Sexual behavior and preference - whether in humans or animals - isn’t random. It’s shaped early on, during fetal development, by how the brain responds to hormones like androgens (male sex hormones). 



This early exposure is known to affect adult traits like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/relentless-sex-drive-may-lead-northern-quolls-to-extinction/">sex drive</a> and cognition. But there's been one big obstacle: how do you measure that influence without invasive methods?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-fingers-hint-at-sexual-behavior">Rat fingers hint at sexual behavior </h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.okayama-u.ac.jp/index_e.html">Okayama University</a> in Japan may have found an answer - by looking at rats’ fingers.



In a recent study published on May 14, 2025, a team led by Professor Hirotaka Sakamoto and Dr. Himeka Hayashi found that a simple finger measurement - the ratio of the second digit to the fourth digit, known as 2D:4D - can predict sexual behavior and preference in rats.



This digit ratio has been studied in humans for years. On average, men tend to have a lower 2D:4D ratio than women, meaning their index fingers are shorter relative to their ring fingers. 



That difference has been linked to prenatal androgen exposure. It’s also been tied to traits like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/practicing-yoga-nidra-improves-sleep-memory-and-cognition/">cognition</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/">personality</a>, and sexual orientation. But surprisingly, there hasn’t been much research testing whether this holds true in other animals. That’s what drew the researchers to rats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shorter-fingers-stronger-sex-drive">Shorter fingers, stronger sex drive</h2>



“We found that the 2D:4D ratio serves as a reliable biological marker for predicting sexual activity in rats,” said Sakamoto. “Rats with shorter second digits were not only more sexually active but also showed a clear preference for female scent.”



Building on their initial measurements, the team then ran mating trials to observe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">behavior</a>.



The results were clear. Male rats that ejaculated during their first encounter had shorter second digits compared to those that didn’t. 



These males also showed signs of higher sexual drive: they ejaculated more often, did so more quickly, and had stronger erectile function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-scent-of-sexual-behavior">The scent of sexual behavior </h2>



To go beyond behavior and look at preference, the researchers ran a simple but telling test. They placed male rats in a cage with two kinds of bedding: one scented by females, and the other by males.



All the male rats initially explored the male-scented bedding. But only those with shorter second digits stayed interested in the female-scented bedding. They sniffed, explored, and spent more time with it - indicating a clear sexual preference.



“While most studies have only linked the digit ratio to morphological sex differences, we noticed a surprising lack of research connecting digit ratio to the biological basis of sex itself - especially sexual activity and preference,” notes Hayashi. “This curiosity marked the start of our study.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingers-mirror-brain-wiring">Fingers mirror brain wiring</h2>



Beyond offering insight into rat behavior, the study points to a deeper question: how early hormone exposure shapes the brain in lasting ways.



Before birth, hormone exposure might wire our brains in ways that the 2D:4D ratio later reflects - potentially shaping complex behaviors like sexual orientation or emotional attachment.



“Our results suggest a profound link between the body and mind, with significant scientific and clinical implications,” said Sakamoto. “Simply examining our fingers could one day help identify aspects of our behavioral tendencies.”



The findings also offer a practical model for exploring biological questions that are difficult - or impossible - to study directly in humans. 



Because 2D:4D is also connected to cognitive traits and mental health conditions, this research could help explain sex-based differences in disorders like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/">autism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-gut-bacteria-morganella-morganii-could-cause-depression-not-a-brain-disorder/">depression</a>, or attachment issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-is-not-the-whole-story">Biology is not the whole story</h2>



While the findings are compelling, they also raise important questions. For one, it’s still unclear how well results from rats translate to humans. 



Rats provide a useful model for controlled experiments, but human sexuality is influenced by many layers - cultural, social, psychological - that go far beyond biology.



The researchers also focused only on male rats. Future studies will need to explore whether similar patterns hold true for females, and how other factors like environment or stress interact with digit ratios to shape behavior.



Another key question is causation. Rats with shorter 2D:4D finger ratios tend to show more sexual activity and stronger preferences, but scientists aren’t yet sure whether the digit ratio drives this behavior - or if both stem from shared prenatal influences.



None of this takes away from the value of the study. But it highlights the importance of treating biological markers like 2D:4D as part of a much larger picture. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/expanim/advpub/0/advpub_24-0159/_article">Experimental Animals</a>.



-----



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Does your finger length predict sexual behavior? A rat study says yes

Sexual behavior and preference - whether in humans or animals - isn’t random. It’s shaped early on, during fetal development, by how the brain responds to hormones like androgens (male sex hormones). This early exposure is known to affect adult traits like sex drive and cognition. But there's been one big obstacle: how do you measure that influence without invasive methods? Rat fingers hint at sexual behavior Researchers from Okayama University in Japan may have found an answer - by looking at rats’ fingers. In a recent...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.vai.org/">Van Andel Research Institute</a> (VARI) are reporting that ancient microbes which survive in some of the world's harshest conditions share a similar molecular mechanism with humans. The shared system, which is used to respire and conserve energy, has adapted to its changing surroundings for billions of years.

The team used the powerful Titan Krios cryo-electron microscope at VARI to analyze the highest resolution images ever obtained of MBH, a molecular complex involved in microbial respiration. The experts discovered that the structure of MBH is strikingly similar to Complex I in humans.

Study co-author Dr. Michael W.W. Adams has been studying MBH for 20 years.

“Nature is really good at finding molecules that work and then modifying them and using them over and over again. This is a prime example,” said Dr. Adams. “Knowing the structure of MBH provides us with new insights into how Complex I evolved and how it might work.”

In living organisms, respiration produces usable energy by converting electrical energy into a chemical form, and MBH and Complex I play key roles in this process. Prior to this study, however, no clear evolutionary connection had been established between the two molecular complexes.

“The determination of MBH's structure fills in some important missing pieces that reveal how life adjusted to sweeping changes in the environment throughout the millennia,” said co-senior author Dr. Huilin. “This solves a fundamental, long standing mystery in biology.”


Despite their similarities, the complexes have some notable differences. MBH's structure has a mechanism for changing electrical energy into chemical energy that is simpler than that found in Complex I. Furthermore, MBH is used to expel hydrogen gas, while Complex I in humans is used to expel carbon dioxide.


MBH is considered to be an ancient respiratory system because it can be found in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/empire-state-building-microbes/">microbe</a> known as Pyrococcus furiosus, which grows best in boiling water and has lived in volcanic marine vents for billions of years. This environment is similar to the atmospheric conditions present many years ago when the planet was much more volatile.

Complex I has the ability to interact with more molecules compared to MBH, an adaptation that likely emerged alongside a shift in the Earth's atmospheric composition.

“It is amazing to see these two distantly related systems reorganize their shared elements to adjust to their different living conditions,” said study first author Dr. Hongjun Yu. “It looks as if nature is playing with its own building blocks.”


The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient microbes reveal how humans adjust to changing climates

Scientists at Van Andel Research Institute (VARI) are reporting that...

A deadly fungus – known as chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) – has been devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/concerns-reptiles-amphibians-pets/">amphibian</a> populations around the world for years. It’s been a direct cause of the decline and extinction of species of frogs, toads, newts, and other amphibians on several continents. While this fungus – also known as Bd – is distributed around the world, it was unknown where the deadly strains of the pathogen first originated… until now. 

New research published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a> reports that the fungus may have first emerged in East Asia. This fungus passes from animal to animal, spreading rapidly and causing chytridiomycosis, which attacks the animal’s skin and affects their ability to regulate water and electrolyte levels, leading to heart failure.

Researchers at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> and their partners at the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/">Zoological Society of London</a> – along with almost 40 other institutions around the world – gathered samples of the pathogen from around the world. They sequenced the samples’ genomes, and combined the data with genomes from past Bd studies, resulting in a total collection of 234 samples.

The researchers looked at differences in the genomes of these samples, and identified four main genetic lineages of the fungus. Three of these lineages are distributed globally, while the fourth lineage was only found in Korea, on frogs native to the region. The fungi of Korean lineage were determined to contain much more genetic diversity than any other lineages. Further analysis of this lineage showed no history of global outbreaks within their genomes, which suggests that Korean Bd strains were native to the region, and most closely resemble the ancestry of all modern Bd.

Through analysis of the genetic data, the researchers estimated that the killer strain of Bd currently threatening amphibian species diverged from its most recent common ancestor. Rather than dating back thousands of years, the range of the disease expanded greatly between 50 and 120 years ago, which coincides with the rapid global expansion of intercontinental trade.

The study’s authors believe that humans have contributed heavily to the spread of this fungus, largely through the international pet trade of these amphibians. They provide strong evidence that a ban on trade in amphibians from Asia would be a positive move for mitigating the further spread of the fungus.

“Our research not only points to East Asia as ground zero for this deadly fungal pathogen, but suggests we have only uncovered the tip of the iceberg of chytrid diversity in Asia,” says Matthew Fisher, from the School of Public Health at Imperial College. “Therefore, until the ongoing trade in infected amphibians is halted, we will continue to put our irreplaceable global amphibian biodiversity recklessly at risk.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Frank Pasmans

Killer fungus wiping out amphibians originated in Asia

A deadly fungus – known as chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis)...

A team led by Amanda D. Hanford at <a href="http://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> is bringing the concept of cloaking devices out of science fiction and into reality. The researchers have now developed an underwater cloaking device in the form of an acoustic shield.

The experts set out to create an instrument that can redirect sound waves around a cloaked object without scattering the wave energy. In order to do so, they needed to determine the best way to manipulate a metamaterial, which contains unique properties not found in natural materials - including negative density.

“These materials sound like a totally abstract concept, but the math is showing us that these properties are possible,” said Hanford. “So, we are working to open the floodgates to see what we can create with these materials.”

Although most acoustic metamaterials have been developed to control sound in the air, Hanford’s team took on the challenge of engineering these materials for use underwater. Water has a higher density and a lower compressibility compared to air, so design options were much more limited.

The team ultimately engineered a three-foot-tall pyramid out of perforated steel plates, which they tested on the floor of an underwater research tank. A hydrophone was used to generate acoustic waves between 7,000 Hz and 12,000 Hz, and several receiver hydrophones were set up throughout the tank to monitor reflected acoustic waves.

The experts found that the wave reflected from the metamaterial matched the phase of the reflected wave from the surface, and the amplitude of the reflected wave from the cloaked object decreased slightly.

Linear coordinate transformation enabled the researchers to map the flat surface of the bottom of the tank, which revealed that space was compressed into two triangular cloaking regions.

The results indicate that the manufactured metamaterial produced in the study could make an object appear invisible to underwater instruments like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laser-tech-maya-settlements/">sonar</a>.

The research will be presented at the 175th Meeting of the <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/">Acoustical Society of America</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Peter Kerrian

Underwater cloaking devices may soon become reality

A team led by Amanda D. Hanford at Pennsylvania State...

An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/">University of Leicester</a> has used the chemical analysis of tiny fossil shells to gain insight into the Earth's climate over half a billion years ago. The results of the study indicate that animals of this time diversified under atmospheric conditions that were similar to when the dinosaurs lived.

“Many marine animals incorporate chemical traces of seawater into their shells as they grow,” said study co-author Dr.Tom Harvey. “That chemical signature is often lost over geological time, so it's remarkable that we can identify it in such ancient fossils.”

During the Cambrian explosion around 541 million years ago, most of the major animal groups first emerged. It has been assumed that it was warm during the Cambrian Period due to the types of rock deposited at this time, but details of the climate have been relatively unknown.

The fossil record documented in the one-millimeter shells, which were found in limestone dating back around 515 million years, revealed that high latitude sea temperatures were in excess of 20 degrees Celsius. This is similar to the greenhouse climate of the Late Cretaceous Period.

“Because scientists cannot directly measure sea temperatures from half a billion years ago, they have to use proxy data - these are measurable quantities that respond in a predictable way to changing climate variables like temperature,” explained study co-author Thomas Hearing. “In this study, we used oxygen isotope ratios, which is a commonly used paleothermometer.”

“We then used acid to extract fossils about 1mm long from blocks of limestone from Shropshire, UK, dated to between 515 - 510 million years old. Careful examination of these tiny fossils revealed that some of them have exceptionally well-preserved shell chemistry which has not changed since they grew on the Cambrian sea floor.”

Climate model simulations also supported the finding that Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-impacts-environment-climate-change/">climate</a> was in a “typical” greenhouse state, with temperatures similar to more recent intervals in Earth's climate history such as the late Mesozoic and early Cenozoic eras.

The research sheds new light on the early animals of the Cambrian Period and their surrounding environment.


“We hope that this approach can be used by other researchers to build up a clearer picture of ancient climates where conventional climate proxy data are not available,” said Hearing.


The study is published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://le.ac.uk/">University of Leicester</a>

Small shell fossils reveal Earth’s climate 500 million years ago

An international team of researchers led by the University of...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printing-food-industry/">3D printing</a> is on the rise, and everything from jet engine parts to houses to prosthetic arms can be created with a 3D printer.  

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a simple concept: you can print or create a three-dimensional item by layering raw materials, sometimes even food, to form the desired shape. 

However, new research has found that 3D printing could also be used to make weapons, posing a risk to both the general public and military allies.

The research was conducted by the <a href="https://www.rand.org/">RAND Corporation's</a> Center for Global Risk and Security.

According to the report, additive manufacturing could make it easier than ever to access or create dangerous weapons. Extremist groups could manufacture their own arsenal and street criminals could sell 3D printed weapons. 

3D printing could also benefit countries like North Korea, which could create products domestically and avoid sanctions. 

Not only is weapon manufacturing a major cause for concern with 3D printing, but according to the RAND paper, the technology is susceptible to hackers and sabotage. For example, hackers could create intentionally defective jet engine parts. 

“Lone-wolf attacks may become more lethal when individuals have ready access to 3D printers,” said Trevor Johnston, the lead author of the paper. “Even in countries like the United States, where gun control laws have done little to restrict access to semi-automatic weapons, additive manufacturing could increase the risk of violence and murder.”

The report also looked into the economic ramifications of 3D printed weapons. According to the authors, producing weapons and products locally could weaken international trade connections and threaten jobs. 

“Unemployment, isolation and alienation of middle and low-skilled laborers may be exacerbated by additive manufacturing, potentially leading to societal unrest in both developed and developing countries,” said Troy Smith, a co-author of the paper. 

The paper calls for increased monitoring and regulations, particularly of the raw materials used in additive manufacturing, software and the printers themselves. 

Even with preventive measures, the researchers emphasize that these will not be enough to stop the risks associated with 3D printing. Instead, policymakers and researchers should look at ways to limit the impact of future threats as well implement regulations. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

3D printed weapons could become a major public safety threat

3D printing is on the rise, and everything from jet...

An international team of researchers has discovered a major cave site along the East African coast. Panga ya Saidi represents the first substantial cave record from the Middle Stone Age to the Iron Age in this region.

Prior to this excavation, the majority of archaeological research has been conducted in the Rift Valley and in South Africa, and limited information has been available from the coast of East Africa.


The analysis of plant, animal, and shell remains suggests that forests and grasslands persevered in this region and the cave maintained a relatively stable environment for settlement, even when other areas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-human-migration-widespread/">Africa</a> were unsuitable.


The ecological setting of the cave adds to a growing collection of evidence that Homo sapiens could adapt to different environments as they moved across Africa and Eurasia. These populations developed a range of survival strategies to live in the diverse conditions of tropical forests, arid zones, coastal regions, and cold habitats in higher latitudes.

Beginning around 67,000 years ago, the cave record of Panga ya Saidi revealed a shift to smaller stone tools. Otherwise, however, there was no radical change in behavior at any time found in the archaeological record. 

Furthermore, there was also not a notable break in human occupation during the Toba volcanic super-eruption 74,000 years ago, contradicting theories that the subsequent “volcanic winter” drove human populations to near-extinction. There was some evidence to suggest that populations were increasing 60,000 years ago.

The record also indicated that there was cultural complexity over a long period of time, but with no significant turning point. 

Dr. Nicole Boivin of the <a href="http://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a> is the project’s principal investigator.

“The East African coastal hinterland and its forests and have been long considered to be marginal to human evolution so the discovery of Panga ya Saidi cave will certainly change archaeologists' views and perceptions,” said Dr. Boivin.

“The finds at Panga ya Saidi undermine hypotheses about the use of coasts as a kind of  'superhighway’ that channeled migrating humans out of Africa, and around the Indian Ocean rim,” said study co-author Professor Michael Petraglia.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Mohammad Shoaee

Ancient east African cave record reveals early innovations

An international team of researchers has discovered a major cave...

Millions of years ago, the Earth underwent a period of climate change that sent temperatures plummeting, prompting an era known as Snowball Earth. Now, a new study about this period calls into question our understanding of the Earth’s geological history and contradicts the well-established theory that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tectonic-plates-less-stable/">plate tectonics</a> started three billion years ago.

Instead, researchers from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas (UT) at Austin </a>and <a href="https://www.utdallas.edu/">UT Dallas</a> hypothesize that the start of plate tectonics created Snowball Earth, when the Earth was covered in snow and ice during the Neoproterozoic period 542 million to 1 billion years ago.

“People have been saying for a long time that we have always had plate tectonics...but I think this might be a failure of imagination,” said Robert Stern, a co-author of the study.

Stern worked with Nathaniel Miller and their findings were published in the in the journal Terra Nova.

The two researchers collected and analyzed published data on the geological activity during the Neoproterozoic era and realized there was a potential connection between the start of plate tectonic activity and snowball Earth.

“If you look at the preserved record, diagnostic evidence for modern plate tectonics involving deep subduction is mainly Neoproterozoic and younger,” said Miller. “But most people think we had this much earlier in Earth history.”

The Earth is the only planet that we know of to have plate tectonics. Our planet’s crust and upper mantle are made up of different pieces and when these sections move, they create enormous amounts of energy and friction creating volcanoes and earthquakes.

Plate tectonics shape our world and until now, it was believed that the Earth’s plates have been active for three billion of the planet’s 4.5 billion-year history.

Stern and Miller disagree with this theory, as their research shows a variety of evidence in the geological record that corroborates the hypothesis that tectonics only started their activity in the Neoproterozoic.

First, before the Neoproterozoic era, there was a lack of any geological activity, a period that researchers have nicknamed the “the boring billion.”

Stern and Miller think this indicates that before the Neoproterozoic, the Earth was covered by a single lithospheric lid and the transition to moving plates created the major changes in climate that brought about a cooling period.

“This climate crisis could have been caused by a number of proximal causes, but the overall great cause was this revolution in Earth's tectonic style,” said Stern.

The researchers also cite that many rock formations, gemstones and chemical signatures associated with plate tectonics only date as far back as the Neoproterozoic.

22 different methods for how plate tectonics could have caused snowball Earth were proposed in the paper.

For instance, volcanic activity could have released large amounts sulfur into the atmosphere thereby creating a cooling effect. Another possibility is that when the plates first started shifting, it changed the Earth’s rotational axis.

Stern and Miller’s hypothesis is controversial and the two authors say that more research is required to prove that tectonic activity started later in the Earth’s geological history than thought.

“Revolutions in our field don't happen often or very easily,” said Stern. “You plant ideas and then you go and look for more data that either supports them or refutes them.”

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA/JPL-Caltech</a>/Space Science Institute

Snowball Earth may have been triggered by early tectonic activity

Millions of years ago, the Earth underwent a period of...

Migraines are more than just a bad headache, and symptoms can range from throbbing pain and nausea to sensitivity to light and sound.

Migraine sufferers know how debilitating they can be, and approximately 15 to 20 percent of adults in developed countries are affected by them. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-treats-migraines-better/">Migraines</a> often run the family, leading scientists to believe that the underlying factors that cause migraines are inherited. 

A new study examining how genetics influence migraine headaches has identified certain variants and genes that explain why some families are more prone to migraines than others. 

The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.fimm.fi/">Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland</a> and published in the journal <a href="http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(18)30322-2">Neuron</a>. 

“For a long time, we have been wondering why common disease (like migraines) aggregates in families,” said Aarno Palotie, a co-author of the study. 

Previous research found that migraines could run in families either through a Mendelian inheritance model or polygenic inheritance. A Mendelian inheritance model means that two copies of a gene are passed down from the parents to child and these genes determine a trait or disease. 

Polygenic, on the other hand, means that a group of genes work together to influence a trait. On their own, each gene has little impact, but together the genes have a stronger influence. 

The researchers for this study wanted to see which had more of an impact on inherited migraines, Mendelian genes or the accumulation of polygenic variants. 

In order to measure migraine susceptibility in families, the researcher first created a polygenic risk score to estimate how much genetic burden variants had. 

The researchers then applied their risk score to a family study of migraine sufferers in Finland which involved 8,319 people. 

Polygenic common variants had a much stronger influence on migraine risk in people compared to the stronger Mendelian genes. 

In the family study, in 45 families who suffered from a severe kind of a migraine called a hemiplegic migraine only four families’ migraines were influenced by Mendelian genes. 

“The strength of the common variants in these families surprised us,” said Palotie. “Even if Mendelian variants don't drive the majority of migraine cases, scientists can research how these genes impact biological pathways responsible for migraine symptoms and potentially develop drugs to target those pathways.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Why some families are more prone to migraines than others

Migraines are more than just a bad headache, and symptoms...

Scientists have established that the gravitational pull of Jupiter and Venus slightly lengthens Earth's orbit on a regular schedule every 405,000 years. The remarkably consistent pattern, which has influenced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-dioxide-record-broken/">Earth's</a> climate for at least 215 million years, will allow for a more accurate timeline of major geological events in history.

 Study lead author Dennis V. Kent is a Board of Governors professor in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at <a href="https://newbrunswick.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University-New Brunswick</a>.


“It's an astonishing result because this long cycle, which had been predicted from planetary motions through about 50 million years ago, has been confirmed through at least 215 million years ago,” explained Professor Kent.

“Scientists can now link changes in the climate, environment, dinosaurs, mammals and fossils around the world to this 405,000-year cycle in a very precise way.”


For the investigation, the scientists compared sediments, climate cycles, and reversals in the Earth's magnetic field.

“The climate cycles are directly related to how the Earth orbits the sun and slight variations in sunlight reaching Earth lead to climate and ecological changes,” said Professor Kent. “The Earth's orbit changes from close to perfectly circular to about 5 percent elongated especially every 405,000 years.”

Sediments in the Newark basin, a prehistoric lake that spanned most of New Jersey, and sediments in the Chinle Formation in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona were used to analyze millions of years of activity in Earth's magnetic field. The scientists also used the core of a 1,700-foot-long rock that dated back between 202 and 253 million years to the Triassic period

The study revealed that the the 405,000-year cycle is the most consistent astronomical pattern linked to Earth's orbit around the sun.

“Developing a very precise time-scale allows us to say something new about the fossils, including their differences and similarities in wide-ranging areas,” said Professor Kent.

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth’s orbit has been lengthened by the force of other planets

Scientists have established that the gravitational pull of Jupiter and...

Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measures-suns-energy-earth/">sun</a> is very gradually dying and eventually will no longer be able to support any life on Earth. 

The good news is that the death and collapse of our sun is a long way off. Scientists predict that the sun will die in 10 billion years and now, a new study has discovered what will happen after this takes place. 

An international team of astronomers conducted the research and the results were published in the journal Nature Astronomy. 

When a star is in its last stages, it typically turns into a planetary nebula, which traces the star’s transition from a red giant to a white dwarf. This nebula is visible as a large ring of bright gas and dust where the star once was. 

This is true for a majority of all active stars, but researchers were unsure if the sun would follow the same process because of its low mass. 

For the new study, the researchers wanted to find a clear answer for whether or not the sun would have enough mass to create a visible ring or planetary nebula. 

The researchers created a new model to predict the life-cycle of stars. The model showed the research team the luminosity of the gas and dust that is ejected from stars of varying masses and ages when they die. 

“When a star dies it ejects a mass of gas and dust - known as its envelope - into space. The envelope can be as much as half the star's mass,” said Albert Zijlstra from the<a href="http://www.manchester.ac.uk/"> University of Manchester</a>, a member of the research team. “This reveals the star's core, which by this point in the star's life is running out of fuel, eventually turning off and before finally dying.”

Zijlstra also said that envelope can shine for 10,000 years and be seen from distances measuring tens of millions of years. 

Data from the model also sheds insight on a problem that had astronomers confused for years. 

It was discovered 25 years ago that you could measure the distance of a galaxy by that galaxy’s brightest nebulae. In any galaxy, the brightest nebulae always had the same measurable levels of brightness. 

The new model contradicted previous data that corroborated this theory. 

“The data said you could get bright planetary nebulae from low mass stars like the sun, the models said that was not possible, anything less than about twice the mass of the sun would give a planetary nebula too faint to see,” said Zijlstra

Even though the sun is low mass, the model still showed that it would produce a bright planetary nebula. After a star ejects its envelope, the researchers found that the star heats up three times faster than was previously calculated which makes it possible for the sun to produce a bright ring.

However, the researchers found that the sun was the lowest mass a star could be in order to produce visible planetary nebula. 

“We found that stars with mass less than 1.1 times the mass of the sun produce fainter nebula, and stars more massive than 3 solar masses brighter nebulae, but for the rest, the predicted brightness is very close to what had been observed. Problem solved, after 25 years!” said Zijlstra. 

The new study shows what will happen after the sun dies and adds to our understanding of the life-cycle of stars. 

“This is a nice result,” said Zijlstra. “Not only do we now have a way to measure the presence of stars of ages a few billion years in distant galaxies, which is a range that is remarkably difficult to measure, we even have found out what the sun will do when it dies!”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens when the sun dies?

Our sun is very gradually dying and eventually will no...

For the first time, experts are describing what takes place inside of our brains when we experience feelings of gratitude. The research could inspire future studies which explore how our everyday social interactions give rise to complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-remember-human-expressions/">emotions</a>.

In 2015, a team from the <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/bci/">Brain and Creativity Institute at USC</a> demonstrated that gratitude emerges from the medial prefrontal cortex and perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (pgACC). These areas are linked to feelings of reward, self-reference, moral cognition, fairness, and subjective value judgement.

Study participants were presented with true stories about life-saving gifts such as food and shelter that were received by survivors during the Holocaust. While the students placed themselves in these same situations and rated their feelings of gratefulness, the researchers used MRI scanners to monitor brain activity.

“There has not been much attention given to the emotion of gratitude, and yet it is extremely important in social behavior,” said senior author Antonio Damasio. “Gratitude rewards generosity and maintains the cycle of healthy social behavior.”

In the current study, co-author Dr. Xiaolin Zhou of <a href="http://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> and his team set out to determine how the brain translates selfless acts into gratitude. The experts used a socially interactive game in which participants had the opportunity to pay money to prevent their partners from receiving a pain stimulation.

When individuals were monetarily supported and spared from pain, the cost to their partners was processed in regions of the brain associated with mentalizing. In addition, pain reduction activated areas of the brain that are linked to reward representation. These brain regions were found to have a direct line of communication with the pgACC.

The findings of the study suggest that the pgACC consults with other areas of the brain that are stimulated by altruistic behavior. Once the relevant social information is received by the pgACC, the emotions of gratitude and appreciation are processed.

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists explain how the brain causes us to feel gratitude

For the first time, experts are describing what takes place...

An new drug treatment for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stem-cell-injections-alcoholism/">alcoholism</a> and addiction may be well underway thanks to an innovative new study. 

More than 15 million Americans suffer from alcohol addiction, and alcohol misuse reportedly costs the U.S. $250 billion every year, according to a previous 2015 study. 

Although there are drugs on the market that target alcohol addiction, they come with negative side-effects and don’t work very well. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a> developed a new drug JVW-1034 that works differently than other traditional addiction drugs and has been successful in tests with worms and rats. 

The study was published in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology, and although human trails with the drug are far off, the drug could potentially ease withdrawal symptoms and block cravings.

“There's clearly a huge need for something different and better,” said James Sahn, the co-first author of the study. “That's where our approach shines. It's modulating a pathway that doesn't seem to be associated with any of the other drugs that are available.”

JVW-1034 was developed by James Sahn and fellow chemist Stephen Martin. The drug was one of many compounds that could potentially interact with a cell-receptor previously proven to play a role in cocaine addiction. 

In order to see if the drug could work with alcohol cravings, the researchers first tested the drug on hungover worms. 

A tasty substance was placed on the opposite of a petri dish and the hungover worms slowly made their way to the treat, as opposed to control worms who quickly went to the substance. 

The researchers gave the hungover worms doses of the new drug and the worms quickly recovered. 

In another experiment, addicted rats who had free access to alcohol were given the drug. After administering the drug, the rats drank considerably less alcohol even though they had access to it. 

The researchers also confirmed that the drug targeted the sigma 2 receptor, and the study shows for the first time that sigma 2 is involved with alcoholism. 

Next, the researchers plan to optimize the drug so it has a better chance of combating addiction and withdrawal in humans. 

There are many underlying factors that contribute to alcoholism and so treating the disease can be difficult, but the drug would be a major step in the right direction and help toward recovery. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New drug could help treat alcoholism and withdrawal

An new drug treatment for alcoholism and addiction may be...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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