covering a fraction of the area. These ecosystems are also important as habitats and nurseries for fish and other marine life, helping prevent coastal erosion and improving water clarity."

According to the study authors, projects to restore and protect coastal ecosystems in Australia have the potential to rack up tens of millions of dollars per year in payments from the Australian Emission Reduction Fund, based on a carbon trading price of $12 per ton.

"Those projects could take the form of replanting seagrass meadows, restoring mangroves by reflooding or by preventing expected losses through environmental management," said Dr. Serrano. "These more accurate measurements of blue carbon provide more certainty on expected returns for financiers looking at investing in blue carbon projects."

Dr. Serrano noted that this new research has positioned Australia as a world leader in the protection and management of blue carbon ecosystems.

"Australia is home to around 10 percent of the world's blue carbon ecosystems, so there's enormous potential for us to take a lead role in this space. This research points to hotspots for the implementation of blue carbon projects at a national level," said Dr. Serrano.

"Australia is in a position to take a leading role in developing policies to offset greenhouse gas emissions which can then be implemented around the world. It's also internationally significant because other countries can take the work we've done here and use it to create their own baselines for blue carbon assessments."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/alybaba

Australia to become a world leader in protecting blue carbon ecosystems

In a groundbreaking study led by Edith Cowan University, researchers...

The <a href="https://deepcarbon.net/">Deep Carbon Observatory</a> (DCO) program has released the findings of a ten-year study designed to calculate the immense carbon reserves of our planet, including how much carbon is naturally taken in and released by the Earth's crust, mantle, and core. The research spans time from the present to billions of years past.

"Carbon, the basis of all life and the energy source vital to humanity, moves through this planet from its mantle to the atmosphere. To secure a sustainable future, it is of utmost importance that we understand Earth's entire carbon cycle," said DCO scientist Marie Edmonds.

"Key to unraveling the planet's natural carbon cycle is quantifying how much carbon there is and where, how much moves - the flux - and how quickly, from Deep Earth reservoirs to the surface and back again."

The experts found that just .002 percent of Earth's total <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fast-fashion-carbon-footprint/">carbon</a>, or 43,500 gigatons, is above its surface in the oceans, on land, and in the atmosphere. The rest is located in the subsurface, with an estimated 1.85 billion gigatons overall.

Looking at Earth's deep carbon cycle over time, the researchers found balanced, long-term stability in atmospheric CO2 levels. The team also determined that this balance was altered by major events, such as the massive Chixculub impact in the Yucatan area of Central America, at least five times in the past 500 million years. Catastrophic volumes of carbon were outgassed during these disruptions, leading to a warmer atmosphere, acidified oceans, and mass extinctions.

Today, volcanoes and other active regions release an estimated 280 to 360 million tons per year into the atmosphere and oceans, including the carbon released from mid-ocean ridges. Annual carbon emissions from human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, were found to be 40 to 100 times greater than overall volcanic emissions.

According to the DCO researchers, with rare exceptions over millions of years, the quantity of carbon released from Earth's mantle has been in relative balance with the quantity returned through the downward subduction of tectonic plates and other processes. 

However, this balance was disrupted by large volcanic events about four times in Earth's history. Carbon cycle imbalance can cause accelerated global warming, changes to the silicate weathering rate, changes to the hydrologic cycle, and intense habitat shifts that can lead to mass extinction as the Earth rebalances itself.

"The Deep Carbon Observatory has advanced understanding of the inner workings of Earth. Its collective body of more than 1,500 publications has not only increased what is known but established limits to what is knowable, and perhaps unknowable," said study co-author Tobias Fischer of the University of New Mexico.

"While we celebrate progress, we underline that deep Earth remains a highly unpredictable scientific frontier; we have truly only started to dent current boundaries of our knowledge."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/elements">Elements</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Yves Moussallam, Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory

New report quantifies Earth’s immense carbon reserves

The Deep Carbon Observatory (DCO) program has released the findings...

According to a recent report from <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a>, Botswana is on the verge of mining the largest untapped coal deposits in the world. First discovered in the 1960s, Botswana has billions of tons of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chinas-reduce-coal-plant-emissions/">coal</a> reserves that have remained relatively untouched. 

The Masama Coal Mine, which is privately owned by Minergy, recently produced its first saleable coal that has been exported to South Africa and Namibia. 

Minergy Chief Executive Morné du Plessiss told <a href="https://www.reuters.com/">Reuters</a> that the company will be mining 110,000 tons of coal per month, which will produce saleable coal of between 70,000 to 80,000 tons. The Masama mine is estimated to hold 390 million tons of coal reserves.

Up until now, the state-owned Morupule mine was the country's only mining operation. Mmilili Mapolelo of the Botswana Institute for Technology Research and Innovation told New Scientist that interest in Botswana’s coal has ramped up as the government seeks to become energy independent and diversify the economy away from diamonds.

Botswana's Shumba Energy is currently collaborating with two Chinese companies to build a coal-to-liquids plant at a cost of between $1.5 and $2 billion, Chief Executive Officer Mashale Phumaphi told <a href="https://www.reuters.com/">Reuters</a>. The plant will ultimately produce an estimated 20,000 barrels of diesel and 5,000 barrels of gasoline per day.

Burning coal is one of the biggest sources of greenhouse gas emissions, which means unearthing large quantities of it will contribute to climate change in a major way. 

The message is clear: coal has to be phased out for us to limit global warming to 1.5 °C, said Joeri Rogelj of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. In a study Rogelj conducted for New Scientist, he concluded that Botswana’s coal will generate 63 to 84 billion tons of CO2 emissions, which is up to 25 percent of the global carbon budget that would give the world a 50 percent chance of limiting warming to 1.5° Celsius.

Rogelj said that developing coal is a “strange decision,” considering that Botswana has expansive solar resources and is particularly vulnerable to climate change. “If not today, then 10 years from now, solar energy would become a far preferable way to power development.” 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Mark Agnor

The world’s largest untouched coal reserves are set to be mined in Botswana

According to a recent report from New Scientist, Botswana is...

Water shortages in Alaska are the latest indicator of climate change. When it comes to water shortages in the American west, places like Arizona, Nevada or even Colorado probably come to mind – places with typically arid landscapes fed by increasingly scarce rivers. What probably doesn’t come to mind is Alaska. 

Alaska is home to lush temperate rainforests, rivers full of migrating salmon, and plenty of rain, so water shortages seem unlikely in our northernmost state. But despite conceptions about the state, there have been some serious water shortages among some communities in Alaska.

Recently a summer drought like none other on record has hit southern Alaska hard. The <a href="https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/CurrentMap/StateDroughtMonitor.aspx?AK">US Drought monitor</a> lists most of the southern part of Alaska as being in abnormally dry conditions to an extreme drought. As of September 3, <a href="https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/pdf/20190903/20190903_AK_trd.pdf">more than 5%</a> of Alaska was in a severe drought, the most extreme drought in Alaska in 20 years. On September 9, <a href="https://www.ktoo.org/2019/09/09/alaska-communities-used-to-have-plenty-of-fresh-water-then-came-severe-drought/">KTOO Public Media</a> reported that Seldovia the community reservoir held enough water for only 16 days. 

The aquifer in Chignik Lagoon <a href="https://www.ktoo.org/2019/08/28/water-shortage-looms-in-chignik-lagoon/">ran out</a> of water this summer and residents had to rely on Packer’s Creek for their water which has to be boiled before drinking. The drought has contributed to water shortages in places like Chignik Lagoon but it also highlights poor infrastructure, including leaks in the distribution system.

The village of Nanwalek on the Kenai Peninsula usually receives approximately 6 inches of rain per summer but has only got about an inch and a half so far, <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/09/14/760556291/alaska-villages-run-dry-and-residents-worry-if-this-is-our-future-of-no-water">NPR</a> reported earlier this month. Locals have taken to extreme water conservation methods like collecting sea water to flush toilets, eating off paper plates that require no water for washing, and resorting to sponge baths. 

As with other parts of Alaska, the water shortages are real, a combination of less rain as well as less snowpack through the winter, but the crisis is magnified by infrastructure problems. The village is working on projects to expand their reservoir and buy reverse osmosis machines to purify ocean water. In the meantime, federal, state and local agencies have flown water in to supply the Nanwalek residents. 

<a href="https://www.alaskapublic.org/2019/03/01/hatcheries-the-canary-in-the-coal-mine-as-drought-extends-across-southeast-alaska/">Alaska Public Media</a> reports that it isn’t just humans that have had to cope with less recently. Water shortages impact the salmon industry as well. Fish hatcheries depend on cold, fresh water to rear salmon running through thousands of gallons per minute at some of the larger hatcheries. This year, warmer waters coming from reservoir meant that Macaulay Salmon Hatchery had to move their fry to ocean water pens in January, months earlier than typical years. This creates an uncertain situation for rearing salmon. 

It also could mean bad news for wild salmon. These droughts affecting the reservoirs are part of a longer trend of dry September and October days which are typically the wettest months. Over years of less than normal rainfall, reservoirs in Alaska have shrunk. Hatcheries have started to invest in cooling equipment which allows them to reduce water consumption by 95% because they can recycle warmed water by running it through a cooler. 

<a href="https://www.krbd.org/2019/08/12/ketchikan-wildlife-affected-by-drought/">KRBD Ketchikan</a> Alaska reports that the low rainfall can hurt salmon during their migration as well. A short burst of rain with nothing following it can reduce the oxygen levels in creeks where the salmon spawn. Last summer marked one of the worst pink salmon catches in the Ketchikan area since the 1970s. Of course the health of salmon is connected deeply to the health of the overall ecosystem. Bears eat salmon, dead salmon are a significant source of nutrients to forest ecosystems. The salmon fishing industry is also in uncertain waters this year with fishing <a href="https://www.thecordovatimes.com/2019/08/09/salmon-harvest-update-warm-weather-drought-delay-humpy-harvest/">delayed</a> by drought and warm water. This seems to be part of some of the warmest weather in Alaska’s recorded history. 

<a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/07/05/738905306/it-was-a-balmy-90-degrees-yesterday-in-anchorage-for-the-first-time-on-record">NPR</a> reported that this summer, Anchorage Alaska reached 90 degrees Fahrenheit, an all time heat record for the city. This is part of June being the hottest month ever in Alaska’s recorded history, averaging 60.5F, 5 degrees above normal averages. Not only was June hot, but it also marked the 16th consecutive month of above average temperatures in Alaska. 2019 also marked the driest June on record for Anchorage, as the city received just 6% of normal rain levels. Many residents of Alaska seem to enjoy the warm weather and blue skies but it raises concerns about broader implications.

Forest fires in Alaska seem to be <a href="https://time.com/5657188/alaska-fires-long-climate-change/">getting worse</a>. Forest fires are of course a natural part of Alaskan ecology but extreme forest fire seasons seem to be becoming more normal. <a href="https://time.com/">Time</a> reported in August that 2.5 million acres of Alaskan forest burned this year, with the record fire size being 6.5 million acres burned in 2004. Fires typically die out in August but were still burning strong, part of a trend of longer as well as more intense fire seasons. 

Other aspects of ecology are changing in Alaska as well. I previously reported on massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-bird-die-offs-ocean-temperatures/">puffin die off</a> in Alaska and surrounding areas. The die off seems to be part of greater problems in Alaska’s marine ecosystem and almost certainly connected to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-puffins-die-off/">climate change</a>. Hundreds of puffins have washed up on shore of Alaskan communities due to starvation because of the effects of warmer ocean waters. The questions surrounding the puffin die off are similar to the water shortages and fire fires -- is this the new normal?

Alaska and other polar areas are warming due to climate change faster than other places. Experts estimate Alaska’s warming 2.5 times faster than the lower 48 US states. This is partially because the loss of snow and ice speeds warming by leaving darker areas behind which absorb more heat. In this way, the more polar regions are part of the worst of a global positive feedback loop speeding up climate change. 

Unfortunately, the droughts are also speeding up climate change by creating drier conditions and allowing fires to burn longer. The fires of course remove not only trees that absorb carbon but also create smoke which speeds climate change along as well. Alaska can be seen in a way to be a preview of what climate change might mean for the rest of the US: less water, more fire.                   

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/M. Cornelius

Water shortages in Alaska are the latest indicator of climate change

Water shortages in Alaska are the latest indicator of climate...

Increases in ocean temperature and acidity due to climate change have been linked to mass coral bleaching events and the decline of coral reef ecosystems.

Corals offer protection against flooding and storm surges and reef habitats host a diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-coral-reefs-benefits/">array of marine species</a> that depend on corals for their survival. 

 As carbon emissions increase, more CO2 gets absorbed into the ocean which lowers the pH of seawater. Increased acidity is a key contributor to coral bleaching, and a United Nations report found that <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/environment/climatechange/10458445/Ocean-acidity-to-more-than-double-by-2100.html">ocean acidity could double by 2100</a>. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> set out to investigate the effects of ocean acidification on coral reef health.  

However, while many studies on coral reefs have asked these same questions, for this project, the researchers took their experiments away from the aquarium and into the ocean.  

“We wanted to get away from experiments in glass boxes and do them on the reef under natural conditions,” said David Kline, the leader of the study. “But we never imagined the differences would be so dramatic.”

Over a period of eight months, the researchers lowered the pH of seawater surrounding a living reef. 

A device called the Free Ocean Carbon Enrichment (FOCE) system was used to pump carbon into the water which would show first hand how reefs respond to ocean acidification and if they can adapt to a rapidly changing environment. The researchers went through around five tanks of CO2 gas.  

“Our underwater time machine (also called a Free Ocean Carbon Enrichment or FOCE system) used an array of sensors and dosing pumps to simulate future high CO2 conditions by controlled pumping of high CO2 seawater over both living and dead Porites cylindrica colonies in our open experimental flumes on the reef flat at the University of Queensland’s Heron Island field station on the Great Barrier Reef,” said Kline. 

The reef went through a drastic transformation, and both living and dead corals were negatively affected by the increased acidity. Coral growth rates dropped to almost zero, and dead corals started dissolving twice as fast. 

The results show that coral reef declines may occur sooner than previously realized. There was one silver lining to the study. The corals that were covered with living tissue were more resilient than their dead coral counterparts.

“The huge difference between the fate of living and dead corals in a natural environment gives me hope,” said Kline. “As we create marine reserves and learn how to increase the amount of living coral by restoring reefs, we’re setting up a positive feedback loop because living coral will grow the reef and slow dissolution.”

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0988-x">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: David Kline

Coral reef experiments confirm climate change predictions

Increases in ocean temperature and acidity due to climate change...

Humans control how much the future economy will suffer from climate change. Humans can control the magnitude of the future economic impacts associated with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-remote-regions/">climate change</a>, according to a multidisciplinary research collaboration led by the <a href="http://www.nies.go.jp/index-e.html">National Institute for Environmental Studies</a>. 

The nature of economic forecasting involves significant degrees of uncertainty. When it comes to predicting how the economy will be affected by a drastically changing climate, the study authors found that the future is uncertain mainly because of how humans will behave, rather than because of how the climate will behave.

When an outcome is uncertain, people are much less motivated to take action. The unpredictability of the climate's response to rising greenhouse gas concentrations, for example, is likely the reason that urgently needed actions are not yet happening. 

The new research suggests that mankind's decisions and actions can overwhelm the uncertainty in climate response, a revelation that should inspire motivation. 

It is important to estimate the economic impacts of climate change, but doing so is extremely challenging because it involves many different types of effects on society. Humans control how much the future economy will suffer from climate change

Representing a diverse range of fields, the experts conducted a global-scale assessment covering the economic impacts associated with climate change for nine impact sectors: changes in agricultural productivity, undernourishment, heat-related excess mortality, cooling and heating demand, occupational health costs, capacity of hydroelectric power generation, capacity of thermal power generation, fluvial flooding, and coastal inundation.

The estimated value of collective impacts from the various sectors was found to be very different depending on the assumption of socioeconomic conditions, the amount of greenhouse gas emissions, and climate responses to increased greenhouse gas concentration. 

Under the most optimistic combination of assumptions, the estimated economic impact will be equivalent to less than one percent of the global GDP at the end of the 21st century, while the most pessimistic assumptions caused this figure to shoot up to 8.6 percent.

Most significantly, the analysis indicates that the contribution of the uncertainty in climate response was minor compared to the contribution of the uncertainty of human actions.

"This means that mankind has the potential to determine the scale of the economic impacts of climate change," said study co-author Dr. Junya Takakura. "In other words, we can choose the future by taking or not taking actions, and have responsibility for the outcome."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by Earth.com

Image Credit: Shutterstock/AMFPhotography

Humans control how much the future economy will suffer from climate change

Humans control how much the future economy will suffer from...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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