Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. 



When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat.



That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time changes, altering the way it measures all of the moments that make up our lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-vs-fresh-experiences">First vs. fresh experiences</h2>



Children cram their days with firsts: a first dive into the pool, a first try at long division, a first sleepover away from home.



These fresh experiences swarm the brain with new images to file away, stretching the subjective length of a single afternoon.



Adults, by contrast, tend to replay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-impacts-our-daily-routines-and-transportation/">familiar routines</a>. With fewer novel snapshots to store, the days collapse into something closer to a highlight reel than a feature film.



According to psychologist Marc Wittmann at the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health <a href="https://igpp.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IGPP</a>), the feeling that time accelerates is tightly linked to how much new material our brains record each day.



He points out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/">memory</a> and time perception sit on the same neural bench; when one slows, the other shrinks. "Newness" holds the key to this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-and-time-perception">Human brain and time perception</h2>



Whenever a brain encounters something it has never processed before, a quick surge of attention flags the event as worth keeping. The more flags raised, the thicker the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">memory log</a> becomes, and the longer that span later feels.



Kids, still green to nearly everything, throw flags left and right. A lunchroom joke, a new word in science class, or a game of tag - each registers as its own small chapter.



Adults often glide through copy-and-paste days that differ only by the date on the calendar. With fewer chapters recorded, the book of any given week reads as a short story.



Research using immersive virtual reality in 2024 showed that older volunteers underestimated simple time intervals by roughly 15 percent, highlighting how novelty <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S096800042300302X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharpens the inner clock</a>.



Routine doesn’t just compress the past; it also drains the present.



Studies tracking holiday seasons in several countries found that people who stuck to predictable daily rhythms felt that Christmas or Ramadan arrived sooner every year, while those who sprinkled in new activities reported a slower march toward the festivities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-processing-speed-linked-with-time">Brain processing speed linked with time</h2>



Every sensation has to travel from eye or ear to cortex. In youngsters, those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">neural highways</a> are short and well-paved. As bodies grow, the routes lengthen, and the conduction speed though still quick can’t match its earlier zip.



Add natural age-related slowing of signal processing and the brain starts sampling the world less often each second.



Fewer samples mean fewer “ticks” on the subjective stopwatch, so a morning meeting seems to vanish faster for a forty-year-old than for a fourth grader.



This sampling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-pupil-dilation-to-brains-working-memory-levels/">shows up in the eyes</a>. Our eyes jerk from point to point in rapid saccades, pausing in brief fixations while the brain grabs a visual frame.



Young, rested eyes squeeze in more fixations per minute. Older or fatigued eyes lag, offering the brain fewer still frames to stitch together. With a thinner film strip, the projection of the day speeds along.



Scientists studying eye movements liken perception to a flipbook. Each fixation is a page; flip them fast enough and you see smooth action.



When fixations slow, the flipbook loses pages. Motion still appears, but the storyline gets choppy, and, in recall, it shortens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-and-alertness">Sleep and alertness</h2>



A single night of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/">good sleep</a> can pull the brake on runaway days. When neurons are well-rested, they fire faster, notice more, and form clearer memories.



Athletes know the flip side: stepping onto the field after too little shut-eye makes the whole match blur. The plays happen, but the mind records only a highlight or two before the final whistle.



Students grinding through an all-nighter meet the same fate - an exam that seems to finish moments after it starts.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-best-treatment-for-excessive-daytime-sleepiness/">Chronic fatigue</a> magnifies the effect. Continually short-changing rest lowers baseline alertness, trimming snapshots day after day.



Over months, life can feel like it’s slipping through the cracks, not because the clock sped up but because the recorder slowed down.



<a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dopamine</a>, a neurotransmitter tied to motivation and time estimation, also dips with sleep debt, further warping the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364166/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of duration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-media-and-lost-time-perception">Social media and lost time perception</h2>



Endless feeds promise variety, yet most algorithms serve look-alike posts. Swipe through video after video of the same dance trend, and the brain barely registers a change.



Hours evaporate while the memory log remains nearly blank. Compound that with the blue-light-induced bedtime delay, and you have a double punch: fewer snapshots captured and fewer hours slept.



Cutting back on passive scrolling or swapping it for an activity with genuine novelty - trying a new recipe, learning a chord on guitar - feeds the brain more distinct moments. Those moments stretch subjective time, turning a blur of an evening into something that feels full.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-with-age-comes-responsibility">With age comes responsibility</h2>



Beyond slower processing, adults juggle long lists of responsibilities. Focus narrows to tasks at hand - emails, errands, budgets - scanning less of the environment for new input. Novelty drops, and subjective days shorten.



<a href="https://www.tiaa.org/public/institute/publication/2023/young-adults-their-attitudes-and-outlook-toward-retirement-and-the-future" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A 2023 survey</a> comparing young adults with retirees found that the older group reported the year as “rushing by” nearly twice as often, linking the feeling to the predictability of daily routines rather than to health issues.



Even so, not every senior feels the rush. Researchers tracking so-called “<a href="https://www.nm.org/healthbeat/healthy-tips/4-habits-super-agers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-agers</a>” note that those who keep learning new skills and staying socially engaged maintain sharper senses of time, along with stronger memory performance. Variety keeps the brain’s camera clicking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-your-brain-to-slow-time-perception">Use your brain to slow time perception</h2>



Here's the good news - the tools to lengthen your days fit into ordinary life. Go to bed on a schedule that honors the seven-to-nine-hour rule.



Plan at least one activity each week that forces you out of autopilot: a different jogging route, a museum you’ve never visited, a new language app.



While doing it, pay close attention to sights, sounds, and textures. Engagement packs extra snapshots into the mental album.



Stay curious daily. Swap a lunchtime scroll for a short walk and notice five things you’ve never clocked before - a mural, a bird call, the scent of a bakery vent.



Those micro-discoveries add pages to the flipbook, expanding the subjective afternoon. Over time, the habit can "thicken" the memory book that tells the story of a year, making December feel like it belongs twelve full months away, right where the calendar says it should be.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/why-the-days-seem-shorter-as-we-get-older/2CB8EC9B0B30537230C7442B826E42F1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Review</a>.



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Scientists explain why time seems to move faster and 'fly by' as we age

Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat. That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time...

In the winter, Antarctica’s Weddell Sea is covered with a thick layer of sea ice that makes up a vast flat icescape stretching as far as the eye can see.  

However, every few years or so, researchers would report holes or polynyas that had formed in the sea ice. Polynya means “hole in the ice” in Russian and they are not an uncommon sight along the Antarctic coast. These enormous gaps had been a huge mystery especially given their sporadic nature. 

But in a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> used data from satellites, seals, and robotic drifters to help make sense of the phenomenon. 

The study was published in the journal Nature. 

Some of the biggest holes in the Weddell Sea Ice <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/a-large-polynya-in-the-weddell-sea/">were first observed in 1974-1976</a>, when satellite imagery showed an ice-free area the size of New Zealand. The holes formed in the sea ice even though temperatures were well below freezing. 

Antarctica’s Southern Ocean plays a key role in both the carbon cycle and ocean currents, so understanding how and why these holes form could lend essential insights into climate and ocean processes.

[caption id="attachment_1873742" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ice.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1873742" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ice.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="709" /></a> A hole in the sea ice off of the Antarctic coast. Image Credit: NASA[/caption]

Two consecutive holes formed in 2016 and 2017 which prompted the researchers to study the holes in greater detail 

“We thought this large hole in the sea ice -- known as a polynya -- was something that was rare, maybe a process that had gone extinct. But the events in 2016 and 2017 forced us to reevaluate that,” said Ethan Campbell, the lead author of the study. “Observations show that the recent polynyas opened from a combination of factors -- one being the unusual ocean conditions, and the other being a series of very intense storms that swirled over the Weddell Sea with almost hurricane-force winds.” 

For the study, the researchers reviewed data from robotic drifters as part of the <a href="https://soccom.princeton.edu/content/southern-ocean-carbon-and-climate-observations-and-modeling">Southern Ocean Carbon and Climate Observations and Modelling project</a>. 

The team also collected data from weather stations, satellite imagery, and the <a href="http://www.argo.ucsd.edu/">Argo ocean observing program</a>, which attaches sensors to elephant seals to help monitor the ocean. 

“This study shows that this polynya is actually caused by a number of factors that all have to line up for it to happen,” said Stephen Riser, a co-author of the study. “In any given year you could have several of these things happen, but unless you get them all, then you don’t get a polynya.”

One way a polynya can form is when ocean winds get close to the shore and force dense seawater to rise above an underwater mountain called Maud Rise. This perfect storm creates a spinning vortex above Maud Rise, which in turn prevents sea ice from covering the area. 

Another way that the holes form is if the surface layer of the ocean has higher salt concentrations. The constant rising and sinking of dense cold water and warmer saltier water cause a feedback loop where ice can’t form. 

“Essentially it’s a flipping over of the entire ocean, rather than an injection of surface water on a one-way trip from the surface to the deep,” said Earle Wilson, a fellow co-author of the study. 

Having a better understanding of how the polynyas form is crucial for climate and carbon monitoring. If polynyas form when deep ocean water rises to the surface, this could release carbon into the atmosphere and disrupt ocean currents. 

“This deep reservoir of carbon has been locked away for hundreds of years, and in a polynya it might get ventilated at the surface through this really violent mixing,” said Campbell. “A large carbon outgassing event could really whack the climate system if it happened multiple years in a row.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Dan Costa/University of California, Santa Cruz

Seals and robots help solve Antarctic ice hole mystery

In the winter, Antarctica’s Weddell Sea is covered with a...

Current water cycle diagrams are dangerously outdated. Water cycle diagrams currently used for education and research purposes are dangerously out of date and give a false sense of water security. 

According to an international team of hydrology experts from <a href="https://www.byu.edu/">Brigham Young University</a>, <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a>, and the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>, these diagrams must be edited to show human interference in the natural cycle, thus lessening the false sense of security.

The analysis of current water cycle diagrams, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/">Nature Geoscience,</a> showed that 85% of more than 450 water cycle diagrams currently used in education did not show human interaction as part of the cycle. Only 2% of the diagrams connected the water cycle to climate change and/or water pollution.

Furthermore, almost all the diagrams depicted landscapes within mild climates and loads of freshwater within a single river basin — which is a misrepresentation of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/risk-severe-water-shortages/">water cycle</a> in the real world.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/water-cycle-a.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-1873739" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/water-cycle-a.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="290" /></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/water-cycle-2.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-1873738" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/water-cycle-2.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="281" /></a>

[caption id="attachment_1873737" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/water-cycle.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1873737" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/water-cycle.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="291" /></a> Image Credit: University of Birmingham[/caption]

"The water cycle diagram is a central icon of hydro science, but misrepresenting the ways in which humans have influenced this cycle diminishes our awareness of the looming global water crisis," said Professor David Hannah, UNESCO Chair in Water Sciences at the University of Birmingham. "By leaving out climate change, human consumption, and changes in land use we are, in effect, creating large gaps in understanding and perception among the public and also among some scientists."

The team produced new diagrams that aptly show how the water cycle works in the 21st century. The new proposed diagrams include meltwater from glaciers, flood damage, pollution, and sea level rise.

"For the first time, the new water cycle diagram adequately reflects the importance of not just quantities of water but also water quality and pollution as key criteria for assessing water resources,” said Professor Stefan Krause, Head of the Birmingham Water Council.

"Every scientific diagram involves compromises and distortions, but what we found with the water cycle was widespread exclusion of a central concept,” added lead author Professor Ben Abbott, from Brigham Young University. “You can't understand water in the 21st century without including humans."

"Other scientific disciplines have done a good job depicting how humans now dominate many aspects of the Earth system,” he continued. “It's hard to find a diagram of the carbon or nitrogen cycle that doesn't show factories and fertilizers. However, our drawings of the water cycle are stuck in the 17th century. Better drawings of the water cycle won't solve the global water crisis on their own, but they could improve awareness of how local water use and climate change have global consequences."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/Serkan Senturk

Current water cycle diagrams are dangerously outdated

Current water cycle diagrams are dangerously outdated. Water cycle diagrams...

Biomass and solar power can be turned into hydrogen and diesel fuels. Scientists at the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> have developed a technique to convert the energy from biomass and light sources into diesel fuel and hydrogen. The work may introduce a way to generate clean energy using <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hydrogen-fuel-solar-power-seawater/">solar power</a> and sustainable carbon sources present on the Earth's surface.

Biomass is a renewable energy source that is widely available in wood, animal manure, and in agricultural crops and waste material. Biomass is a good candidate for replacing petrochemicals, such as petroleum and fossil fuels, to provide abundant derivative products. As an alternative to photocatalytic water splitting, the splitting of biomass usually yields higher rates of hydrogen production.

However, oxidative products derived from biomass are essentially useless, resulting in the loss of sustainable biomass resources and environmental pollution. Experts are working to develop technologies that merge hydrogen production and biomass conversion into value-added chemicals or fuels to bring about a "double guarantee" of materials and energy.

A team led by Professor WANG Feng has now created a method which uses light energy to enhance downstream biomass products so that hydrogen and diesel fuel can be produced simultaneously.

To test the new technique, the reactions were carried out at room temperature and pressure. The reactions successfully delivered hydrogen and diesel fuel precursors that are constituted by isomeric oxygenates with a variety of carbon numbers typical of diesel fuel. 

By removing the oxygen contents from the diesel fuel precursors, the experts were able to produce sustainable diesel fuels with components similar to those currently found in petroleum diesel. According to the researchers, the hydrogen could be used to remove the oxygen from the diesel fuel precursors or could be used alone.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nenergy/">Nature Energy</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/tchara

Biomass and solar power can be turned into hydrogen and diesel fuels

Biomass and solar power can be turned into hydrogen and...

Scientists identify a gene that can be used to grow more productive crops. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has identified a gene that can be manipulated to help produce higher <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/us-crop-yields-heat-stress/">crop yields</a>. This particular gene may be key to increasing the efficiency of how proteins and other nutrients are transported between different parts of plants. 

The work is shedding new light on the factors that influence how organic nutrients are distributed within plants, which may ultimately lead to ways that these nutrients can be directed to specific areas for breeding more productive crops.

The gene affects nutrient transport by altering plasmodesmata, or channels that connect neighboring plant cells. These narrow channels pass through the cell walls and allow the transfer of substances between adjacent cells. Scientists identify a gene that can be used to grow more productive crops

The phloem is tissue located at the tips of plant roots that is specialized for long distance transport. In Arabidopsis thaliana mutant plants, the phloem unloading modulator (PLM) gene was found to have direct control of the amount of substances released by the tissue. To investigate, the team analyzed the activity taking place at different cell interfaces in the roots of seedling plants.

"We found that mutating PLM relieves a trafficking bottleneck, that was previously reducing the outward movement of nutrients from the vascular system to the rapidly growing tissues in the roots," explained study lead author Dr. Dawei Yan.

"PLM is specifically acting at the interface between the phloem pole pericycle (PPP) and endodermal cells, an interface important for the radial movement of substances after unloading. Removing PLM gene activity could enable plants to more rapidly and efficiently transport nutrients to where they are needed."

Further investigation showed that PLM is involved in the biosynthesis of sphingolipids, a class of lipids associated with plant development and environmental response. The researchers also used electron tomography to create a 3D map of the plasmodesmata to determine whether PLM had any influence on the structure of these tiny channels. 

"This allowed us to detect fine alterations to the plasmodesmal architecture. We found equal proportions of simple and branched plasmodesmata in both the plm mutant and wild type plants. However, plants without PLM only had Type I plasmodesmata, rather than the two types normally found," said study second author and Andrea Paterlini.

"Previous models have assumed that the size of the cytoplasmic sleeve (the spacing between endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membranes in plasmodesmata) would positively correlate with transport capacity. The results of our paper challenge this and show that Type I plasmodesmata, those with a very narrow cytoplasmic sleeve, are actually more conductive than Type II plasmodesmata, which have an open cytoplasmic sleeve."

"There are still many new questions to be answered for future research, such as, how and why plasmodesmata that lack cytoplasmic sleeves have higher rates of trafficking and how the metabolism of sphingolipids is mechanistically related to the function of PLM," explained Professor Yrjö Helariutta.

"However, this research has advanced our understanding of the factors regulating plant nutrient transport. There is an urgent need to develop crops with increased nutrient efficiency, both to reduce the use of fertilisers and to increase the yield of crops. We may eventually be able to use this information about nutrient transport to more efficiently partition nutrients between various organs and direct nutrients from stems and leaves to fruit and storage organs."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists identify a gene that can be used to grow more productive crops

Scientists identify a gene that can be used to grow...

Senior government officials blocked testimony from an intelligence agency staffer that warned about the “possibly catastrophic” effects of human-caused climate change, the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2019/06/08/white-house-blocked-intelligence-aides-written-testimony-saying-human-caused-climate-change-could-be-possibly-catastrophic/">Washington Post</a> reported this week. 

Rod Schoonover, a staff member at the State Department, had planned to deliver his written testimony to the <a href="https://intelligence.house.gov/">House Intelligence Committee</a> on Wednesday until senior officials with several different White House officers stopped him, the newspaper claimed, citing several sources within the administration.

According to those sources, the Washington Post claimed, the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/get-involved/internships/presidential-departments/">White House Officer of Legislative Affairs</a> did eventually allow the intelligence agency staffer to go before the House committee, but prohibited him from submitting written testimony.

The Post was unable to reach Schoonover for comment, it said, and the White House declined to provide a comment on the matter. Other news agencies have reached out to both sources, but have not reported any statements from either Schoonover or the White House.

However, the Post was able to obtain and print the allegedly blocked testimony. 

“Fundamental characteristics of the global climate are moving outside the bounds experienced in modern history and there is uncertainty on how some aspects of the climate will evolve. Given the complex social and political contexts in which a multitude of changes are occurring, however, we can expect new and compounded stresses on people and societies around the world, many with outcomes important for national security,” Schoonover wrote.

"Climate change will have wide-ranging implications for U.S. national security over the next 20 years through global perturbations, increased risk of political instability, heightened tensions between countries for resources, a growing number of climate-linked humanitarian crises, emergent geostrategic competitive domains and adverse effects on militaries,” he added.

While climate change was unlikely to bring about “state failure” alone, Schoonover wrote, the addition of climate-based stressors to already unstable regions could contribute to major conflicts and mass migration. 

The intelligence community doesn’t monitor climate conditions, Schoonover noted, but it does analyze climate data collected by agencies such as <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>, the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> and the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">U.S. Geological Survey</a>. The data from these agencies has been raising concerns, the intelligence agency staffer said.

“Absent extensive mitigating factors or events, we see few plausible future scenarios where significant – possibly catastrophic – harm does not arise from the compounded effects of climate change,” he concluded.

The full testimony, including analysis of climate data and current global political conditions, may be read at the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/context/the-national-security-implications-of-climate-change/d5977183-15d9-45eb-a011-d4c701b02594/?utm_term=.2743d10bc56e">Washington Post</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Mark Van Scyoc / <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/">Shutterstock.com</a>

Paid for by Earth.com.

Washington Post: Climate testimony from intelligence agency blocked

Senior government officials blocked testimony from an intelligence agency staffer...

Soda taxes are becoming more popular in the United States, much to the chagrin of small government advocates. The taxes – which often include all sugary drinks, not just sodas – have caught on in a handful of U.S. cities and counties. 

More than a dozen other countries have debated and in some cases adopted soda taxes or limited on the amount of sugar drinks could contain. Some require warnings on sugary drinks.

New research shows that despite the controversy, the taxes and regulations may help reduce obesity.

A collection of studies and data will be presented today at <a href="https://meeting.nutrition.org/">Nutrition 2019</a>, the annual meeting of the <a href="https://nutrition.org/">American Society for Nutrition</a>, which is began June 8 in Baltimore and will run until June 11.

Among the posters and presentations at the meeting:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">A <a href="https://cdmcd.co/L9GB5">new study</a> estimates a nationwide, 1-cent tax on sugary drinks could prevent as many as 17,000 obesity-related cancer cases and 10,000 cancer deaths. The research, which will be presented by Christina Griecci of <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> on Sunday, predicts that the tax could bring savings of $2.4 billion on lifetime medical costs.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Tufts researchers also found that a <a href="https://cdmcd.co/5pwrP">tiered tax that charged more</a> for drinks with higher sugar content was the most effective deterrent. Such a tiered tax could prevent 460,000 cardiovascular issues and 60,000 cases of type 2 diabetes over a 10-year span, researchers found. Dr. Yujin Lee will present the findings on Tuesday.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Anna Grummon of the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/">University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill</a> will present a pair of studies that found health warnings can <a href="https://cdmcd.co/3pKKk">discourage people from purchasing sugary beverages</a> and that they might also <a href="https://cdmcd.co/4pEmE">reduce cases of obesity</a>.</li>
</ul>
Those studies are among several at Nutrition 2019 examining average soda consumption, how sugary drinks affect gut microbiomes and inflammation, and the link between beverages and prediabetes in Latino children.

They add to a growing collection of studies showing that soda taxes, while unpopular, may be effective – at least in reducing sales of soda and energy drinks. 

Soda taxes have been linked to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soda-taxes-healthier-drink-choices/">52 percent decline in sugary drink consumption</a> – and a 29 percent increase in water consumption – in Berkeley, California, and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/philadelphia-sugary-drink-sales-tax/">38 percent drop</a> in drinking such beverages in Philadelphia.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Paid for by Earth.com.

Soda taxes are controversial, but do they work?

Soda taxes are becoming more popular in the United States,...

NASA will now let private citizens to visit the International Space Station. On Friday, <a href="http://nasa.gov">NASA</a> announced plans to allow private citizens on board the International Space Station beginning in 2020.

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/privatize-international-space-station/">International Space Station</a> was first launched in 1998 and has been orbiting Earth ever since. But until now, NASA has not allowed tourists.

The agency intends to allow 2 private astronaut missions each year that would be able to visit the space station for up to 30 days. In addition, one docking port on the International Space Station will be reserved for private operations. 

Private citizen astronauts would need to use a commercial spacecraft from either SpaceX or Boeing to get to the space station. The trip would cost roughly $35,000 per night. NASA will now let private citizens to visit the International Space Station

The plans were announced by NASA officials speaking at the Nasdaq Stock Exchange in New York City.

"Nasa is opening the International Space Station to commercial opportunities and marketing these opportunities as we've never done before," said chief financial officer Jeff DeWit.

“We have no idea what kind of creativity and literally out-of-this-world ideas can come from private industry,” said Bill Gerstenmaier, associate administrator of NASA’s Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate.

“Think about how this space station that we put together to do research, education and outreach is now going to be used to put together a business model,” Gerstenmair added. “How could we ever imagine that this space station would have any role, when it was originally designed, in developing new business markets.”

--

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Editor

Image Credit: Shutterstock/NASA

NASA will now let private citizens to visit the International Space Station

NASA will now let private citizens to visit the International...

New formula discovered for mapping leaf patterns. The patterns of leaf arrangements in nature has been a source of fascination for both scientists and artists. Just think of how many images you’ve seen of the Fibonacci golden angle spirals of plants such as the succulent spiral aloe. 

The exact details of how plants are able to control their leaf arrangement has always been a mystery in botany. But recent research involving a Japanese plant species with a particular leaf pattern has revealed new insights into how almost all plants determine leaf arrangement.New formula discovered for mapping leaf patterns 

In measuring the leaf arrangement of a plant species, botanists measure the angle between leaves, going up the stem from the oldest to the most recent leaf. The most common patterns are symmetrical, and have <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/medieval-people-ferns-colds-dandruff/">leaves</a> arranged at intervals of 90 degrees, 180 degrees, or in Fibonacci golden angle spirals.

[caption id="attachment_1873596" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/common-leaf-patterns.png"><img class="wp-image-1873596" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/common-leaf-patterns.png" alt="" width="650" height="273" /></a> Common leaf arrangement patterns, Image by Takaaki Yonekura[/caption]

The pattern studied by a research team led by Associate Professor Munetaka Sugiyama from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a>'s Koishikawa Botanical Garden is called “orixate.” The pattern is named after the species Orixa japonica, which is a shrub native to Japan, China, and the Korean peninsula. The angles between the leaves on this plant are 180 degrees, 90 degrees, 180 degrees, 270 degrees, and then the next leaf resets this pattern to 180 degrees.

The research team did extensive testing of the existing mathematical equation used to model leaf arrangement. This equation is known as Douady and Couder 2 (DC2) and has been in use since 1996. This equation can generate many of the leaf arrangement patterns we observe in nature. But some of the more uncommon leaf arrangement patterns cannot be calculated by this equation. There are four unrelated plant species that have the orixate leaf arrangement patterns, which has led researchers to suspect that this pattern can be created using the fundamental genetic and cellular machinery that all plants share. 

The DC2 equation makes the fundamental assumption that leaves emit a constant signal to inhibit the growth of other leaves nearby and that the signal gets weaker at longer distances. “We changed this one fundamental assumption – inhibitory power is not constant, but in fact changes with age,” explains Sugiyama. “We tested both increasing and decreasing inhibitory power with greater age and saw that the peculiar orixate pattern was calculated when older leaves had a stronger inhibitory effect.”

[caption id="attachment_1873597" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/orixate.png"><img class="wp-image-1873597" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/orixate.png" alt="" width="650" height="583" /></a> Orixate pattern leaf arrangement, Image Credit: Takaaki Yonekura, Akitoshi Iwamoto, and Munetaka Sugiyama[/caption]

This insight that inhibitory signal power changes with age could be used to direct future studies of plant development. The resulting new equation is called the Expanded Douady and Couder 2, or EDC2. “We developed the new model to explain one peculiar leaf arrangement pattern,” says Sugiyama. “But in fact, it more accurately reflects not only the nature of one specific plant, but the range of diversity of almost all leaf arrangement patterns observed in nature.”

But there is still work to be done to design an equation that incorporates all leaf patterns that exist in nature. “There are other very unusual leaf arrangement patterns that are still not explained by our new formula,” Sugiyama says. “We are now trying to design a new concept that can explain all known patterns of leaf arrangement, not just almost all patterns.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New formula discovered for mapping leaf patterns

New formula discovered for mapping leaf patterns. The patterns of...

Surviving the bitter cold Arctic winters isn’t easy, just ask the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-climate-change-2/">polar bears</a>. On second thought, don’t do that. But they must have some secret that helps them live in subzero temperatures with no down jackets or space heaters. That secret happens to be in their hair, which engineers are now attempting to replicate with synthetic materials.

Materials scientists in China have developed an insulator that reproduces the structure of individual polar bear hairs, while scaling toward a material made up of many hairs for real-world applications in architecture and aerospace. Polar bear hairs are hollow, and the shapes and spacing of their hollow centers is responsible for their distinctive white coats, as well as being a source of incredible heat-holding capacity, water resistance, and stretchiness.

“Polar bear hair has been evolutionarily optimized to help prevent heat loss in cold and humid conditions, which makes it an excellent model for a synthetic heat insulator,” explains Shu-Hong Yu, a professor of chemistry at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn/">University of Science and Technology of China</a> (USTC) and co-senior author of the paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/chem/home">Chem</a>. “By making tube aerogel out of carbon tubes, we can design an analogous elastic and lightweight material that traps heat without degrading noticeably over its lifetime.”

In an effort to copy the structure of these hairs and scale it to a practical size, the research team manufactured millions of hollowed-out carbon tubes, each the size of a single strand of hair, and wound them into a spaghetti-like aerogel block. 

The team found that the faux-polar bear hair tube design was lighter in weight and more resistant to heat flow compared to other aerogels and insulation components. It was also barely affected by water, which exhibits the principles that help keep polar bears warm while swimming. This synthetic material is also extremely stretchy, which could help with its engineering applicability.

The next challenge for researchers is to now scale up the manufacturing process from a centimeter scale to a meter scale. “While our carbon-tube material cannot easily be mass produced at the moment, we expect to overcome these size limitations as we work toward extreme aerospace applications,” says Yu.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Zhiltsov Alexandr/Shutterstock

Synthetic polar bear hair could be the next big step in architecture, aerospace

Surviving the bitter cold Arctic winters isn’t easy, just ask...

You have probably heard the term “brain waves” on more than one occasion, and while it may sound somewhat abstract, brain waves are actually real and measurable. 

Brain oscillations occur during neural processes that are related to memory, and neuroscientists at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> have found evidence that controlling the frequency of brain waves could help improve <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meditation-app-boosts-memory/">memory recall</a> and maybe even improve conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease.

These brain waves can be controlled in a few different ways, including through sounds and images, as well as non-invasive electrical and electro-magnetic oscillations. Deep-brain electrical stimulation can also be used to control neural oscillations.

“We can modulate memory performance via rhythmic neural stimulation, which can be as simple as flickering a light at a particular rhythm which then is followed by neurons in the brain,” says Dr. Simon Hanslmayr from the University of Birmingham’s Centre for Human Grain Health. “Much more research will be required, but it seems clear that driving brain rhythms in such a way is a promising tool for improving memory – both for healthy people and for patients suffering from conditions such as Alzheimer's disease.”

In the paper published in the journal Trends in Neurosciences, the researchers state that brain oscillations act on specific neural mechanisms that affect the formation, consolidation, maintenance, and retrieval of memories. 

While their findings are encouraging, further research will be needed into how these mechanisms are affected by brain oscillations if we hope to one day develop any effective treatments for memory-related disorders.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Agsandrew

Can controlling brain wave frequency improve memory?

You have probably heard the term “brain waves” on more...

About 5,000 years ago, the Paleo-Eskimos migrated from Asia to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/oldest-trees-north-america/">North America</a>, roughly 10,000 years after the first Asia-to-North America migration occurred. 

Then, about 800 years ago, the Paleo-Eskimo population was replaced by a new population across the Arctic, and soon enough, all signs of Paleo-Eskimo culture was lost. 

However, researchers from the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a> argue that despite the disappearance of their culture, Paleo-Eskimos contributed much more to North American populations than previously thought.

To come to their conclusion, the team assembled genome-wide data from 48 ancient individuals and 93 modern individuals from Siberia, Alaska, the Aleutian Islands and Canada. They then compared this data to data that was previously published. They found that a large portion of genetic heritage from ancient and modern American Arctic and Chukotkan populations actually comes from Paleo-Eskimos.

"Our study is unique, not only in that it greatly expands the number of ancient genomes from this region, but because it is the first study to comprehensively describe all of these populations in one single coherent model," said Max Planck’s Stephan Schiffels.

"For the last seven years, there has been a debate about whether Paleo-Eskimos contributed genetically to people living in North America today; our study resolves this debate and furthermore supports the theory that Paleo-Eskimos spread Na-Dene languages," said David Reich of <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/">Harvard Medical School</a> and the <a href="https://www.hhmi.org/">Howard Hughes Medical Institute</a>. 

Their findings show that shortly after their arrival to Alaska about 5,000 years ago, the Paleo-Eskimos interbred with people who had similar ancestry to that of more southern Native peoples. The genetic heritage of the ancestors of Aleutian Islanders and Athabaskans is derived directly from this interbred group.

They also found that Inuit and Yup'ik ancestors crossed the Bering Strait at least three times. They first crossed as Paleo-Eskimos to Alaska. They then crossed again as predecessors of the Old Bering Sea archaeological culture back to Chukotka and stayed for about 1,000 years, interbreeding with locals related to modern Chukchi as well as locals from Kamchatka. And then they finally crossed a third time to Alaska again as bearers of the Thule culture.

"One of the most striking case examples from our study is the ancient DNA we generated from the ancient Athabaskan site of Tochak McGrath in interior Alaska, where we worked in consultation with the local community to obtain data from three approximately seven hundred year old individuals,” Reich said. “We found that these individuals, who lived after the time when the Paleo-Eskimo archaeological culture disappeared across North America, are well modeled as a mixture of the same two ancestry components as those found in Athabaskans today, and derived more than 40% of their ancestry from Paleo-Eskimos.”

"Determining what happened to this population was not possible from the archaeological record alone," added Pavel Flegontov of the <a href="https://www.osu.eu/">University of Ostrava</a>. "By analyzing genetic data in concert with the archaeological data, we can meaningfully improve our understanding of the prehistory of peoples of this region. We faced challenging analytical problems due to the complex sequence of gene flows that have shaped ancestries of peoples on both sides of the Bering Strait. Reconstructing this sequence of events required new modelling approaches that we hope may be useful for solving similar problems in other regions of the world."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Illustration by Kerttu Majander, Design by Michelle O'Reilly

DNA reveals Paleo-Eskimos majorly contributed to North American populations

About 5,000 years ago, the Paleo-Eskimos migrated from Asia to...

Researchers Stephan V. Sobolev of the <a href="https://www.gfz-potsdam.de/en/home/">German Research Centre for Geosciences GFZ</a> and the <a href="https://www.uni-potsdam.de/en/university-of-potsdam.html">University of Potsdam</a>, and Michael Brown of the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> have found that natural lubrication caused by surface-erosion debris was responsible for kicking off and maintaining plate tectonics, a natural process that shifted the continents. 

Since the 1960s, scientists have understood that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tectonic-plates-less-stable/">plate tectonics</a> is driven by deep-mantle convection, a thermodynamic process that stirs hot and cold matter within the Earth. Therefore, it was believed that plate tectonics was only dependent on deep-Earth processes, such as the cooling of Earth’s mantle. But Sobolev and Brown suggest that surface erosion also played a vital role in plate tectonic evolution.

"Our hypothesis is counter-intuitive,” Sobolev said. "That was the main problem for us and we expect will be the main problem for the community to accept our ideas."

Using already-available geological and geochemical data, which showed evidence of plate tectonic movement starting about 2.5 to 3 billion years ago — the same time Earth's continents rose above sea level, Sobolev and Brown hypothesized that the evolution of plate tectonics was controlled by the continents’ shift above sea level and the major surface erosion events that followed

These erosion processes, such as the one that followed the global “Snowball Earth” glaciations that occurred 700 to 600 million years ago, produced continental sediments that worked as lubricant for subduction, a crucial process of plate tectonics, that reduced friction between the subducting plate and overriding plate.

"We suggested our hypothesis based on global geodynamic models of plate tectonics and regional models of subduction in the South American Andes,” Sobolev explained. "Then we used published geological and geochemical data to verify the hypothesis. Only the synergetic combination of all these disciplines made this study possible."

More geochemical data is required to effectively test their hypothesis, Sobolev and Brown note.

"It must be fully quantified, which in turn will require coupled modelling of deep mantle convection and plate tectonics, surface processes and even climate, which is an important factor controlling surface erosion. That is an exciting challenge for the Earth system modeling community,” Sobolev said. "This will require building new types of models tightly linking deep Earth and surface processes."

The new theory is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Erik Harrison

Natural lubrication was crucial for kicking off movement of plate tectonics

Researchers Stephan V. Sobolev of the German Research Centre for...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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