Our galaxy may be wrapped in a richer swarm of tiny companions than astronomers have ever seen. New calculations predict that there are dozens of ultra-faint satellite galaxies circling close to the Milky Way.



They are too dim for current surveys to spot, but real enough to tip the cosmic balance sheet in favor of standard cosmology.



The forecast comes from cosmologists at <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/">Durham University</a>. By combining the sharpest supercomputer simulations available with new mathematical modeling, the team argues that up to 100 additional satellites should be lurking nearby.



Many are likely to be “orphan” galaxies, almost entirely stripped of the dark matter cocoons that once cradled them. This twist could finally resolve a long-standing mismatch between theory and observation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-ghost-galaxies">The Milky Way’s ghost galaxies</h2>



The study begins with the Lambda Cold Dark Matter framework. In this model, roughly five percent of the cosmos is ordinary matter, twenty-five percent is cold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/">dark matter,</a> and the remaining seventy percent is dark energy.



In this model, galaxies shine from the centers of vast dark-matter halos. Most star systems in the Universe are low-mass dwarf galaxies bound to a more massive host.



The problem is that classic LCDM computations generate far more dwarf satellites than astronomers have cataloged around the Milky Way. Either the model is wrong or the satellites are missing.



To probe that gap, the Durham group turned to the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/videos/aquarius_springel/">Aquarius simulation</a>, the highest-resolution model yet of a Milky Way-like dark-matter halo. The team also used <a href="https://galaxies.northwestern.edu/">GALFORM</a>, a code that tracks gas cooling, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/">star formation</a>, and feedback.



Even top tools miss tiny halos when they near the galaxy and feel its tidal pull. Analytical fixes revived erased halos, letting researchers track their stellar remnants across 13 billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-galaxies-cluster-nearby">Lost galaxies cluster nearby</h2>



The key insight is that the galaxies whose halos entered the Milky Way’s neighborhood early have spent eons being stretched, prodded, and shaved by gravity. Their dark matter bleeds away first; their stars shrink into faint knots that simulations often drop but nature should keep.



The models suggest that these ghostly remnants have orbital histories similar to the brighter satellites we already know. They tend to cluster within a few hundred thousand light-years of the galactic center.



Because they are faint and sparse, current imaging misses them, but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-images-from-the-vera-c-rubin-observatory-are-breathtaking/">Vera C. Rubin Observatory</a>’s LSST camera, now undergoing commissioning, should pull many into view.



“We know the Milky Way has some 60 confirmed companion satellite galaxies," said lead author Isabel Santos-Santos, a cosmologist at Durham. "We think there should be dozens more of these faint galaxies orbiting around the Milky Way at close distances.” 



If their predictions are correct, it strengthens support for the Lambda Cold Dark Matter theory of how structure in the Universe forms and evolves.



“Observational astronomers are using our predictions as a benchmark with which to compare the new data they are obtaining,” she said. “One day soon, we may be able to see these ’missing’ galaxies, which would be hugely exciting and could tell us more about how the Universe came to be as we see it today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-images-of-the-milky-way">Future images of the Milky Way</h2>



Over the past decade, wide-field cameras such as the <a href="https://www.darkenergysurvey.org/">Dark Energy Survey</a> have turned up about thirty ultra-faint satellite candidates. 



Yet astronomers still debate whether these specks are true dwarf galaxies embedded in dark matter or merely star-cluster outliers.



The study argues that many of them - and many more beyond - should indeed be galaxies, the visible tips of dark-matter fragments pared to the bone. 



Future deep imaging and stellar-population studies will be critical for deciding which candidates carry dark matter signatures such as elevated velocity dispersions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-milky-way-s-ghost-galaxies">Finding the Milky Way's ghost galaxies</h2>



“If the population of very faint satellites that we are predicting is discovered with new data, it would be a remarkable success of the LCDM theory of galaxy formation,” said co-author Carlos Frenk, a professor of computational cosmology at Durham.



"Using the laws of physics, solved using a large supercomputer, and mathematical modelling we can make precise predictions that astronomers, equipped with new, powerful telescopes, can test."



Validating the prediction would also quiet doubts raised by the so-called “missing satellite” and “too-big-to-fail” problems - tensions often cited as cracks in LCDM.



If the Milky Way does host scores of nearly invisible ghost galaxies, then the theory’s tally of dark-matter clumps stands. What looked like a failure of physics may be a failure of detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ghosts-become-neighbors">Ghosts become neighbors</h2>



With LSST set to map the southern skies to unprecedented depths, the hunt for hidden satellites is gaining momentum. Other instruments, such as the European Space Agency’s Euclid telescope, will help sharpen the picture. 



New algorithms tuned to pick out diffuse, low-surface-brightness objects will scan the LSST deluge, guided by the locations and properties the Durham models predict.



Discovering even a fraction of the proposed “orphan” galaxies would give cosmologists a richer lab for testing how dark matter behaves on small scales and how starlight survives in extreme environments.



It would also remind us that the Milky Way, though serene to the naked eye, belongs to a teeming, fragile community of companions.



For now, they remain ghosts in a computer. But new telescopes may soon reveal them as real, stellar neighbors, deepening our understanding of how galaxies, large and small, take shape in the dark.



The research was presented at the <a href="https://conference.astro.dur.ac.uk/event/7/">National Astronomy Meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



Image Credit: The Aquarius simulation, the Virgo Consortium/Dr. Mark Lovell



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Dozens of 'ghost galaxies' may be orbiting the Milky Way

Our galaxy may be wrapped in a richer swarm of tiny companions than astronomers have ever seen. New calculations predict that there are dozens of ultra-faint satellite galaxies circling close to the Milky Way. They are too dim for current surveys to spot, but real enough to tip the cosmic balance sheet in favor of standard cosmology. The forecast comes from cosmologists at Durham University. By combining the sharpest supercomputer simulations available with new mathematical modeling, the team argues that up to 100 additional satellites should be...

Scientists have reconstructed the lost continent of Greater Adria. In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/gondwana-research">Gondwana Research</a>, researchers have reconstructed the lost continent of Greater Adria in more detail than ever before. The ancient landmass broke off of the supercontinent Gondwana about 240 million years ago, but ultimately smashed into southern Europe, where it is now mostly submerged.

Gondwana was a southern supercontinent made up of major landmasses such as Africa, Antarctica, South America, and Australia. Greater Adria was also included in these large landmasses, extending from what we now know as the Alps all the way to modern-day Iran.

According to <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science Magazine</a>, the remains of Greater Adria are still visible in some areas, such as in limestone and other rocks in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/alps-lose-glacier-volume-2100/">Alps</a>. 

The size and shape of the original landmass have been difficult to reconstruct. For example, due to the continent's violent tectonic history, its remnants are distributed across more than 30 countries from Spain to Iran. 

[caption id="attachment_1877815" align="aligncenter" width="634"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/lost-continent.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1877815" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/lost-continent.jpg" alt="" width="634" height="335" /></a> Image Credit: Douwe van Hinsbergen[/caption]

Study lead author Douwe van Hinsbergen is an expert in Global Tectonics and Paleogeography in the Department of Earth Sciences at Utrecht University. He explained that some of Greater Adria's land was underwater, which means that it was likely a string of islands or archipelagos.

For more than ten years, van Hinsbergen and his team collected and analyzed rocks from Greater Adria. The researchers examined the orientation of tiny magnetic minerals trapped within the rocks, which indicates where they formed hundreds of millions of years ago.

[caption id="attachment_1877816" align="aligncenter" width="632"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/greater-adria.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1877816" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/greater-adria.jpg" alt="" width="632" height="614" /></a> Image Credit: Douwe van Hinsbergen[/caption]

The team also pieced together large rocks that were once ripped apart by moving faults. Van Hinsbergen said it was like a big jigsaw puzzle. "All the bits and pieces are jumbled up and I spent the last 10 years making the puzzle again." 

The researchers used software to create detailed maps of the ancient continent and found that it moved northward while slightly twisting before colliding with Europe about 100 million years ago. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/gondwana-research">Gondwana Research</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/NASA/Nostalgia for Infinity

Scientists have reconstructed the lost continent of Greater Adria

Scientists have reconstructed the lost continent of Greater Adria. In...

Jurassic crocodile finally identified after 250 years. Nearly 250 years after its fossil was discovered in Germany, an 180-million-year-old <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/american-crocodile-recovery/">crocodile</a> has finally been identified as a Mystriosaurus laurillardi. 

This positive identification comes 60 years after paleontologists first hypothesized that the ancient croc was a member of a similar species, called Steneosaurus bollensis, which lived during the same time as Mystriosaurus.

Mystriosaurus had a long snout, sharp teeth, and primarily ate fish within tropical waters during the Jurassic period. It’s believed that the creature could grow up to 14.7 feet long.

The prehistoric crocodile was finally identified after a team of paleontologists, some of whom hailed from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>, compared its fossil to other fossils found in both the U.K. and Germany. During this process, the team successfully identified another mystery skull found in Yorkshire in the 1800s as also belonging to a Mystriosaurus laurillardi.

Because Mystriosaurus fossils have been located in present-day Germany and the U.K., scientists believe the crocodile could easily swim between islands.

“Mystriosaurus looked like a gharial but it had a shorter snout with its nasal opening facing forwards, whereas in nearly all other fossil and living crocodiles the nasal opening is placed on top of the snout,” said study leader Sven Sach, of the <a href="https://namu-ev.de/">Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld</a>.

“Unravelling the complex history and anatomy of fossils like Mystriosaurus is necessary if we are to understand the diversification of crocodiles during the Jurassic,” added fellow researcher Dr. Mark Young, of the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/geosciences">University of Edinburgh's School of GeoSciences</a>. “Their rapid increase in biodiversity between 200 and 180 million years ago is still poorly understood.”

The identification and corresponding study is published in the journal <a href="https://app.pan.pl/home.html">Acta Paleontologica Polonica</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Julia Beier

Jurassic crocodile finally identified after 250 years

Jurassic crocodile finally identified after 250 years. Nearly 250 years...

This Friday night and early into Saturday morning, a full harvest moon will light up the night sky. 

Known by many names including the Barley Moon, the Fruit Moon, the Corn Moon, the Mid-Autumn Festival Moon, and the Chuseok Moon, this month’s full moon corresponds with the autumnal equinox and the end of summer, according to the <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1057/september-2019-the-next-full-moon-is-the-harvest-moon/">National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). </a>

The harvest moon marks the start of several autumn harvest festivals worldwide including Chuseok, which is celebrated North and South Korea, and the Mid-Autumn Festival celebrated in China, Vietnam, and several other Asian countries. 

Around 25 minutes after the sun sets, the harvest moon will rise and appear full in the sky early Saturday morning. Because the harvest moon rises earlier than other full moons, there’s more light in the evening and more light to harvest for farmers.

The moon will appear full in the sky through Sunday. 

During this time the moon is positioned at a shallow angle with the eastern horizon, according to the <a href="https://www.almanac.com/content/what-harvest-moon#">Farmers Almanac</a>. During the spring or vernal equinox, the angle is steeper, which is why the spring equinox marks the start of longer days and shorter nights. 

With fall, the harvest marks the start of longer nights and shorter days. 

This year’s harvest moon won’t pack its usual punch because the moon’s orbit is at a point farthest from the Earth, meaning that while it will still be a full moon, it will appear around 14 percent smaller than an average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-worm-moon-tonight/">full moon</a>. 

Because the moon will seem smaller, it’s being called a “<a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/micro-moon-friday-the-13th_n_5d766876e4b0752102307612">micromoon</a>.”<a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/micro-moon-friday-the-13th_n_5d766876e4b0752102307612"> </a>

If you’re superstitious, Friday’s full moon falling on the notorious date of Friday the 13th could signal lousy luck and bad omens, but the event is actually incredibly rare, and lunar fans can count their lucky stars when they see it. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Beth Swanson

Rare harvest moon falls on Friday the 13th

This Friday night and early into Saturday morning, a full...

A new thermoelectric device, developed by a team of researchers from the <a href="http://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> and <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>, is able to harness cold air without active input and generate electricity that can power an LED during the nighttime.

"Remarkably, the device is able to generate electricity at night, when solar cells don't work," said lead author Aaswath Raman, an assistant professor of materials science and engineering at UCLA. "Beyond lighting, we believe this could be a broadly enabling approach to power generation suitable for remote locations, and anywhere where power generation at night is needed."

Presently, there is no renewable approach to generating power at night that aligns with solar cells for daytime. Although solar lights can be designed with batteries to store energy produced during daylight hours for nighttime use, these designs drive up production costs.

Raman and his colleagues used radiative cooling to design this new technology. Radiative cooling works when a sky-facing surface passes heat to the atmosphere as thermal radiation, therefore losing some heat to space and reaching a cooler temperature than the surrounding air.

This phenomenon explains how frost forms during above-freezing nights, and Raman discovered that it can also be put to work to generate <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/unrecyclable-plastic-electricity/">electricity</a> and produce renewable electricity at night.

The device itself consists of an affordable polystyrene enclosure covered in aluminized mylar, which minimizes thermal radiation. It’s protected by an infrared-transparent wind cover. When tested, the team sat the device on a table about a meter above roof level, helping it to draw heat from the surrounding air and releasing it into the night sky through a black emitter. Then, when the thermoelectric module was connected to a voltage boost converter and a white LED bulb, the team saw that the device passively powered light.

After six hours, the team saw that the device generated as much as 25 milliwatts of energy per square meter. Raman and his colleagues believe that the device can eventually be scaled up at an affordable cost.

"Our work highlights the many remaining opportunities for energy by taking advantage of the cold of outer space as a renewable energy resource," Raman said. "We think this forms the basis of a complementary technology to solar. While the power output will always be substantially lower, it can operate at hours when solar cells cannot."

This study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(19)30412-X">Joule</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Aaswath Raman

New device can generate light from cold air

A new thermoelectric device, developed by a team of researchers...

Accidental discovery can lead to unintentional fossil collections. Road cuts and digging at construction sites sometimes lead to the discovery of fossils and archaeological sites. As we reported earlier this summer, a triceratops was <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/triceratops-bones-denver-construction-site/">found at a construction site</a> just outside of Denver, Colorado. Two years ago, a <a href="https://www.scpr.org/news/2017/12/11/78776/la-metro-construction-unearths-mammoth-fossils/">mammoth</a> was discovered while a subway was being built beneath Los Angeles. The lost <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2015/03/26/europe/king-richard-buried/index.html">tomb of King Richard III</a> of England was even uncovered beneath a parking lot 530 years after his violent death. Mexico City is known for it’s subway work uncovering remains and ruins of the Aztecs, including one <a href="https://www.history.com/news/mexico-city-subway-dig-yields-aztec-remains-and-artifacts">discovery of 50 children’s graves</a>. 

Obviously, all these discoveries mean is that the Earth beneath each of our feet is a treasure trove of the forgotten past quite literally buried. Those who dig in the ground tend to find things lost beneath the surface. This is how the US Army created its own unplanned fossil collection.

In the case of most archaeological sites and vertebrate fossil discoveries, the remains must be properly documented, sometimes even excavated before work can continue. Others have stumbled onto fossils on their private land. Sometimes, this can lead to an unintentional build up of fossil collections. This is the case with <a href="https://psmag.com/social-justice/amateur-dino-hunter-clayton-phipps-fossil-archeology-69953">some ranchers</a> in the American west who have turned to selling fossils or leasing land out to professional collectors to supplement their income. The government has also inadvertently stumbled on many fossils.

A <a href="https://www.army.mil/article/146322/whats_the_army_doing_with_dinosaurs_redux">feature</a> written on the US Army’s website asks, “What’s the Army doing with dinosaurs?” A fair question and one that may bring to mind scenarios of a weaponized Jurassic Park. Rest assured, the dinosaurs in question are very dead fossil remains. Mainly, the army ended up encountering fossils in much the same way civilian construction crews sometimes do. 

The US Army Corps of Engineers is often charged with large scale public works, such as dams and flood control construction. All together, the Army corps of engineers <a href="https://www.usace.army.mil/missions/civil-works/recreation/">manages</a> 400 lake and river sites accessible to the public in 43 states. This amounts to the corps managing some 12 million acres of public land, tiny compared to all federal land but substantial nonetheless. In those 12 million acres, there have been many <a href="https://www.paesta.psu.edu/book/earth-systems-science-introduction/definitions/paleontology-vs-archaeology-vs-anthropology">paleontological and archaeological</a> discoveries. 

Sometimes flooding reveals evidence of inland seas in the form of fossils. In 1993, Coralville Iowa was the stage for massive flooding. <a href="https://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/community/1993-iowa-rains-that-wouldnt-go-away-20180714">The Gazette</a> reports that residents remember it as a time when it just wouldn’t stop raining. Eventually, the flood water rose over the local reservoir, subsided and then the rain came again. It’s disasters like this that the Army Corps of Engineers is often called upon to stop since the Flood Control Act of 1936 was passed. After the water subsided, the corps returned to Coralville to find the flood had revealed more fossils like those the town was first named after.

Since the Army owned managed the Coralville Lake, it technically owned all of the newly revealed fossils of the <a href="https://g.co/kgs/sauuLh">Devonian Fossil Gorge</a> as well. The Gorge itself was created entirely by the 1993 flood and expanded by a flood in 2008 to reveal more of the 375 million year old Devonian ocean floor. The fossils illustrate that the Midwest of the United States was once an inland sea, splitting the east from the west and populated by corals, gastropods, bivalves, trilobites, and strange armored fishes among others. As stunning as this find is, it’s not one of the most impressive fossil finds for those of us biased towards large vertebrate animals. 

The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/the-nations-t-rex-how-a-montana-moms-hike-led-to-an-incredible-discovery/2019/06/01/2bd276f8-8252-11e9-bce7-40b4105f7ca0_story.html">Washington Post</a> reported on the chance discovery of an impressive fossil found on Army Corps of Engineers land. On Labor Day in 1988, Kathy Wankel was on a small island in the Fort Peck reservoir when she saw what turned out to be a shoulder blade. Little did Mrs. Wankel know but she’d discovered a fossil that would end up going on display in the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History in 2014.

The shoulder blade belonged to a 38 foot long T. Rex known informally as “Wankel’s Rex” or “The Nation’s Rex." For 20 years the T. Rex was on display at Montana’s Museum of the Rockies, where a cast replica of it still meets visitors outside the main entrance. Eventually the T. Rex, still technically owned by the US Army, was moved to the Smithsonian. The T. Rex is very nearly complete and quite large, it’s also the first T. Rex to be found with it’s tiny forearms in tact. 

Still, more of what the army owns remains in storage than on display. The secret of any fossil collection is that for every well mounted skeleton decorated with tasteful lighting and exhibit signs, there are probably dozens of dusty crates packed with dead things still encased in stone sitting in a warehouse. This is true of the Army’s collection just as it’s true of most museums of any size. Beyond many of the fossils in storage or being researched in a lab out of public view, the Army also owns many fossils that remain mostly in the ground. Some of the fossils can even be dug up as souvenirs by amateur collectors. 

The Devonian Fossil Gorge near Coralville is open to small time collecting with a few rules. At Caesar Creek Lake in Ohio, the Army uncovered more Devonian fossil beds while blasting to create an emergency spillway. Today, people can collect fossils there as well, which may include trilobites, the state fossil of Ohio. The only caveat is that would be collectors must first obtain a <a href="https://www.lrl.usace.army.mil/Missions/Civil-Works/Recreation/Lakes/Caesar-Creek-Lake/Fossil-Collecting/">free permit</a>. Tools aren’t allowed in collecting and only specimens smaller than your palm may be kept. 

If you don’t want to intentionally go looking for fossils, you can still think of the possibilities the next time you dig in your garden or start work on a new basement. Beneath our feet lie the crumbling remains of different worlds before this one, waiting with no expectations to be discovered, hiding in plain sight.                

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Fotos593/Shutterstock

Accidental discovery can lead to unintentional fossil collections

Accidental discovery can lead to unintentional fossil collections. Road cuts...

<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> has issued a warning that this Saturday, an <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/asteroids-surprise-near-miss/">asteroid</a> bigger than the Empire State Building will be passing close to the Earth at over 14,000 miles per hour. After recent close calls, space agencies meet to discuss asteroid defense

While this “close approach” estimated by NASA is about 3.3 million miles away, NASA policy dictates that any fast-moving space object within 4.65 million miles of Earth is to be considered “potentially hazardous.”

This asteroid has been creatively named Qw7, and is one of 878 asteroids currently at risk of hitting Earth in the next 100 years, according to the <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). 

The agency warns that an impact by even a small asteroid could result in “serious devastation,” which is why the ESA and several other groups have joined together to search for asteroids. 

These teams are also developing technology that could be used to deflect asteroids, and they will be meeting to discuss potential deflection tactics in Europe over the next few days.

The first meeting will take place in Rome, where experts will discuss NASA’s plans to crash its DART spacecraft into a 160-meter asteroid named Didymos-B. Experts will also meet in Munich to discuss asteroid 2006 QV89, which had already whizzed by Earth on September 9th.

ESA also plans to host an emergency response workshop in Germany alongside civil protection agencies from six countries, as well as the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. 

The agency adds, “These three meetings illustrate the breadth of activity currently taking place across the globe to mitigate the risk of an asteroid impact, to ensure early warnings of such a threat, and to prepare on Earth in the unlikely event of a strike – planetary defense is heating up!”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/muratart

After recent close calls, space agencies meet to discuss asteroid defense

NASA has issued a warning that this Saturday, an asteroid...

Small robot can launch itself out of the water like a flying fish. Researchers at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> have created a robot that mimics a flying fish, using water as fuel to launch itself from the surface of a lake or ocean. The robot can travel 26 meters through the air after take-off, which could make it useful for monitoring water pollution or for collecting water samples in hazardous conditions after <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-flooding-north-carolina/">flooding</a>. 

In the past, experts have found it challenging to generate enough power for a small robot to transition from water to air. The Imperial team has invented a system that requires just 0.2 grams of calcium carbide powder in a combustion chamber. 

The only moving part in the system is a small pump that brings in water from the surrounding ocean or lake. When the water combines with the calcium-carbide powder in a chamber, the reaction produces a burnable acetylene gas that ignites and expands to push the water out as a jet. The robot is propelled out of the water, gliding up to 26 meters.

"Water-to-air transition is a power-intensive process, which is difficult to achieve on a small-scale flying vehicle that needs to be lightweight for flight," said study lead author Dr. Mirko Kovac.

"We have used water-reactive chemicals to reduce the materials that the robot needs to carry. Since the chamber fills passively and the environmental water acts as a piston, we can create a full combustion cycle with only one moving part, which is the pump that mixes the water with the fuel."

Tests conducted in a lake and a wave tank showed that the robot can blast off of the water's surface even when conditions are relatively rough. The system generates a force that it 25 times the weight of the robot, which is only 160 grams, to help it overcome waves.

The team is now working with the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology to refine the robots using advanced materials and to begin field trials in a range of environments, including the oceans around coral reefs and offshore energy platforms.

"These kinds of low-power, tether-free robots could be really useful in environments that are normally time- and resource-intensive to monitor, including after disasters such as floods or nuclear accidents," said study first author Raphael Zufferey.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://robotics.sciencemag.org/">Science Robotics</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Aerial Robotics Lab/Imperial College London

Small robot can launch itself out of the water like a flying fish

Small robot can launch itself out of the water like...

Ten percent of Earth has warmed by more than two degrees, WaPo analysis shows. Hot spots are popping up around the globe, and researchers have identified pockets where temperatures have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-two-degrees-warming/">crossed a dangerous threshold</a> in many regions.

An analysis conducted by the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/national/climate-environment/climate-change-world/">Washington Post</a> found that in the past five years, roughly ten percent of the Earth has warmed by more than two degrees Celsius and nearly twice as many areas have warmed by 1.5 degrees. 

Four global temperature data sets, dating back to the 1800s up until the present, were reviewed and analyzed by the Washington Post. 

The analysis found that the Arctic is not the only fast-warming region on Earth and parts of Europe, northern Asia, and the Middle East have experienced a warming of two degrees Celsius. 

The Washington Post defines a hot spot as an area where accelerating temperatures have reached a critical point, and geophysical processes intensify warming. 

Rising sea levels from shrinking sea ice and glaciers in the Poles are one of the biggest projected impacts of accelerated warming, but we are already witnessing the fallout from rising temperatures in many regions around the world. 

Wildfires, mass coral bleaching, record-breaking heat waves, severe hurricanes, and weather extremes have all been linked to human-driven climate change. 

The Washington Post analysis focused on the Brazil current, which has experienced rapid warming in recent years. The warming of key ocean currents is leading to the expansion of the tropics and heating up the oceans. 

For example, the Agulhas Current in the southwest Indian Ocean has warmed above 1.5 degrees Celsius in many areas, and as warm water spirals off from the current it mixes with the South Atlantic Ocean. 

In Uruguay, clams are dying en masse, strewn across beaches due to an ocean hot spot linked to the Brazil Current, according to the Washington Post. 

Unfortunately, the warm waters aren’t just impacting clams. Fish are dying off, algae blooms are getting more severe, and tropical species are spreading into fisheries.  

Can life on Earth catch up with the rising temperatures and adapt to the changing climates? 

“We’re really playing catch-up,” said Boris Worm, from <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a> in Canada, told the Washington Post.“Everything we base our civilization on is based on the accumulated experience from the last 7,000 years, about how the world works, and how we can survive in this world that had an exceptionally stable climate. And we’re shifting away from that equilibrium at breakneck speed now. We’re living in a no-analog world that none of us has any experience with.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Lane V. Erickson

Ten percent of Earth has warmed by more than two degrees, WaPo analysis shows

Ten percent of Earth has warmed by more than two...

Fight or flight response is triggered by a hormone released from our bones. The physiological changes that occur when the body goes into "<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/brain-fight-flight-response/">fight or flight</a>" mode after sensing danger are typically attributed to the release of the hormone adrenaline. But now, research from <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> suggests that these fear-related changes in the body are actually initiated by our bones.

The study revealed that after the brain recognizes danger, it instructs the skeleton to flood the bloodstream with the bone-derived hormone osteocalcin, which is needed to turn on the fight or flight response.

"In bony vertebrates, the acute stress response is not possible without osteocalcin," said study senior author Dr. Gérard Karsenty. "It completely changes how we think about how acute stress responses occur."

"The view of bones as merely an assembly of calcified tubes is deeply entrenched in our biomedical culture," added Dr. Karsenty. About a decade ago, he demonstrated that the skeleton has hidden influences on other organs, including the pancreas, brain, and muscles.

In a series of follow-up studies, Dr. Karsenty discovered that osteocalcin also helps regulate metabolism, improves memory, and helps animals run faster with greater endurance.

"If you think of bone as something that evolved to protect the organism from danger - the skull protects the brain from trauma, the skeleton allows vertebrates to escape predators, and even the bones in the ear alert us to approaching danger - the hormonal functions of osteocalcin begin to make sense," said Dr. Karsenty. 

Dr. Karsenty speculated that, if bone evolved to protect us from danger, the skeleton would also be involved in the acute stress response that is activated in the presence of danger. 

To test this theory, the researchers exposed mice to urine from predators and monitored the bloodstream to look for changes. Within two to three minutes, the levels of osteocalcin spiked. The heart rate, body temperature, and blood glucose levels rose along with osteocalcin levels as the fight or flight response kicked in.

Among humans, the researchers observed sharply rising osteocalcin levels when individuals were under stress from public speaking or cross-examination. 

In another experiment, mice were genetically engineered so that they were unable to make osteocalcin or its receptor. When presented with the predator urine, these mice were indifferent. "Without osteocalcin, they didn't react strongly to the perceived danger. In the wild, they'd have a short day." Fight or flight response is triggered by a hormone released from our bones

Dr. Karsenty concluded that circulating levels of osteocalcin are enough to drive the acute stress response. "I have no doubt that there are many more new inter-organ signals to be discovered, and these interactions may be as important as the ones discovered in the early part of the 20th century."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/home">Cell Metabolism</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: Shutterstock/Admiral

Fight or flight response is triggered by a hormone released from our bones

Fight or flight response is triggered by a hormone released...

Earth may have already experienced an additional extinction event. Scientists have warned that Earth is in the midst of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warning-imminent-mass-extinction/">sixth mass extinction</a> due to plummeting animal and plant populations as human activities continue to ramp up climate change. 

However, researchers may need to rethink their count of extinction events. 

A potential sixth mass extinction event that occurred before the asteroid impact that wiped out the dinosaurs has been identified in a new study published in the journal<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2019.1658096"> Historical Biology</a>.

In Earth’s history, there have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-mass-extinctions-and-what-we-can-learn-from-them-about-the-planet-today-79971">five mass die-offs or extinction events</a>, and these events correlate with the end of geological periods. The first was the Late Ordovician which took place around 445 million years ago when global cooling wiped out a large majority of species. 

The second mass extinction, the Late Devonian, started around 380 million years and was characterized by “pulses” of extinctions spread over twenty million years. Nearly 70 to 80 percent of all animal species were wiped out during that time. 

The Middle Permian event occurred 252 million years ago, and more than 8o percent of all life on Earth went extinct. 

After the Middle Permian came the Triassic extinction event 201 million years ago, followed lastly by the Cretaceous extinction event which killed off the dinosaurs. 

This puts the total number of extinction events to five. 

But now, researchers from <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a> and<a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/"> Nanjing University</a> in China argue that there was a sixth mass extinction 260 million years ago. 

The event, called the end-Guadalopian extinction, coincided with the Emeishan flood-basalt eruption which produced a major rock formation in southern China known as the Emeishan Traps. 

During the Guadalupian or Middle Permian period (272 to 260 million years ago), the Emeishan flood-basalt eruption released large amounts of greenhouse gasses which warmed up the planet. 

“Massive eruptions such as this one release large amounts of greenhouse gases, specifically carbon dioxide and methane, that cause severe global warming, with warm, oxygen-poor oceans that are not conducive to marine life,” said Michael Rampino, a co-author of the study. 

Looking at past events like the end-Guadalopian extinction which is characterized by global warming due to increases in atmospheric CO2 can help researchers predict future climate outcomes and understand what triggered past events. 

“It is crucial that we know the number of severe mass extinctions and their timing in order to investigate their causes,” Rampino, “Notably, all six major mass extinctions are correlated with devastating environmental upheavals--specifically, massive flood-basalt eruptions, each covering more than a million square kilometers with thick lava flows.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/xtock

Earth may have already experienced an additional extinction event

Earth may have already experienced an additional extinction event. Scientists...

Machine learning will produce fast and reliable maps of Arctic sea ice. A new report from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA">European Space Agency</a> (ESA) describes how experts will soon be using artificial intelligence to chart sea-ice conditions. The technology will provide fast and accurate <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-extent-seventh-lowest/">sea-ice</a> information to improve the efficiency and safety of marine operations in the Arctic.

As the Arctic warms at a rate that is double the global average, the ongoing changes in the region's sea ice are extreme and often unpredictable. It is crucial that maps of sea-ice conditions and forecasts are accurate for safe navigation and improved planning, particularly in the Arctic.

For years, experts have charted sea-ice conditions manually by using satellite data, but the large expanse of the Arctic makes this a tedious and time-consuming job. Scientists have identified an urgent need for automated ice observations that can be integrated into ice forecast models.

In an effort to keep Arctic sea-ice data current and relevant, the <a href="http://ocean.dmi.dk/arctic/icecover.uk.php">Danish Meteorological Institute</a> (DMI) and Technical University of Denmark have initiated the Automated Sea Ice Products (ASIP) project.

Funded by Innovation Fund Denmark, the goal of the study is to create an automatic sea-ice service that can provide detailed information in a more timely manner. 

ASIP will combine Copernicus Sentinel-1 imagery with other satellite data to resolve any uncertainties that may emerge in SAR imagery under various ocean conditions,  such as strong winds. 

According to the ESA report, ASIP uses a "convolutional neural network system" that has been trained with large datasets of ice charts to automatically generate ice maps.

"ASIP will be a great opportunity for users to have an up-to-date map of sea-ice products. We are currently working hard to get this in production and validate it with both the ice experts and the users,” said David Malmgren-Hansen, who is a machine learning expert at <a href="https://www.compute.dtu.dk/">DTU Compute</a>.

The research was presented by Malmgren-Hansen at this year’s Φ-week event, which was focused on Earth observation and FutureEO. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: ESA

Machine learning will produce fast and reliable maps of Arctic sea ice

Machine learning will produce fast and reliable maps of Arctic...

The <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) has announced plans to phase out research that involves testing on mammals. The federal agency has made the controversial decision to stop funding or conducting live animal tests by 2035.

In a memo that was made public earlier this week, EPA Administrator Andrew Wheeler instructed the agency to reduce funding for mammal studies by 30 percent over the next six years before completely eliminating the tests altogether within the next 16 years. Beyond the 2035 deadline, mammal testing will only be allowed with special approval.

"This has been a long-standing belief of mine on animal testing," said Wheeler, adding that he learned about the ethical implications of animal testing from his mother at an early age. "My older sister is a zoologist, my younger sister is a veterinarian, so I come from this family that cares deeply about animals and the protection of animals."

Representatives from PETA, the White Coat Waste Project, and the Humane Society of the United States stood by Wheeler during a press conference at the EPA headquarters.

"This is the only government agency who has made such a commitment with an aggressive timeline," said Kathleen Conlee of the Humane Society. "We'd love to see other agencies embrace this approach of making timelines with goals."

Mammals such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-mouse-blood-improved-memory-learning/">mice</a> and rats are used by the EPA to test the safety of chemicals like pesticides and other consumer products. Wheeler said that his action plan allows enough time to come up with new methods for toxicity testing.

Penelope Fenner-Crisp, a former senior official at the EPA, told <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/09/10/759435118/epa-chief-pledges-to-severely-cut-back-on-animal-testing-of-chemicals">NPR</a> that the EPA's pesticide program "has recently made real progress in using new types of safety studies, saving the lives of hundreds of thousands of animals."  However, she added that no one has developed alternative tests to study the more subtle and complex health effects that may progress over time, such as those that take place in the immune system.

"I'm always a little troubled with deadlines on efforts like this. You want to have replacements that are as good as or better than the ones that have been used with whole animals. And you can't always dictate the timeline for accomplishing that," explained Fenner-Crisp.

Jennifer Sass, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">Natural Resources Defense Council</a>, expressed major concern over the EPA's decision to put an end to animal testing.

"EPA is eliminating tools that lay the groundwork for protecting the public from dangers like chlorpyrifos, formaldehyde and PFAS," Sass said in a written statement. "Phasing out foundational scientific testing methods can make it much harder to identify toxic chemicals - and protect human health. Once again, the Trump administration appears to be working on behalf of the chemical industry and not the public. Congress should bar the agency from blindfolding itself."

The EPA also announced that it will hold an annual conference to discuss the development of new testing methods and has awarded $4.5 million to five universities across the country to launch the effort.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/unoL

EPA announces plans to eliminate testing on mammals by 2035

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has announced plans to phase...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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