The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago did more than erase a charismatic animal; it severed an ancient partnership that once spread the seeds of large-fruited trees across the continent.



A new study shows that these elephant-like creatures were habitual fruit-eaters and indispensable couriers of botanical life. This helps explain why several modern tree species now teeter on the brink of extinction.



An international research team examined ninety-six fossil molars of Notiomastodon platensis collected along a 1,500-kilometer sweep of Chilean coastline.



Using microscopic wear patterns, chemical fingerprints locked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth</a> enamel, and residues trapped in dental calculus, they pieced together the animal’s menu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-traces-reveal-fruit-diet">Fossil traces reveal fruit diet</h2>



Florent Rivals is a researcher at the Catalan Institute for Human Palaeoecology and Social Evolution (<a href="https://cerca.cat/en/centres-cerca/iphes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPHES-CERCA</a>).



“We found starch residues and plant tissues typical of fleshy fruits, such as those of the Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis),” he said.



Those tiny traces, preserved since the Pleistocene, provide the first direct evidence that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/student-discovers-a-34000-year-old-mastodon-fossil-by-accident-while-walking-around-a-farm/">mastodon</a> routinely swallowed whole fruit - and by extension the seeds buried inside.



Stable-isotope signatures reinforced the picture. “Through stable isotope analysis, we were able to reconstruct the animals’ environment and diet with great precision,” said Iván Ramírez-Pedraza, a researcher at IPHES-CERCA who helped chart the chemical trail.



The pattern points to a mixed woodland rich in fruit resources, the kind of landscape where a multi-ton mammal could feast while roaming long distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-a-forty-year-old-idea"><a></a>Testing a forty-year-old idea</h2>



Back in 1982, biologist Daniel Janzen and paleontologist Paul Martin suggested that many tropical trees evolved oversized, sugary fruits specifically to lure now-extinct megafauna.



These included mastodons, giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-world-of-giant-sloths-why-did-they-shrink-and-when-did-it-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sloths</a>, and native horses - animals capable of gulping down the bounty and depositing viable seeds far from the parent plant.



Their “neotropical anachronism” hypothesis was ingenious but largely speculative. The new study supplies the hard proof those pioneers lacked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974219"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



Lead author Erwin González-Guarda of the <a href="https://www.uoh.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of O’Higgins</a> argued that the multi-proxy approach was crucial.



Conventional wear studies alone cannot distinguish leaves from soft fruit, while isotopes reveal diet breadth but not specific ingredients. Residual microfibers in dental plaque filled that gap, confirming that fruit made up a regular part of the mastodon’s meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastodons-spread-forest-seeds">Mastodons spread forest seeds</h2>



“Dental chemistry gives us a direct window into the past,” said co-author Carlos Tornero, an isotope specialist at IPHES-CERCA.



The team concludes Notiomastodon was a key long-distance seed disperser in late Pleistocene South America.



When the animals died out - probably under combined pressure from rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate shifts</a> and expanding human hunting - no substitute of equal size and wanderlust remained.



Tapirs, peccaries, and monkeys still disperse some fruit in tropical zones, but across central Chile, the ecological courier service is effectively bankrupt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-feel-the-absence">Forests feel the absence</h2>



The researchers ran a machine-learning analysis to gauge present-day risk for plants once dependent on megafaunal dispersers.



In central Chile, forty percent of those trees now sit on threatened or endangered lists - four times the proportion in regions where alternative animal carriers survive.



“Where that ecological relationship between plants and animals has been entirely severed, the consequences remain visible even thousands of years later,” said co-author Andrea P. Loayza, paleontologist at the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://ieb-chile.cl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEB</a>) in Chile.



Today the Chilean palm endures in a few fragmented groves. The monkey-puzzle tree, Araucaria araucana, iconic yet genetically impoverished, clings to high Andean ridges.



The gomortega, Gomortega keule, known locally as queule, hangs on in scattered coastal valleys. Its plum-sized fruit now mostly drops beneath the parent canopy, rather than being hauled kilometers away inside a mastodon’s gut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-seeds-and-mastodons">Forests, seeds, and mastodons</h2>



Beyond its detective work, the paper carries a cautionary message. Ecosystems retain the impact of lost species for millennia, and restoring their roles will be a major challenge.



Rewilding with living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-are-not-always-harmful-in-new-territories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a> has been floated as one possibility, and the fresh Chilean data offer a benchmark for choosing modern analogues based on diet and ranging behavior, not just body mass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974221"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



“By combining different lines of evidence, we’ve been able to robustly confirm their frugivory and the key role they played in these ecosystems,” Tornero emphasized.



Conservation managers might use such findings to prioritize corridors that allow surviving mammals to move seeds. They could also experiment with human-mediated dispersal for tree species marooned by the mastodon’s absence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-bones-new-purpose">Old bones, new purpose</h2>



“Paleontology isn’t just about telling old stories,” Rivals concluded. “It helps us recognize what we’ve lost - and what we still have a chance to save.”



With climate change and habitat fragmentation tightening their grip, lessons from deep time may guide present-day action.



Protecting and, where possible, mimicking the ancient partnership between fruit-bearing trees and their gigantic gardeners could give endangered South American forests a second shot at resilience.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02713-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Mastodon extinction is still causing problems with South American ecosystems

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago did more than erase a charismatic animal; it severed an ancient partnership that once spread the seeds of large-fruited trees across the continent. A new study shows that these elephant-like creatures were habitual fruit-eaters and indispensable couriers of botanical life. This helps explain why several modern tree species now teeter on the brink of extinction. An international research team examined ninety-six fossil molars of Notiomastodon platensis collected along a 1,500-kilometer sweep of Chilean coastline. Using microscopic wear...

Over the rest of this century, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fish-worldwide-are-shockingly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/">climate</a> in Texas will steadily become more extreme. A new study predicts that the state will endure increasingly drier summers, potentially leading up to the worst drought conditions that Texas has seen in 1,000 years.

The experts analyzed the most advanced climate models to forecast future drought conditions. They also projected relevant information for regional water planning districts, water suppliers, and stakeholders in the agricultural industry.

The results of the analysis clearly indicate that the state of Texas is getting hotter and drier, and now is the time to take action.

The study showed that Texas was much wetter about 10,000 to 15,000 years ago as the Earth emerged from the last Ice Age. Over the last 1,000 years, there have been multiple cases of megadroughts - prolonged droughts that persist for at least two decades. 

Study lead author John Nielsen-Gammon is a climatologist and professor at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a>.

"Our study shows that the drier conditions expected in the latter half of the 21st century could be drier than any of those megadroughts, depending on how you measure dryness," said Professor Nielsen-Gammon.

The drought of the 1950s was one of the worst natural disasters in Texas history. The seven-year dry spell remains the most severe drought in Texas in the past 125 years. 

Despite a history of devastating droughts in Texas, the researchers found that current water plans do not account for potential declines in the state's water supply.

"The state water plan doesn't explicitly consider climate change in figuring out how water supply and water demand will both change," said Professor Nielsen-Gammon. 

"As our paper points out, pinning numbers on either of those changes is a difficult challenge, and it's not simply a matter of estimating changes in precipitation." 

"Tying future water supply to criteria established by the drought of record is a defensible choice, but policymakers should be aware that the chances of exceeding the drought of record are probably increasing year by year."

The study revealed that some regions of Texas will be disproportionately impacted by drier conditions. The researchers noted that West Texas is particularly prone to drought conditions.

"West Texas seems most likely to get a double whammy: decreased rainfall and increased temperatures," said Professor Nielsen-Gammon. "Even though rainfall has increased statewide over the past century by about 10 percent, West Texas has seen little to no increase." 

"West Texas is already planning for what happens as one or more critical aquifers get depleted. Climate change is going to make that depletion happen a little bit faster, but the decline of the Ogallala Aquifer is primarily caused by water extraction for irrigation rather than by climate change."

It is very likely that Texas will continue to become hotter and drier because any long-term changes in precipitation will be "dwarfed" by how much more evaporation will deplete the water supply, explained Professor Nielsen-Gammon. He said the severity of the future dryness will likely depend on local circumstances, and there are key questions that remain to be answered.

"These include ones such as, does it matter what time of year sees increases or decreases in precipitation? How much water supply is there? Is the most important issue the amount of water or the health of the crops and foliage? Is it more important to get runoff or to have the rainfall soak into the ground?" 

Professor Nielsen-Gammon emphasized that droughts are temporary by definition, so it would not be correct to think of the future as a state of permanent drought.

"It's really a change in the climate, with the normally dry conditions in West Texas slowly migrating toward East Texas."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/23284277">Earth's Future</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Texas could face the worst drought conditions in 1,000 years 

Over the rest of this century, the climate in Texas...

In a new study from <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, experts used tiny radio transmitters to monitor the movements and activities of bumblebees. The researchers found that after establishing their nests, bumblebees modify their lifestyle, including diet and habitat.

The analysis, which was led by Pablo Cavigliasso of the <a href="https://www.argentina.gob.ar/inta">Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria</a>, suggests that bees require diversified landscapes to support their needs, which change throughout various phases of life.

According to the study authors, the findings contribute to the growing understanding of how bumblebees use the environment, and provide valuable insight for conservation during a critical time in the bumblebee life cycle.

Many bumblebee species are rapidly declining, and some groups are even critically endangered. Identifying the resources used by bumblebees in agricultural landscapes can inform farmland management practices that support bee populations and protect the important pollination services they provide.

For the current study, the researchers investigated the habitat selection of 17 queen bumblebees across blueberry fields in Entre Ríos province, Argentina. After attaching tiny 0.2g radio transmitters to each queen bee, the team used radio telemetry to track their locations.

Before they established a nest, the queens had a much larger range, often searching for suitable nesting areas throughout the blueberry fields. However, once a nest was established, they transitioned to a smaller range along the edges of the fields near the forest. 

The bees also switched over to a diet of wild floral species. With a nest to maintain, the bees seemed to prefer landscapes with greater floral diversity to support their growing worker colony.

The research highlights the need for land owners and farmers to consider the full life cycle of bees, from the time of nest formation to the emergence of worker bees. This approach could help maintain native bees in farmlands for many generations, along with their valuable pollination services.

"In this study we provide insight into how bumblebee queens use different habitat elements at crucial periods in their life cycle, showing the importance of mass flowering crops like blueberry in the first flights, and how diversified landscapes help support bee populations as their needs changes during the during the early phases of its life cycle,' said Cavigliasso.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Bumblebees change their lifestyle after establishing a nest

In a new study from PLOS, experts used tiny radio...

A new study has linked inadequate <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-quality-linked-to-heart-disease/">sleep</a> to mental health complications in young people. The research reveals that sleep deprivation may compromise the emotional well-being of children.

Study lead author Dr. Candice Alfano is a professor of Psychology at the <a href="https://www.uh.edu/">University of Houston</a> and the director of the Sleep and Anxiety Center of Houston.

"After sleep restriction, we observed changes in the way children experience, regulate and express their emotions," said Dr. Alfano. "But, somewhat to our surprise, the most significant alterations were found in response to positive rather than negative emotional stimuli."

A growing collection of research shows that sleep deprivation can damage emotional health, yet there has been a lack of experimental studies to investigate this correlation in children.

For the current study, Dr. Alfano and her team assessed 53 children between the ages of 7 and 11 using a variety of methods. The children participated in two emotional assessments - one following a night of healthy sleep and one following two nights of extremely restricted sleep.

The children viewed a range of pictures and movie clips to evoke both positive and negative emotions. The researchers recorded how the children responded on multiple levels, including their facial expressions. 

The team also collected respiratory sinus arrhythmias, an indicator of cardiac-linked emotion regulation, for a more objective approach.

"Studies based on subjective reports of emotion are critically important, but they don't tell us much about the specific mechanisms through which insufficient sleep elevates children's psychiatric risk." 

According to Dr. Alfano, the findings may provide a new understanding of how poor sleep can "spill over" into children's everyday social and emotional lives. 

"The experience and expression of positive emotions are essential for children's friendships, healthy social interactions and effective coping. Our findings might explain why children who sleep less on average have more peer-related problems," said Dr. Alfano.

The study also showed that the emotional impacts of sleep loss were not consistent among the children. In particular, children with pre-existing anxiety symptoms exhibited the most dramatic emotional responses to sleep deprivation.

Dr. Alfano said the results highlight a need to prioritize healthy sleep habits in emotionally vulnerable children.

The study is published in the <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14697610">Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Sleep deprivation affects emotional well-being in children

A new study has linked inadequate sleep to mental health...

Rising temperatures in Lake Michigan may help the invasive Asian carp gain a stronghold, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>. 

The researchers found that warming waters reduce the ability of local quagga <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mussels-technology-oil-spills/">mussels</a> to serve as an ecological barrier against the spread of the carp.

Trillions of freshwater mussels known as quagga mussels cover the bottom of Lake Michigan. Some scientists suggest that the tiny mussels could help prevent the establishment of Asian carp by competing with them for algae and other types of plankton. 

The new study all but shuts down this theory, even in the best case scenario. The researchers determined that the ability of quagga mussels to help eliminate Asian carp is already limited, and the combination of global warming and nutrient pollution will further limit the potential for mussels to stop the spread of the fish.

As Asian carp continue to expand their range, concerns are growing that the fish will access the Great Lakes through the Chicago Area Waterway System. The carp could outcompete plankton-eating fish across the Great Lakes, including the larvae of most species, potentially devastating the region's $7 billion fishing industry.

Last year, the research team reported that two species of Asian carp - bighead and silver carp - pose a high risk of becoming established in Lake Michigan.

Study lead author Peter Alsip is an expert at the Cooperative Institute for Great Lakes Research.

"Our new research demonstrates that the presence of an already entrenched food competitor - the mussels - has a limited capacity to act as a barrier to a bighead and silver carp invasion, and that climate warming and nutrient enrichment could further diminish the mussels' ability to affect Asian carp habitat," explained Alsip.

The investigation was focused on how climate change, nutrient pollution, and the arrival of quagga mussels have affected Lake Michigan's vulnerability to bighead and silver carp. The invasive fish are currently present in adjacent watersheds, but not in the lake itself.

Computer simulations showed that the levels of climate warming that are predicted for the coming decades will improve Asian carp habitat in two significant ways.

First, the fish will feed more actively in warmer waters during the spring. In addition, the summer stratification period - when lake waters separate into three distinct layers - will persist for longer periods of time. As a result, Asian carp will spend less time competing with mussels for food in the top waters.

Prolonged summer stratification would not only block the mussels' access to food in surface waters, but would also open up previously unsuitable offshore habitats for Asian carp. The simulations revealed that warmer waters will double the volume of suitable habitat for bighead carp in the spring and increase the volume of suitable springtime habitat for silver carp by nearly one-third.

"One of our key findings is that spring is the most affected season, and that's when most of the fish species in Lake Michigan have their plankton-eating larval stages," said study co-author Hongyan Zhang. "Thus, climate changes and nutrient levels that favor Asian carp establishment may also enhance the negative effects of Asian carp on other fish species."

Overall, the potential for high phosphorus levels will have the most influence on Asian carp habitat suitability across Lake Michigan. The modeling study showed that increased phosphorus concentrations resulted in the longest growing seasons for Asian carp and the largest volume of suitable habitat.

Any future increases in phosphorus levels throughout Lake Michigan would only create a more hospitable environment for Asian carp, explained the study authors.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10530">Biological Invasions</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global warming could help Asian carp invade Lake Michigan

Rising temperatures in Lake Michigan may help the invasive Asian...

Experts at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> have developed a handheld test that can detect 17 types of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-water-treatment-method-is-eco-friendly/">water</a>  contaminants, including lead, copper, and pharmaceuticals. 

The system has been compared to a pregnancy test, because it only takes one drop of water and a few minutes to produce a positive or negative result. According to the researchers, the tests are also extremely inexpensive to make.

The experts tested their technology in Paradise, California. Toxins had corrupted the water supply in Paradise after the Camp Fire, the deadliest and most destructive wildfire in California history.

The new platform is powered by synthetic biology, and can be continuously updated to detect additional types of pollutants. If the test detects a specific contaminant level that exceeds the EPA's standards, it glows green.

Study lead author Julius Lucks is a professor of Chemical and Biological Engineering in Northwestern's McCormick School of Engineering and a member of the Center for Synthetic Biology.

"Current water tests rely on a centralized laboratory that contains really expensive equipment and requires expertise to operate," said Professor Lucks. "Sending in a sample can cost up to $150 and take several weeks to get results." 

"We're offering a technology that enables anyone to directly test their own water and know if they have contamination within minutes. It's so simple to use that we can put it into the hands of the people who need it most."

A major obstacle for ensuring the safety of drinking water is that people cannot usually see or taste contaminants.

"Nature has already solved this problem," said study co-first author Khalid Alam. "Biology has spent over three billion years evolving an elegant solution to detect contaminants."

According to Professor Luck's, the team found that bacteria naturally "taste" things in the water. 

"They do so with little molecular-level 'taste buds.' Cell-free synthetic biology allows us to take those little molecular taste buds out and put them into a test tube. We can then 're-wire' them up to produce a visual signal. It glows to let the user quickly and easily see if there's a contaminant in their water," explained Professor Lucks.

The "taste buds" are freeze-dried and placed in test tubes. Adding a drop of water to the tube and flicking it triggers a chemical reaction that creates a green glow in the presence of a contaminant.

"The magic is in the tubes," said Professor Lucks. "We compose everything and freeze dry it - the same process as making astronaut ice cream."

The testing platform - RNA output sensors activated by ligand induction - is nicknamed ROSALIND in honor of the famous chemist Rosalind Franklin.

The project was also inspired by Professor Lucks' wife, Northwestern anthropologist Sera Young, who studies global food and water security.

"Sera researches how poor water quality impacts people's daily lives," said Professor Lucks. "People tend to go to the most convenient sources to get water. But if they knew that water was contaminated, they might choose to travel farther to find safer water. We want everyone to have the tools they need in order to make informed decisions."

Upon testing the new system in Paradise, California, the team found that ROSALIND successfully identified the presence of elevated toxic metals in the water supply. The test provided much faster and less expensive results when compared to gold-standard water tests.

"Laboratory testing doesn't scale," said Alam. "It shouldn't take days to get an answer to the simple question: 'Is my water safe to drink?'"

"To ensure access to safe and clean drinking water, we need technologies that will allow easy monitoring of water quality," said Professor Lucks. "With a simple, easy-to-use, handheld device like ROSALIND, you can test the water in your home or out in the field - where you would want to use it most."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nbt/">Nature Biotechnology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

New test detects water contamination in minutes 

Experts at Northwestern University have developed a handheld test that...

A new study published in <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a> reports that individuals who come down with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/seasonal-flu-deaths-are-higher-in-u-s-cities-with-pro-sports-teams/">influenza</a> A have a lower risk of infection later in life. The research also shows that early exposure to the seasonal flu has an influence on the effectiveness of flu vaccines.

The findings may ultimately help to predict age-specific risks of contracting the flu.

The seasonal flu is an acute respiratory infection that has three types - A, B and C. Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes, and the A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) are the subtypes that are currently in circulation. 

Each year in the United States, the flu causes around 100,000 to 600,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 to 27,000 deaths.

The seasonal flu evolves rapidly, and the emergence of new strains leaves more people susceptible to infection. However, it has been difficult for experts to determine how susceptibility arises and changes over time.

Study first author Philip Arevalo is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Ecology and Evolution at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a>.

"Since the risk of influenza infection in a given age group changes over time, factors other than age may affect our susceptibility to infection," said Arevalo. "We wanted to see whether these differences can be explained in part by the protection gained from childhood flu infection, which has lasting impacts on the immune response to future infections and the protection against new influenza A subtypes."

The researchers set out to measure the effects of early flu exposure and to understand how this exposure may influence the effectiveness of vaccines.

The investigation was focused on data from the 2007-2008 to 2017-2018 flu seasons in the Marshfield Epidemiologic Study Area (MESA) in Marshfield, Wisconsin. During the study, individuals were recruited and tested for flu when seeking care for acute respiratory infection. 

The team applied statistical models to the data to analyze the documented flu cases along with vaccine effectiveness.

The analysis showed that despite the large-scale evolution of influenza A subtypes H1N1 and H3N2 over the study period, early infection reduced the likelihood of an individual seeking medical attention for the same subtype later in life. This effect was found to be stronger for H1N1 compared to H3N2. 

The study also revealed that the effectiveness of a flu vaccine varies with both age and birth year, suggesting that flu vaccinations are also influenced by early exposure.

"We hope the findings from our study will improve our understanding of influenza epidemiology and the low and variable effectiveness of the seasonal flu vaccine," said study senior author Sarah Cobey. "This would lead to better forecasting and vaccination strategies to help combat future flu seasons."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Early exposure to seasonal flu lowers susceptibility later in life

A new study published in eLife reports that individuals who...

The degradation of seagrass meadows on the Australian coastline has released a shocking amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) over the last seven decades. Researchers at <a href="http://www.ecu.edu.au/">Edith Cowan University</a> (ECU) estimate that CO2 <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-degradation-is-a-major-source-of-co2-emissions/">emissions</a> associated with the loss of Australian seagrass are comparable to the annual emissions of five million cars.

According to PhD student Cristian Salinas, around 161,150 hectares of seagrass have been lost from Australian coasts since the 1950s due to land use changes, resulting in a two percent increase in annual carbon dioxide emissions.

Salinas and marine scientists at ECU's Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research developed a modeling technique to measure carbon stocks in the Cockburn Sound, an inlet of the Indian Ocean on the coast of Western Australia. The experts report that this region lost around 23 square kilometers of seagrass between the 1960s and 1990s as a result of nutrient pollution and environmental degradation associated with urban and industrial development.

Salinas said the finding is significant because seagrass meadows play such a vital role in mitigating the impacts of climate change.

"Known as 'blue carbon,' seagrass meadows have been estimated to store CO2 in their soils about 30 times faster than most terrestrial forests," said Salinas. "Seagrass meadows have been under constant threat in Australia through coastal development and nutrient runoff since the 1960s." 

"On top of that, climate change is causing marine heatwaves that are catastrophic to the seagrasses. This study serves as a stark reminder of how important these environments are."

Salinas explained that the study provides a clear baseline to estimate potential CO2 emissions following seagrass degradation, and emphasized the need for preservation and restoration. He noted that the inclusion of seagrass into the Australian Emission Reduction Fund could contribute to achieve conservation goals.

To estimate how soil carbon storage was impacted by seagrass degradation, the ECU team analyzed various factors including soil accumulation rates, water depth, and soil grain size. The analysis revealed that energy from waves and tides also contributed to the release of soil carbon in the Cockburn Sound. 

"Without seagrass acting as a buffer, the hydrodynamic energy from the ocean releases the carbon by moving the seabed sand around," explained Salinas.

In shallow areas of water without seagrass, hydrodynamic energy was more intense and soil carbon was very low. On the other hand, shallow areas containing seagrass meadows were found to contain more carbon than seagrass in deeper water, demonstrating the powerful capacity of seagrass to sequester and store carbon. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Seagrass degradation is a major source of CO2 emissions

The degradation of seagrass meadows on the Australian coastline has...

In a matter of just three decades, Puerto Rican honey <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hungry-bumblebees-bite-plants-to-make-them-bloom-early/">bees</a> have somehow become less aggressive and much more gentle than their "killer bee" predecessors. 

A new study may help to unravel this mystery, showing that aggressive behavior among honey bees is primarily influenced by the genetic traits of the hive as a whole, rather than by the DNA of individual bees.

Study co-lead author Matthew Hudson is a professor of Bioinformatics at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a>.

"We've always thought that the most significant aspects of an organism's behavior are driven, at least in part, by its own genetic endowment and not the genomics of its society," said Professor Hudson. "This is a signal that there may be more to genetics as a whole than we've been thinking about."

Africanized honey bees will swarm and attack an intruder, even far from the hive, to defend their territory. However, Puerto Rican descendants of these so-called killer bees have evolved to become much more docile. 

Previous research conducted by the Illinois scientists revealed that Puerto Rican bees still have most of the genetic traits of Africanized honey bees, except for a few regions of DNA that resemble European honey bees.

For the current investigation, the researchers examined nine honey bee populations in Puerto Rico.

"We wanted to know which parts of the genome are responsible for gentle behavior versus aggressive behavior," said Professor Hudson. "And because these are Africanized bees but they're also gentle, they are an ideal population to study. There's quite a bit of variation in aggression among them."

Upon the disturbance of their hive, honey bees that serve as guards chemically signal soldier bees to mobilize. Soldier bees that launch a full-blown attack and resort to stinging sacrifice their lives. Foraging bees, on the other hand, do not typically participate in violence to defend the hive.

The researchers analyzed the genetic makeup of soldier and forager bees from each of the honey bee colonies in Puerto Rico. They also examined the aggressiveness of soldier bees while defending the colony.

The experts found that there were no substantial differences in the genome sequences of soldier and forager bees that could explain why they respond so differently to threats.

However, when the researchers compared the collective DNA sequences of the most aggressive honey bee hives with the least aggressive hives, they identified a strong association between hive genomics and aggression. 

The study pinpointed one particular region of the genome that seems to have a major influence on the gentle or violent nature of a bee hive.

"Mostly these bees' genomes look like Africanized bees," said Hudson. "But there was one chunk that looked very European. And the frequency of that European chunk in the hive seems to dictate how gentle that hive is going to be to a large extent."

"What that tells us is that the individual genetic makeup of the bee doesn't have a strong influence on how aggressive it is. But the genetic makeup of the society that the bees live in - the colony - has a very strong impact on how aggressive the bees in that colony are."

Study co-lead author Professor Gene Robinson explained how the research relates to other species.

"Many behavioral traits in animals and humans are known to be strongly affected by inherited differences in genome sequence, but for many behaviors, how an individual acts also is influenced by how others around it are acting - nature and nurture, respectively. We now see that in the beehive, nurture can also have a strong genomic signature."

According to Professor Robinson, behavioral genomic influences may be particularly pronounced in honey bees, which live in an extraordinarily cooperative society where each individual has a defined social and functional role.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Killer bees are aggressive by nurture, not just by nature

In a matter of just three decades, Puerto Rican honey...

A new study from <a href="https://www.isglobal.org/en/home">Barcelona Institute for Global Health</a> (ISGlobal) suggests that blue spaces such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-infestation-beaches/">beaches</a>, lakes, or rivers provide mental health benefits. The experts report that short walks in areas that feature water can improve one's mood and overall well-being.

As part of the BlueHealth project, the researchers analyzed the physical and mental responses of 59 individuals before and after exposure to various settings.

During one week, participants spent 20 minutes each day walking across a beach in Barcelona. During a second week, the individuals spent 20 minutes a day walking along city streets. 

For the third week of the experiment, the participants were instructed to spend the same amount of time relaxing indoors.

Before, during, and after each activity, the heart rate and blood pressure of each participant was measured. The experts also used surveys to assess well-being and mood.

"We saw a significant improvement in the participants' well-being and mood immediately after they went for a walk in the blue space, compared with walking in an urban environment or resting," said study co-author Mark Nieuwenhuijsen.

After taking a short walk on the beach, participants reported improvements in their mood, vitality, and mental health. 

"Our results show that the psychological benefits of physical activity vary according to the type of environment where it is carried out, and that blue spaces are better than urban spaces in this regard," said study lead author Cristina Vert.

While cardiovascular health benefits were not identified, the researchers believe this was due to the short duration of the oceanfront walks.

"We assessed the immediate effects of taking a short walk along a blue space," said Vert. "Continuous, long-lasting exposure to these spaces might have positive effects on cardiovascular health that we were not able to observe in this study."

Previously, ISGlobal studies have documented specific health benefits associated with green spaces, including improved focus and attention in children, lower risk of obesity, and slower physical decline in adults. The new study provides evidence that blue spaces are favorable to mental health.

"According to the United Nations, 55 percent of the global population now lives in cities," said Nieuwenhuijsen. "It is crucial to identify and enhance elements that improve our health - such as blue spaces - so that we can create healthier, more sustainable and more liveable cities."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-research">Environmental Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Blue spaces improve mood and well-being

A new study from Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal)...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> suggests that some of the biggest animals that ever lived had ancestors that were tiny. Researchers have discovered an ancient relative of dinosaurs and pterosaurs that was only four inches tall.

The fossil reptile, Kongonaphon kely, existed around 237 million years ago. The new species is also referred to as the "tiny bug slayer" because it appears to have survived on a diet of insects.

"There's a general perception of dinosaurs as being giants," said study co-author Christian Kammerer. "But this new animal is very close to the divergence of dinosaurs and pterosaurs, and it's shockingly small."

Due to a lack of fossil evidence, the origins of Ornithodira groups such as dinosaurs and pterosaurs are not very well understood. The fossils of Kongonaphon were discovered in 1998 in Madagascar by a team of researchers led by paleontologist John Flynn.

"This fossil site in southwestern Madagascar from a poorly known time interval globally has produced some amazing fossils, and this tiny specimen was jumbled in among the hundreds we've collected from the site over the years," said Flynn. 

"It took some time before we could focus on these bones, but once we did, it was clear we had something unique and worth a closer look. This is a great case for why field discoveries - combined with modern technology to analyze the fossils recovered - is still so important."

Kammerer explained that Kongonaphon is not the first small animal known near the root of the Ornithodira family tree, but such specimens were previously considered "isolated exceptions to the rule." It was assumed that body size remained similar among the first archosaurs and the earliest ornithodirans, before some creatures became gigantic.

"Recent discoveries like Kongonaphon have given us a much better understanding of the early evolution of ornithodirans. Analyzing changes in body size throughout archosaur evolution, we found compelling evidence that it decreased sharply early in the history of the dinosaur-pterosaur lineage," said Kammerer.

&nbsp;

The "miniaturization event" may have served as a survival strategy for early ornithodirans. For example, teeth marks found on Kongonaphon show that the tiny creature preyed on insects. This diet eliminated the need for the creatures to compete with their relatives for meat.

The research also suggests that feathers and other fuzzy skin coverings found on dinosaurs and pterosaurs may have originated to protect their small-bodied ancestors from the climate extremes of the mid-late Triassic period.

"Discovery of this tiny relative of dinosaurs and pterosaurs emphasizes the importance of Madagascar's fossil record for improving knowledge of vertebrate history during times that are poorly known in other places," said study co-author Professor Lovasoa Ranivoharimanana. 

"Over two decades, our collaborative Madagascar-U.S. teams have trained many Malagasy students in paleontological sciences, and discoveries like this helps people in Madagascar and around the world better appreciate the exceptional record of ancient life preserved in the rocks of our country."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaurs may have descended from four-inch-tall ancestors

A new study from the American Museum of Natural History...

In recent years, scientists have begun to unravel the structural changes that take place in a woman's brain during <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/vegetable-consumption-before-pregnancy-lowers-risk-of-preterm-birth/">pregnancy</a> and after childbirth.

One study published in Nature Neuroscience showed that brain remodeling persists for as long as two years after a child is born, and the modifications may play a key role in the transition to motherhood.

A new study from the <a href="https://www.sfn.org/">Society for Neuroscience</a> has produced even more evidence that neural modifications help moms adapt. Using a mouse model, the researchers found that motherhood takes over the brain's decision-making regions to prioritize caring for offspring. 

The brain's medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) filters relevant information to help us make decisions. This process often involves choosing between conflicting stimuli that can be very powerful, such as when a mother who is addicted to drugs must decide whether to seek drugs or care for her child.

The infralimbic and prelimbic cortices of the (mPFC) have been shown to control behavior in different ways. The prelimbic cortex has been implicated in the expression of drug-seeking behavior, while the infralimbic cortex is thought to suppress such behavior.

The most effective addiction therapies for new moms emphasize the relationship between the mother and infant. With this in mind, the study authors theorized that there must be a region of the brain that guides a mother to prioritize offspring over drugs.

To investigate, the researchers temporarily deactivated the infralimbic and prelimbic cortices  in mice and then gave them the choice between a room with their pups or a room with cocaine. Prior to this trial, 40 percent of the mice showed a preference for their pups, 40 percent showed a preference for cocaine, and 20 percent were neutral.

The study revealed that when the infralimbic cortex was deactivated, none of the mice chose the pup room and 78 percent chose the cocaine room. On the other hand, when the infralimbic cortex remained active, most mice selected the pup room and none entered the room with drugs.

The researchers concluded that during motherhood, the brain recruits the power of the infralimbic cortex to prioritize caring for offspring over competing inclinations. The study showed that when the infralimbic cortex was shut down, mothers were less protective and nurturing toward their babies.

The research is published in the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Neural changes help guide decisions in motherhood

In recent years, scientists have begun to unravel the structural...

In a new study published by the <a href="https://www.europeanlung.org/">European Lung Foundation</a>, experts have found that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nearly-half-of-u-s-teens-have-been-harassed-by-a-partner/">teenagers</a> who stay up late are more prone to allergy and asthma issues than those who go to bed earlier.

Previous research established a strong link between asthma and the body's circadian rhythm, with symptoms worsening in the early morning hours. The current study is the first to examine sleep patterns and asthma risk among teens.

According to the researchers, the study reinforces the importance of sleep timing for teenagers and opens up a new channel of research into how sleep affects respiratory health.

"Asthma and allergic diseases are common in children and adolescents across the world and the prevalence is increasing. We know some of the reasons for this increase, such as exposure to pollution and tobacco smoke, but we still need to find out more," explained study lead author Dr. Subhabrata Moitra, who conducted the research at the Barcelona Institute for Global Health.

"Sleep and the 'sleep hormone' melatonin are known to influence asthma, so we wanted to see if adolescents' preference for staying up late or going to bed early could be involved in their asthma risk."

The investigation was focused on data from the Prevalence and Risk Factors of Asthma and Allergy-Related Diseases among Adolescents (PERFORMANCE) study, involving 1,684 adolescents living in West Bengal, India.

The participants reported on any wheezing, asthma, or allergy symptoms - such as a runny nose and sneezing. 

The teens were asked questions regarding what time of the evening or night they feel tired, when they choose to wake up, and how tired they feel first thing in the morning. This information was used to classify the teens as being evening types, morning types, or somewhere in between.

When the researchers compared the teenagers' medical symptoms with their sleep preferences, they found that asthma was around three times more prevalent among teens who preferred to fall asleep later at night. The study also revealed that the risk of allergic rhinitis was twice as high in adolescents who went to bed and woke up later.

"Our results suggest there's a link between preferred sleep time, and asthma and allergies in teenagers," said Dr. Moitra. "We can't be certain that staying up late is causing asthma, but we know that the sleep hormone melatonin is often out of sync in late-sleepers and that could, in turn, be influencing teenagers allergic response."

"We also know that children and young people are increasingly exposed to the light from mobile phone, tablets, and other devices, and staying up later at night. It could be that encouraging teenagers to put down their devices and get to bed a little earlier would help decrease the risk of asthma and allergies. That's something that we need to study more."

Professor Thierry Troosters,  president of the European Respiratory Society, commented on the research. 

"We need to know much more about why asthma and allergies are rising in children and teenagers and, hopefully, find ways to reduce these conditions," said Dr. Troosters.

"This is the first study to examine the possible role of different sleep preferences in teenagers' risk of asthma and allergies, and it opens up an interesting and important new line of research. We already know that sleeping well is important for physical and mental health, so we should continue to encourage teenagers to get a good night's sleep."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://openres.ersjournals.com/">ERJ Open Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Teens who stay up late have more asthma and allergy issues

In a new study published by the European Lung Foundation,...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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