<p>Color showed up in human history long before paintbrushes, fabric, or even writing. Thousands of years before ancient Egypt, in what is now Georgia, someone picked up a stone and crushed a blue plant that couldn’t be eaten. </p>



<p>From that act, we now have one of the earliest signs of the color blue - intentionally made by human hands.</p>



<p>Researchers have just confirmed that small pebbles found in Dzudzuana Cave, about 50 miles east of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/vibrant-colors-brighten-the-black-sea/">Black Sea</a>, were used 34,000 years ago to grind the leaves of a plant that produces indigo blue dye.</p>



<p>That’s long before we thought people were doing anything that complex with color. Turns out, they weren’t just hunting animals and gathering berries - they were already experimenting with plants in ways that go beyond survival.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-knew-plant-power">Early humans knew plant power</h2>



<p>For a long time, scientists assumed that Paleolithic people mainly used plants as food. But this discovery tells a different story. </p>



<p>A nonedible plant called <em>Isatis tinctoria</em>, or woad, left behind a signature chemical on ancient stone tools: indigotin. That’s the same compound that gives denim jeans their famous blue color.</p>



<p>Woad isn’t the easiest plant to work with. It doesn’t just ooze blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-five-packaged-foods-in-the-u-s-contains-synthetic-dyes/">dye</a>. You have to crush its leaves and expose them to air to start a chemical reaction. Only then does the indigo color appear. </p>



<p>The process involves knowing what part of the plant to use, how to treat it, and why. That implies that early humans already recognized this plant’s special qualities - and knew exactly how to release them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-color-in-stone-tools">Unexpected color in stone tools</h2>



<p>The tools that revealed this were plain, rounded pebbles - unshaped by people. They were discovered in the 2000s, but it wasn’t until recently that archaeologists re-examined them.</p>



<p>They weren’t looking for color at first and wanted to figure out how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/">tools</a> were used. Were they for food? Leather? Plants? But under powerful microscopes, something unexpected showed up - tiny blue traces stuck in worn-down grooves of the stones. </p>



<p>These residues even looked fibrous in some spots, and they sat alongside starch grains - proof that plant material had been ground or rubbed.</p>



<p>To figure out exactly what the blue color substance was, researchers used Raman and FTIR spectroscopy - high-tech tools that can identify chemical compounds by how they interact with light.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pores-preserved-plant-remains">Pores preserved plant remains</h2>



<p>Finding color was only part of the puzzle. The next question was: how did the residue survive all this time? That’s where things got even more interesting.</p>



<p>The stones themselves had tiny pores - small enough to trap microscopic plant remains. Using synchrotron radiation (a super-powerful X-ray beam) and micro-CT scans, scientists could look inside the stones without breaking them open. </p>



<p>And yes, those pores had exactly the kind of shape and volume needed to hold the traces that were found. </p>



<p>Once they confirmed the tools could preserve those residues, the team tried to recreate what happened in that distant era.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/blue-indigo_Paleolithic-plant-use_microfragments_PLOS-One_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/blue-indigo_Paleolithic-plant-use_microfragments_PLOS-One_1s.webp" alt="Archaeological elongated blue micro-fragments extracted from the innermost second mold plant. Credit: PLOS One (2025)" class="wp-image-1985452"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Archaeological elongated blue micro-fragments extracted from the innermost second mold plant. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PLOS One (2025)</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blue-color-on-stones-was-made-from-plants">Blue color on stones was made from plants</h2>



<p>The team ran experiments using fresh woad grown and harvested in Italy. They crushed leaves on river pebbles collected near the cave and watched what happened. </p>



<p>The same kinds of blue residues formed on the stones. Some residues stuck in pores. Others left clear wear marks. And certain samples matched what researchers found in the original tools.</p>



<p>This wasn’t a random accident. It was a repeating process. Someone in the Upper Paleolithic knew how to create and use plant-based materials - even if they left no writing or instructions behind.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-medicine-or-both">Color, medicine, or both?</h2>



<p>No one can say for sure why they processed this plant. It might have been for color - maybe to stain animal hides, decorate tools, or mark territory. Or maybe it was for healing. Woad has a long history as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-plant-has-great-potential-to-fight-colorectal-cancer/">medicinal plant</a>, used to treat wounds and infections.</p>



<p>Archaeologist Laura Longo of <a href="https://www.unive.it/web/en/497/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ca' Foscari University of Venice</a> noted that plants are often viewed solely as food resources.</p>



<p>“This study highlights their role in complex operations, likely involving the transformation of perishable materials for use in different phases of daily life among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/">Homo sapiens</a> 34,000 years ago," said Longo.</p>



<p>“While research continues to improve the identification of elusive plant-derived residues, typically absent from conventional studies, our multi-analytical approach opens new perspectives on the technological and cultural sophistication of Upper Paleolithic populations.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-of-color-in-time">Echoes of color in time</h2>



<p>This discovery changes the way we think about our distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/">ancestors</a>. They weren’t just trying to survive, they were thinking, testing, creating. </p>



<p>They were observing the natural world and determining how to use it in innovative ways - even using leaves to create lasting color.</p>



<p>We know that the motivation to build something beautiful or useful has been around for tens of thousands of years. And all it may take to validate that is a worn stone and a few spots of blue color dust.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321262" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a></em>.</p>



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Earliest evidence found of humans using the color blue for decoration

Color showed up in human history long before paintbrushes, fabric, or even writing. Thousands of years before ancient Egypt, in what is now Georgia, someone picked up a stone and crushed a blue plant that couldn’t be eaten. From that act, we now have one of the earliest signs of the color blue - intentionally made by human hands. Researchers have just confirmed that small pebbles found in Dzudzuana Cave, about 50 miles east of the Black Sea, were used 34,000 years ago to grind the leaves...

3d,Illustration,Of,A,Quantum,Computer,In,A,Lab.

<p>Quantum computing is on the verge of a tech revolution, ready to tackle complex problems that classical computers just can't handle right now. As this field grows, it faces some challenges that researchers and engineers need to overcome to really unlock its potential.</p>



<p>One big issue is the fragility of qubits, which are the basic units of quantum info. These qubits are pretty sensitive to environmental changes, leading to calculation errors.</p>



<p>Recently, an impressive team of researchers has come up with a new material to stabilize qubits. This solution could protect qubits from outside interference, making quantum systems more reliable and getting us closer to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-can-instantly-execute-a-task-that-would-normally-take-47-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tapping into the full power</a> of quantum computing.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-superconductors-for-quantum-computing">New superconductors for quantum computing</h2>



<p>Superconductors are remarkable materials that enable electrons to flow with zero resistance at extremely low temperatures, yet they often struggle under high magnetic fields.</p>



<p>This new material, developed by a team at the <a href="https://cnsi.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California NanoSystems Institute</a>, challenges this limitation by retaining its superconducting properties even in the presence of significantly stronger magnetic fields than traditional superconductors can endure.</p>



<p>This innovative material exhibits the superconducting diode effect, allowing it to carry a much higher electrical current in one direction compared to the opposite.</p>



<p>In contrast, conventional superconductors lose their zero-resistance characteristic when current flows equally from both directions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-mechanics-and-chiral-superconductors">Quantum mechanics and chiral superconductors</h2>



<p>Quantum computers work on some pretty fascinating principles that govern subatomic particles, completely changing the way we handle information.</p>



<p>Unlike classical bits, which can only be a 0 or a 1, quantum bits -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-giant-leap-forward-breakthrough-ultra-pure-silicon-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">also known as qubits</a> -- can exist in multiple states at the same time, thanks to a cool phenomenon called superposition.</p>



<p>This confounding trait lets quantum computers explore a bunch of possibilities all at once, making them capable of tackling complex calculations that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-outperformed-new-type-traditional-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">classical computers</a> just can't manage.</p>



<p>However, qubits are super delicate and can be really sensitive to their surroundings. Even small changes like temperature shifts or electromagnetic interference can mess with their quantum states, which usually last just millionths of a second. Their fragility poses some big challenges for researchers in the field of quantum computing.</p>



<p>To tackle these issues, scientists are looking into innovative solutions, like using chiral superconductors. These materials show some unique electron behavior that could help improve the stability and coherence of qubits, possibly making them last longer in operation.</p>



<p>By taking advantage of the properties of chiral superconductors, researchers hope to create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-quantum-computers-just-got-easier-with-new-technique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stronger quantum systems</a> that can perform calculations with better accuracy and efficiency.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-chiral-superconductors">Role of chiral superconductors</h2>



<p>Chiral superconductors differ from their conventional counterparts in how electron pairs, known as Cooper pairs, behave. </p>



<p>In conventional superconductors, Cooper pairs move and spin in opposite directions to adhere to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-discovery-is-a-revolutionary-step-forward/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanical rules</a>.</p>



<p>In chiral superconductors, however, these pairs spin in the same direction, creating complex interactions that could be harnessed to control current flow and process information more efficiently.</p>



<p>The research team engineered a lattice structure with alternating layers. One layer, made of tantalum disulfide, a conventional superconductor, was as thin as three atoms.</p>



<p>Adjacent layers consisted of either "left-handed" or "right-handed" molecular compounds. This design encouraged the material to exhibit properties akin to those of a chiral superconductor.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-quantum-computing">Future of quantum computing</h2>



<p>The implications of this development are huge, to say the least. Quantum computing is set to bring about amazing advancements in various fields, from rock-solid cybersecurity to super<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-artificial-intelligence-ai-to-make-quantum-computers-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> precise simulations of complex systems</a>.</p>



<p>Just think about it: quantum computers could change the game in modeling drug interactions in our bodies, optimizing traffic flow in cities, and predicting financial market shifts with incredible accuracy.</p>



<p>But for these cool applications to actually happen, quantum computers need to get better at resisting disturbances that can mess with qubit stability. </p>



<p>The recent discovery of the superconducting diode effect in new materials shows real promise for boosting superconducting circuits, which are key to many quantum computing setups.</p>



<p>This effect could help create more efficient and stable qubits, bringing us closer to tapping into the full potential of quantum tech. How do you think these advancements might change our world? The future looks bright!</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-quantum-computing">Beyond quantum computing</h2>



<p>Chiral superconductors' potential extends beyond quantum computing. Their ability to facilitate faster and more energy-efficient electronics and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-photons-create-vortex-when-they-collide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication technologies</a> is particularly appealing.</p>



<p>These materials could revolutionize specialized applications, such as computers operating at extremely low temperatures in space.</p>



<p>Given the rarity of naturally occurring chiral superconductors, the ability to engineer them from more common materials represents a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-quantum-light-detector-now-fits-on-silicon-chip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant step forward</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chiral-superconductors-and-quantum-computing">Chiral superconductors and quantum computing</h2>



<p>In summary, this recent advancement in material science marks a pivotal moment in our journey toward making quantum computing a practical reality.</p>



<p>By addressing the challenges posed by traditional superconductors, researchers have unlocked new pathways for developing stable and efficient qubits.</p>



<p>This progress is vital for the future of quantum computing, which holds the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">promise of transforming various fields</a>, from cybersecurity to drug discovery and beyond.</p>



<p>The innovative material's capacity to operate under high magnetic fields, coupled with its unique superconducting diode effect, represents significant milestones that could lead to more robust quantum systems.</p>



<p>But the implications of this discovery extend well beyond quantum computing. The same principles that enhance qubit stability may also pave the way for faster, energy-efficient electronics and communication technologies.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07625-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em>.</p>



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New material shows great potential for use in quantum computing

Quantum computing is on the verge of a tech revolution,...

<p>Nxylon has emerged as a potentially revolutionary discovery in materials science, capturing attention with its extraordinary ability to absorb over 99% of visible light.</p>



<p>This super-black material, developed unexpectedly at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>, is poised to revolutionize a range of industries, from optical devices to luxury consumer products. </p>



<p>The serendipitous creation of this material has led to a new frontier in the exploration of ultra-black substances. </p>



<p>Unlike traditional black paints, which absorb around 97.5% of light, Nxylon's unique structure inherently traps light, making it a marvel of modern technology and innovation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birth-of-a-dark-marvel">Birth of a dark marvel</h2>



<p>During the course of an experiment aimed at making wood more water-repellent using high-energy plasma, Prof. Philip Evans and his Ph.D. student Kenny Cheng stumbled upon something extraordinary. </p>



<p>They found that when the plasma technique was applied to the cut ends of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-still-have-much-to-learn-about-tree-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wood cells</a>, the surfaces turned exceptionally black. </p>



<p>Rather than dismissing this discovery, the team channeled their energies into developing super-black materials.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-journey-to-darkness">Unexpected journey to darkness</h2>



<p>Tests carried out by the Physics and Astronomy department at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a> confirmed their findings.</p>



<p>The material reflected less than one per cent of visible light, thus absorbing nearly all light that it encountered. An entirely new vista of possibilities unfolded. </p>



<p>“Ultra-black or super-black material can absorb more than 99 per cent of the light that strikes it – more than what normal black paint, which absorbs about 97.5 per cent of light, can achieve,” Dr. Evans explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-super-black">Potential of super-black</h2>



<p>The applications of such super-black substances are boundless, especially in the field of astronomy, where ultra-black coatings on instruments can suppress stray light, aiding in improved image clarity. </p>



<p>Moreover, they can augment the efficiency of solar cells, and even find their way into the production of art pieces and luxury items such as watches.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nxylon-the-night-wood">Nxylon: The night wood</h2>



<p>The dynamic team behind this breakthrough christened their discovery Nxylon - deriving from Nyx, the Greek goddess of the night, and xylon, the Greek term for wood. </p>



<p>Nxylon retained its extraordinary blackness even when coated with an alloy, like gold, enabling it to be viewed through an electron microscope. </p>



<p>Unlike other black materials that rely on pigments, Nxylon owes its darkness to its structure, which inherently traps light.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nxylon-in-action">Nxylon in action</h2>



<p>Nxylon has the potential to replace expensive, rare black woods like ebony and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rosewood-trees-in-southeast-asia-face-the-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rosewood</a>, and even the black gemstone onyx, in the production of items such as watch faces and jewelry. </p>



<p>Furthermore, it's lightweight, easy to cut into intricate shapes, and can be made from not just basswood, but also other types of wood such as European lime.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-the-wood-industry">Potential impact on the wood industry</h2>



<p>Dr. Evans and his colleagues aim to establish Nxylon Corporation of Canada, intending to scale up the applications of Nxylon, in association with jewellers, artists, and tech product designers. </p>



<p>They also envision developing a commercial-scale plasma reactor to manufacture larger samples of super-black wood suitable for non-reflective ceiling and wall tiles. This could breathe new life into the wood industry, inspiring new approaches and applications. </p>



<p>“Nxylon can be made from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-inspires-solutions-for-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable</a> and renewable materials widely found in North America and Europe, leading to new applications for wood," added Dr. Evans.</p>



<p>"The wood industry in B.C. is often seen as a sunset industry focused on commodity products -- our research demonstrates its great untapped potential.”</p>



<p>In the brilliant spectrum of color and materials science, Nxylon shines, a testament to the power of black, the strength of wood, and the potential of unexpected discoveries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-promise-of-nxylon">Environmental promise of Nxylon</h2>



<p>Beyond its innovative applications, Nxylon also holds promise for environmental sustainability. </p>



<p>As the world increasingly seeks eco-friendly alternatives in various industries, Nxylon offers a viable solution. </p>



<p>Since it can be derived from readily available wood sources and produced using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-practices-could-greatly-reduce-species-extinction-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable practices</a>, Nxylon not only minimizes reliance on endangered species like ebony and rosewood but also promotes responsible forestry. </p>



<p>This aligns with a growing demand for products that are not only high-performing but also environmentally conscious. </p>



<p>As Nxylon gains traction, it could lead to a shift in material sourcing, encouraging industries to prioritize sustainability without sacrificing quality or aesthetics.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adsu.202400184" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Sustainable Systems</a></em>.</p>



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New super-black 'wonder wood' called Nyxlon absorbs almost all light

Nxylon has emerged as a potentially revolutionary discovery in materials...

<p>Imagine a brain, the soft tissue inside your head, that is injured and can't heal. This is the harsh reality for millions worldwide dealing with neurological disorders like trauma, stroke, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases. The inability to regenerate neurons worsens these conditions.</p>



<p>The devastation results from the permanent loss of neurons. These cells are crucial for our brain and nervous system. </p>



<p>When neurons are lost, it can lead to serious issues in how our brain functions. Sadly, this loss significantly impacts our abilities and daily life. Now imagine a world where we can regrow these neurons!</p>



<p>This is the promising horizon of research carried out by two teams of scientists led by Magdalena Götz, chair of physiological genomics at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (<a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LMU</a>), head of the Stem Cell Center Department at Helmholtz Munich.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regenerating-neurons">Regenerating neurons</h2>



<p>At the heart of their research is a sophisticated process called direct neuronal reprogramming, wherein the function of one cell is changed into another.</p>



<p>In essence, within the brain, non-neuronal cells, known as glial cells, are converted into functional neurons.</p>



<p>This process holds great potential for treating neurological disorders, though it presents its own complexities and challenges. </p>



<p>These factors spark excitement among neuroscientists and researchers in regenerative medicine, who are eager to overcome these hurdles and enhance our understanding and treatment options.</p>



<p>The research, published in the journal <em>Nature Neuroscience</em>, dives into the molecular mechanisms that come into play during the conversion of glial cells into neurons. </p>



<p>The researchers brought into focus the small chemical modifications that occur in the epigenome during this process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-the-epigenetic-puzzle">Unlocking the epigenetic puzzle</h2>



<p>The epigenome is the complex biological system that choreographs which genes are active in different cells at different times. </p>



<p>For the first time, Götz, Bonev and their teams have managed to demonstrate how is this intricate pattern of the epigenome is directed by a single transcription factor.</p>



<p>During this feat of biological engineering, they employed novel epigenome profiling methods and managed to make a breakthrough discovery: the transcriptional regulator YingYang1.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-gamechanger-in-regenerating-neurons">A gamechanger in regenerating neurons</h2>



<p>Much like the symbol it's named after, YingYang1 brings balance to the process of converting astrocytes to neurons. </p>



<p>But how does it do it? Well, it opens up the chromatin for reprogramming and interacts with the transcription factor to drive the transformation of the cell.</p>



<p>This discovery is a leap forward in understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zombie-neurons-shed-new-light-on-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell reprogramming</a> and brings us tantalizingly closer to therapeutic solutions for a number of devastating neurological disorders.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead">The road ahead</h2>



<p>The discovery of YingYang1 is a significant breakthrough. It helps us understand how neurons can regenerate. This finding could lead to new treatments for different neurological conditions. Overall, it opens up exciting possibilities for the future of brain health. </p>



<p>While the findings from Götz and Bonev's teams spark enthusiasm within the scientific community, a number of challenges remain on the path to clinical application. </p>



<p>Further research is essential to understand the comprehensive effects of manipulating the epigenome and to ensure the safety and efficacy of potential treatments. </p>



<p>Additionally, establishing methods for targeted delivery of therapies to specific neuronal types will be critical in achieving successful outcomes. </p>



<p>Nevertheless, the promise of neuronal regeneration through direct reprogramming invites a renewed sense of hope for those affected by neurological disorders, as scientists work tirelessly to translate these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cleaning-the-brain-neurons-flush-out-waste-while-we-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discoveries into viable treatments</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cleaning-the-brain-neurons-flush-out-waste-while-we-sleep/">.</a></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-promise-for-tomorrow">A promise for tomorrow</h2>



<p>"The protein YingYang1 is crucial for achieving the conversion from astrocytes to neurons," explains Götz. "These findings are important to understand and improve reprogramming of&nbsp;glial cells&nbsp;to neurons, and thus bring us closer to therapeutic solutions."</p>



<p>This breakthrough research reminds us of the power of human curiosity and determination. It highlights that even in the face of daunting complexities, we can decipher intricate mechanisms of life and harness them to improve human health.</p>



<p>While the pathway to an effective and reliable treatment for neuronal loss is long, each discovery like this marks a critical stepping-stone in our journey. The research opens up entirely new possibilities and enlightening insights into ways we might regenerate the neurons necessary for human beings to live healthy, fulfilling lives.</p>



<p>Today, regeneration of neurons might still be confined largely to the world of research, but tomorrow, it could be a reality that transforms millions of lives.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01677-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Neuroscience</em></a>.</p>



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Scientists find a way to regenerate old neurons

Imagine a brain, the soft tissue inside your head, that...

<p>Who doesn't love the allure of the iconic Egyptian pyramids? Their grandeur and mystery have captivated us for centuries. But, the means through which they were built has remained perplexing, until now.</p>



<p>Xavier Landreau from <a href="https://www.cea.fr/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEA</a> Paleotechnic Institute, France, and his stellar team have recently published a fascinating study to solve this mystery. </p>



<p>The spotlight? Pyramid of Djoser, the hero of all the Egyptian pyramids. The team has come up with a unique theory suggesting water-powered engineering may have played a significant role in its construction. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydraulic-lift-for-building-pyramids">Hydraulic lift for building pyramids</h2>



<p>In essence, the study suggests that Djoser, also known as the Step Pyramid, was possibly built with the aid of a hydraulic lift system. </p>



<p>Yes, a hydraulic lift system – in 2680 BCE! The team believes that water was guided to flow into two shafts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/egypts-pyramids-were-built-along-a-buried-branch-of-the-nile-river/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">within the pyramid itself</a>. </p>



<p>This water, in turn, could have been used to elevate a float that carried the monumental building stones.</p>



<p>The Djoser Pyramid was constructed during the reign of the Third Dynasty pharaoh Djoser and has always been a subject of debate among historians and archaeologists. </p>



<p>The hydraulic lift theory now adds a compelling new perspective to this ongoing discourse.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gisr-el-mudir-dam">Gisr el-Mudir dam</h2>



<p>Landreau and his team suggest that the mysterious Gisr el-Mudir enclosure near the pyramid may have functioned as a "check dam" to capture water and sediment. </p>



<p>This brings us to another unique part of the theory - a likely water treatment facility. This presumed facility, made up of several compartments dug into the ground outside of the pyramid, would allow sediment to settle as water passed through each subsequent compartment.</p>



<p>So, how does this relate to the pyramid? Well, once treated, the water could possibly flow into the pyramid-shafts. </p>



<p>Here comes the fascinating part. The force of the rising water could be used to help transport the building stones.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pyramid-building">Understanding pyramid building</h2>



<p>The novel hydraulic lift theory not only sheds light on the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser but also invites a reevaluation of the broader context of ancient Egyptian engineering practices. </p>



<p>By positing that such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/476000-year-old-ancient-woodworking-discovery-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sophisticated technologies</a> may have existed thousands of years ago, this research challenges preconceived notions about the capabilities of ancient civilisations. </p>



<p>Furthermore, it encourages scholars to explore other monuments and structures through a similar lens, potentially uncovering further hidden secrets of engineering ingenuity. </p>



<p>As we delve deeper into the methods employed by the ancient Egyptians, we enrich our understanding of their society, reflecting not just their technological prowess, but also their deep connection to the natural resources that surrounded them. </p>



<p>This study, therefore, is not merely about a single pyramid; it represents a gateway to understanding the dynamic interplay between environment, technology, and culture in ancient times.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-still-in-the-making">Mystery still in the making</h2>



<p>However, we need to remember that the journey of discovery is far from over. There are still many questions to answer, like how exactly the water flowed through the shafts, or how much water was even available at that time. </p>



<p>Furthermore, the authors of this study also point out that traditional building methods like ramps were probably used alongside this unique hydraulic lift system. Additional investigations and research are necessary to paint a complete picture.</p>



<p>But there is no denying the excitement surrounding this new understanding. </p>



<p>“A collaborative effort between the newly established research institute, Paleotechnic, and several national laboratories (INRAE, <a href="https://www.univ-orleans.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Orléans</a>) has led to the discovery of a dam, a water treatment facility, and a hydraulic elevator, which would have enabled the construction of the Step Pyramid of Saqqara," the authors added.</p>



<p>"This work opens a new research line for the scientific community: the use of hydraulic power to build the pyramids of Egypt."</p>



<p>The takeaway here is that the past doesn't always have to remain a mystery. With the right tools and a determined mindset, we can uncover long-hidden truths. </p>



<p>In the end, while the pyramids continue to stand tall, echoing tales from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">annals of time</a>, our quest for knowledge remains as fervent as ever. </p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0306690" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Mystery of how ancient Egyptians built the pyramids may be solved

Who doesn't love the allure of the iconic Egyptian pyramids?...

<p>Comet Olbers has captured the imagination of astronomers and enthusiasts alike with its unexpected journey through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/devil-comet-is-hurtling-towards-earth-but-poses-no-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a>. </p>



<p>In the vast expanse of the cosmos, where science and mystery often intertwine, the peculiar pathway of this icy wanderer has sparked a wave of fascination. </p>



<p>Recently, the stargazing community was thrilled by the sight of Comet Olbers zigzagging across the summer sky - a phenomenon that was captured by photographer Dan Bartlett.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galactic-snowball-s-twisted-tale">Galactic snowball's twisted tale</h2>



<p>Unassuming in name, this less-than-famous icy wanderer put on a fascinating show this summer as it continuously changed form.</p>



<p>"This is the first time we've been able to witness this creature's behavior with modern day technology. And what a creature this comet has been," said Bartlett, an astrophotographer based in east-central California.</p>



<p>Though the comet's tangled tail may seem strange, it is actually a well-understood phenomenon amidst the comet community.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-icy-giants">Understanding the icy giants</h2>



<p>Comets, often referred to as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comet-nishimura-may-approach-earth-so-closely-that-it-will-be-visible-to-the-naked-eye/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowballs of space</a>, are vast conglomerates of ice, dust, and rock. They hail from the outer recesses of the solar system and carry remnants from the early days of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary formation</a>, around 4.6 billion years ago, according to NASA.</p>



<p>As these icy bodies draw nearer to the sun, they begin to disintegrate, skipping from solid to gas without entering a liquid phase. This process spawns their signature tails- trails of debris sprawling millions of miles.</p>



<p>While these celestial bodies were once regarded as harbingers of doom, the tide of understanding has since turned. Comets are now seen as time capsules, preserving clues about the ancient solar system.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comet-olbers-and-its-ever-changing-tail">Comet Olbers and its ever-changing tail</h2>



<p>Besides their tails of dust, comets also drag plasma, often painted with a bluish hue, across the sky. The charged particles within this trail are very susceptible to changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secondary-peak-extreme-geomagnetic-solar-storm-expected-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar activity</a>.</p>



<p>Researchers at the Planetary Science Institute liken the solar wind to a constantly flowing river. "The ion tail is basically caught up in that river," explained researcher Henry Hsieh.</p>



<p>"You see a straight tail most of the time, but then every so often, you'll have this bit of a hiccup in the sun - these coronal mass ejection events - where it'll just kind of send a particularly large or denser bunch of material outward."</p>



<p>When the comet encounters these massive solar explosions (coronal mass ejections), it causes a disruption in the "nice flowing river." Imagine a rock coming loose in a river, momentarily increasing the flow rate.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-activity-and-comet-behavior">Solar activity and comet behavior</h2>



<p>With the sun being in the peak of its 11-year solar cycle, its magnetic field can be quite chaotic. </p>



<p>As the comet traverses these tumultuous changes within the inner solar system, the tail continuously tries to realign. This results in zigzags and bends observed in the comet's tail.</p>



<p>"There are even occasions when the comet passes through a region where the magnetic field completely changes direction (called a sector boundary), and the plasma tail will 'disconnect' from the comet, to be followed by the formation of a new tail over the next few days," noted <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>'s astronomers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-comet-olbers">The future of Comet Olbers </h2>



<p>Olbers, officially known as 13P/Olbers, is named after its first observer, German astronomer Heinrich Olbers, who spotted it back in 1815. It was last sighted from Earth in 1956 but has recently reappeared, displaying its twisted tail for all to see.</p>



<p>Having made its closest approach to the sun on June 30, Olbers is now on a return journey to the Oort Cloud at the outer edge of the solar system. </p>



<p>The oddly distorted tail may reflect the object's reaction to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canyon-of-fire-solar-eruption-extended-more-than-60000-miles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sun's intense activity</a>. However, it's also possible that something inherently unusual about Olbers is at play.</p>



<p>The astrophotographers and astronomers studying the comet will know more in the coming months as they complete their analyses.</p>



<p>"All comets are kind of like different beasts. They're all special, and that's what makes them fun to study," noted Hsieh.</p>



<p>Each comet, including Olbers, continues to offer new insights into the cosmos, keeping astronomers on their toes and the rest of us gazing up in wonderment.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Shape-shifting comet has been zigzagging through space

Comet Olbers has captured the imagination of astronomers and enthusiasts...

<p>An intense game of genetic chess is taking place beneath our very eyes, in the soil where our beloved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potato-threatening-pathogens-discovered-in-pennsylvania/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potato crops</a> grow. This evolutionary battle between the humble potato plant and its mortal foe, Phytophthora infestans - the pathogen responsible for the devastating Irish potato famine in the 1840s - has puzzled scientists for years.</p>



<p>Now, research conducted at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> is shedding new light on this "arms race" with an innovative study using fragments of historic potato leaves to examine both the plant's resistance genes and the attacking pathogen's effector genes simultaneously.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-down-walls-a-revolutionary-approach">Breaking down walls: A revolutionary approach</h2>



<p>The experts utilized small, 80 base-pair chunks of DNA, akin to magnets, to isolate similar pieces within the complex "soup" of DNA found on historic leaf samples.</p>



<p>Previously, researchers would focus on either the host (the potato) or the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-produced-by-potato-pathogen-offers-new-hope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogen</a>, but this dual enrichment strategy has opened a new front in understanding this host-pathogen relationship.</p>



<p>"It's a first for looking at both potato and pathogen changes at the same time," noted Jean Ristaino, William Neal Reynolds Distinguished Professor of Plant Pathology at North Carolina State University.</p>



<p>This radical method of investigation has only become possible recently, as the necessary genomics weren't sequenced until around 15 years ago.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pathogen-evades-potato-defenses">Pathogen evades potato defenses</h2>



<p>Findings from the study indicate that the pathogen, Phytophthora infestans, is surprisingly skillful at dodging the potato's defenses against late blight disease. </p>



<p>For instance, the FAM-1 strain of the pathogen was capable of overcoming the plant's R1 resistance gene before it was even introduced into potato strains by plant breeders.</p>



<p>Such discovery suggests that the pathogen could have resisted the R1 gene even if it had been deployed much earlier, potentially owing to exposure to the wild potato variant harboring that resistance gene.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battlefield-for-pathogens-and-potatoes">Battlefield for pathogens and potatoes</h2>



<p>The study sheds light on how the pathogen’s effector genes have largely remained steady over time, with selective mutations enhancing its infectious capabilty. </p>



<p>This was particularly noticeable post-1937, when structured potato <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugarcane-genome-finally-mapped-new-crop-breeding-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding programs</a> began in the United States and elsewhere, in an effort to boost disease resistance.</p>



<p>Additionally, the researchers found that the pathogen managed to add a set of chromosomes to its arsenal between 1845 and 1954, the period during which the plant samples for the study were collected.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-future-studies">The promise of future studies</h2>



<p>This research is immensely valuable, as it provides breeders with critical information about how the pathogen has transformed over time. </p>



<p>This knowledge could potentially be utilized to implement more stable resistance genes or to combine multiple resistance genes from different wild hosts.</p>



<p>"We now know what effectors have changed over time," Ristaino stated. "Breeders may be able to use resistance genes that are more stable or pyramid multiple resistance genes from different wild hosts." </p>



<p>And so, the game of genetic chess continues with new strategies and renewed hope of winning the game against the pathogen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-potatoes">The importance of potatoes</h2>



<p>Potatoes are not just a beloved comfort food; they are a vital staple crop that nourishes millions around the world. </p>



<p>Originating from the Andean region of South America, potatoes have transcended borders and cultures, becoming an essential part of diets in various countries. </p>



<p>Their versatility allows them to be prepared in countless ways, from mashed potatoes to fries, making them a culinary favorite across the globe.</p>



<p>Moreover, potatoes are packed with nutrients, including vitamins C and B6, potassium, and dietary fiber, making them a healthy choice for many. </p>



<p>As the global population continues to grow, ensuring the resilience of potato crops against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-can-help-farmers-control-crop-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a> like late blight is crucial for food security. </p>



<p>The NC State research not only aids in understanding the complex interactions between potatoes and their pathogens but also plays a vital role in developing sustainable agricultural practices.</p>



<p>By improving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-breeding-more-resilient-potatoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potato resilience</a>, we can help secure a reliable food source for future generations and support the livelihoods of millions of farmers who depend on this crop. </p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50749-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

How a pathogen outsmarted the potato

An intense game of genetic chess is taking place beneath...

<p>DNA holds the fundamental blueprint for life, encoding essential information for the development and functioning of organisms. Deciphering how this information is stored and organized has been a monumental scientific challenge. </p>



<p>A new tool, GROVER, developed by researchers at the <a href="https://tu-dresden.de/cmcb/biotec" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotechnology Center</a> (BIOTEC) of Dresden University of Technology, offers an unprecedented approach to understanding the complex language of DNA. </p>



<p>This large language model, trained on human DNA sequences promises to revolutionize genomics and personalized medicine.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-dna">Mysteries of DNA</h2>



<p>Since the discovery of the double helix structure, scientists have sought to unravel the mysteries encoded in DNA. Seventy years later, it is evident that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a>'s information is intricate and multilayered, with only 1-2% consisting of genes that code for proteins. </p>



<p>“DNA has many functions beyond coding for proteins. Some sequences regulate genes, others serve structural purposes, and most sequences serve multiple functions at once,” said senior author Anna Poetsch, a research group leader at BIOTEC.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Currently, we don’t understand the meaning of most of the DNA. When it comes to understanding the non-coding regions of the DNA, it seems that we have only started to scratch the surface. This is where AI and large language models can help.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-as-a-language">DNA as a language</h2>



<p>Drawing inspiration from the success of large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-reading-technology-transforms-thoughts-into-text/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language models</a> like GPT in natural language processing, Poetsch and her team approached DNA as a form of language. </p>



<p>“DNA is the code of life. Why not treat it like a language?” she asked. The team trained GROVER (short for Genome Rules Obtained via Extracted Representations) on a reference human genome, enabling the model to decode and extract biological meaning from DNA sequences.</p>



<p>“GROVER learned the rules of DNA. In terms of language, we are talking about grammar, syntax, and semantics. For DNA, this means learning the rules governing the sequences, the order of the nucleotides and sequences, and the meaning of the sequences,” said lead author Melissa Sanabria, a scientist at BIOTEC.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Like GPT models learning human languages, GROVER has basically learned how to ‘speak’ DNA.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-information-on-biological-function-nbsp">Information on biological function&nbsp;</h2>



<p>GROVER can not only predict subsequent DNA sequences but also extract contextual information, such as identifying gene promoters or protein binding sites, and even understanding epigenetic processes - regulatory mechanisms that act on top of the DNA sequence.</p>



<p>“It is fascinating that by training GROVER with only the DNA sequence, without any annotations of functions, we are actually able to extract information on biological function. To us, it shows that the function, including some of the epigenetic information, is also encoded in the sequence,” said Sanabria.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dictionary-for-dna-language-nbsp">A dictionary for DNA language<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>To enable GROVER to interpret DNA, the team had to create a “DNA dictionary.” Unlike human languages, DNA has no predefined words; it consists of four letters (A, T, G, and C) that form sequences with various biological functions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers employed a technique from compression <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-personality-algorithm-will-improve-work-and-home-placement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algorithms</a> to identify common combinations of these letters. </p>



<p>“We analyzed the whole genome and looked for combinations of letters that occur most often. We started with two letters and went over the DNA, again and again, to build it up to the most common multi-letter combinations,” said Sanabria.</p>



<p>“In this way, in about 600 cycles, we have fragmented the DNA into ‘words’ that let GROVER perform the best when it comes to predicting the next sequence.”</p>



<p>The creation of this DNA dictionary was a crucial step that set GROVER apart from previous attempts to model DNA language. This innovative approach allows the model to uncover the deeper layers of genetic information, providing insights into human biology, disease predispositions, and treatment responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-meaning-hidden-in-dna">Biological meaning hidden in DNA</h2>



<p>GROVER's potential impact on genomics and personalized medicine is immense. By decoding the rules of DNA as one would a language, researchers can gain a more profound understanding of the biological meaning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-dna-secrets-revealed-by-genomic-time-machine-and-transposable-elements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hidden</a> within our genetic code. </p>



<p>“We believe that understanding the rules of DNA through a language model is going to help us uncover the depths of biological meaning hidden in the DNA, advancing both genomics and personalized medicine,” Poetsch said.</p>



<p>As GROVER continues to analyze and interpret genetic data, it holds the promise of unlocking the mysteries of our genome, paving the way for new discoveries and advancements in medical science.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This tool not only enhances our understanding of the human genome but also sets the stage for a new era in genomics, where AI-driven insights can lead to more personalized and effective treatments for a wide range of conditions.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42256-024-00872-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Machine Intelligence</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Cracking the code of life: AI translates the secret language of DNA

DNA holds the fundamental blueprint for life, encoding essential information...

<p>Doctors are increasingly recommending that fruits and vegetables become a central component in the treatment of patients with hypertension.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A diet rich in these foods has been shown to lower blood pressure, reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, and improve<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-pollutants-kidney-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> kidney health</a>, largely due to their base-producing effects. </p>



<p>A recent study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2024.06.006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>The American Journal of Medicine</em></a><em> </em>highlights these benefits, based on findings from a five-year interventional randomized control trial.</p>



<p>Despite advancements in pharmacological treatments for hypertension, related conditions like chronic kidney disease (CKD) and associated cardiovascular mortality are on the rise. Notably, heart disease remains the leading cause of death among patients with chronic kidney disease.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-healthy-fruits-and-vegetables">Heart-healthy fruits and vegetables </h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/education/dash-eating-plan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension</a> (DASH) diet, known for its high content of fruits and vegetables, is recommended as the first-line treatment for primary hypertension. </p>



<p>However, this diet is often under-prescribed and, even when recommended, not fully implemented, despite substantial supportive evidence from epidemiological studies.&nbsp;</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fruits-and-vegetables-improves-overall-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diets</a> rich in fruits and vegetables are associated with lower blood pressure, reduced risk and progression of CKD, and lower cardiovascular disease risk and mortality.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-acid-and-health">Dietary acid and health</h2>



<p>The study, led by Dr. Donald E. Wesson of the Department of Internal Medicine at <a href="https://dellmed.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dell Medical School</a>, University of Texas at Austin, explored the effects of an acid-producing versus a base-producing diet on kidney health. </p>



<p>“As a nephrologist, my acid-base laboratory studies ways by which the kidney removes acid from the blood and puts it into the urine,” said Dr. Wesson.</p>



<p>“Our animal studies showed years ago that mechanisms used by kidneys to remove acid from the blood can cause kidney injury if the animals were chronically exposed to an acid-producing diet.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Wesson said that studies in human patients showed similar findings: an acid-producing diet (one high in animal products) was kidney-harmful, and one that is base-producing (one high in fruits and vegetables) is kidney-healthy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Other investigators showed that a diet high in fruits and vegetables is heart-healthy.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>To test the hypothesis that fruits and vegetables reduce dietary acid and thereby benefit kidney and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-environments-and-sidewalks-improve-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart health</a>, the study focused on participants with hypertension but without diabetes, who also had high levels of urine albumin excretion (macroalbuminuria). </p>



<p>These participants were at high risk for worsening kidney disease and developing cardiovascular diseases.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers divided 153 participants into three groups: participants adding 2-4 cups of base-producing fruits and vegetables to their daily intake; participants prescribed NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda) tablets; and participants receiving standard medical care from primary care clinicians.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-benefits-of-fruits-and-vegetables-nbsp">Heart benefits of fruits and vegetables<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The results of the analysis revealed that both the fruit and vegetable group and the NaHCO3 group experienced improvements in kidney health. However, only the group consuming fruits and vegetables showed a reduction in blood pressure and improvements in cardiovascular disease risk indicators.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Importantly, fruits and vegetables achieved the latter two benefits with lower doses of medication used to lower blood pressure and reduce cardiovascular disease risk,” noted Maninder Kahlon, a co-investigator from the Department of Population Health at Dell Medical School.</p>



<p>“This means that one can get the kidney health benefits with either fruits and vegetables or NaHCO3, but we get the blood pressure reduction and reduced cardiovascular disease risk with fruits and vegetables, but not with NaHCO3.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-the-need-for-medication-nbsp">Reducing the need for medication<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The findings support the recommendation that fruits and vegetables should be the foundational treatment for patients with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-increases-the-risk-of-hypertension/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hypertension</a>. This approach achieves multiple health benefits - kidney protection, blood pressure reduction, and lower cardiovascular risk - with potentially lower medication doses. </p>



<p>The research team emphasizes that current clinical practice often prioritizes pharmacological treatment, with dietary changes being secondary. However, this study suggests the opposite: dietary interventions should be the first step in managing hypertension, with medications added as needed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-fruits-and-vegetables-more-accessible">Making fruits and vegetables more accessible<strong> </strong></h2>



<p>“Dietary interventions for chronic disease management are often not recommended and even less often executed because of the many challenges to get patients to implement them. Nevertheless, they are effective, and in this instance, kidney and cardiovascular protective,” said Dr. Wesson.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We must increase our efforts to incorporate them into patient management and more broadly, make healthy diets more accessible to populations at increased risk for kidney and cardiovascular disease.”</p>



<p>The study also advises that patients with hypertension should ask their clinicians to measure their urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) to assess for underlying kidney disease and potential increased cardiovascular risk.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This proactive measure can help tailor treatment plans to better manage hypertension and its associated risks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

How fruits and vegetables improve heart health

Doctors are increasingly recommending that fruits and vegetables become a...

<p>Sometimes, you might hear a colleague or a friend grumble, "It hurts to think!" Likely, you'd casually dismiss this as exaggerated hyperbole. But what if, they aren't blowing things out of proportion? What if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-creativity-start-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">act of thinking</a> and putting mental effort really does make us uncomfortable?</p>



<p>A recent study published by the <a href="https://www.apa.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Psychological Association</a> reveals this intriguing possibility. According to the research, mental exertion is surprisingly linked to unpleasant feelings across a slew of situations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-one-likes-mental-effort">No one likes mental effort</h2>



<p>At the heart of this research is Dr. Erik Bijleveld of <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Radboud University</a>. A seasoned researcher, Dr. Bijleveld led the study with a clear and vital question: Do people enjoy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-maps-help-the-brain-remember-places-and-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thinking hard</a>? He found that, in general, people aren't fans of mental effort.</p>



<p>"Managers often encourage employees, and teachers often encourage students, to exert mental effort. On the surface, this seems to work well: Employees and students do often opt for mentally challenging activities," noted Dr. Bijleveld. "But our results suggest that people typically dislike mental effort."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-effort-across-communities">Mental effort across communities</h2>



<p>This study wasn't a mere observational venture. The researchers carried out a meta-analysis of an impressive 170 studies published between 2019 and 2020, involving over 4,670 participants. Each of these studies was examined to determine how people generally perceive mental effort.</p>



<p>Participants from different walks of life – healthcare employees, military personnel, college students, and even amateur athletes – participated in these studies spanning 29 countries. </p>



<p>The studies involved a wide array of cognitive tasks. From learning a new technology to navigating an unfamiliar environment and practicing golf swings – the gamut of tasks was broad.</p>



<p>One commonality across all these varied studies? Participants consistently reported increased unpleasant feelings such as stress, annoyance, and irritation when they exerted greater mental effort.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinking-is-unpleasant">Thinking is unpleasant</h2>



<p>What sticks out from the research is crystal clear: the greater the mental effort, the greater the unpleasantness experienced by people. No matter the task or the population, this remained consistently true across the board.</p>



<p>However, Dr. Bijleveld underscores an intriguing disparity. The nexus between mental effort and unpleasant feelings was notably less vivid in studies conducted in Asian countries compared to those in Europe or North America.</p>



<p>This can be attributed to the learning history of individuals; students in Asian countries typically dedicate more time to schoolwork, learning to endure higher mental exertion levels early in life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-effort-and-learning-environments">Mental effort and learning environments</h2>



<p>Understanding the relationship between mental effort and unpleasant feelings offers a new lens through which educators and managers can evaluate their approaches. </p>



<p>If students and employees are generally averse to intensive cognitive tasks, it calls for a reevaluation of how we structure learning and work environments. </p>



<p>Instead of promoting sheer effort, educators might benefit from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-wishful-thinking-impacts-our-decisions-in-times-of-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">integrating strategies</a> that frame challenges as exciting opportunities for growth, thereby mitigating negative feelings associated with thinking hard. </p>



<p>Furthermore, creating a supportive atmosphere that celebrates small wins and fosters collaboration can empower learners and workers to engage with difficult tasks more openly. </p>



<p>Recognizing that the discomfort of mental effort is a shared experience may not only enhance motivation but also encourage resilience, ultimately leading to more productive outcomes in both academic and professional spheres.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-millions-play-chess">Why do millions play chess?</h2>



<p>Despite the discord between mental effort and enjoyment, there’s a caveat: people still voluntarily opt for mentally challenging activities. The million-dollar question, "Why do millions of people play chess?" asks Dr. Bijleveld.</p>



<p>The answer lies in the intriguing balance of costs and benefits. When the gratification resultant from an activity outweighs the mental exertion involved, people opt for it. Take the chess example; the joy that stems from an immersive, engaging game could certainly outweigh the mental strain it involves.</p>



<p>However, Dr. Bijleveld warns against misinterpretations. People choosing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-adult-depression-linked-to-worse-memory-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mentally</a> rigorous activities doesn't necessarily translate to them enjoying the mental effort. It is perhaps a matter of choosing an activity despite its mental strain, rather than because of it.</p>



<p>In conclusion, the research highlights an essential conundrum: we're often nudged to engage our brains, to think harder, to challenge our minds. </p>



<p>Yet, such exertion might not be as pleasant as we'd like to believe. As we navigate through an increasingly cognitive-driven world, it's vital to remember this interesting dichotomy. </p>



<p>Perhaps we might also spare a sympathetic nod the next time someone says, "It hurts to think!"</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fbul0000443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psychological Bulletin</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Sometimes it really does hurt to think

Sometimes, you might hear a colleague or a friend grumble,...

<p>A recent study has revealed that 42% of miscarriages and spontaneous abortions in horses during the first two months of pregnancy are caused by triploidy, a condition involving an extra set of chromosomes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This finding is significant because horses share many chromosomal and pregnancy-related similarities with humans, making them a valuable model for studying reproductive issues.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primary-cause-of-pregnancy-loss-nbsp">Primary cause of pregnancy loss&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Mandi de Mestre, a professor of equine medicine at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, noted the rarity of reported triploidy in mammals other than humans during early pregnancy. “Over that embryonic period (up to eight weeks from conception), triploidy had rarely been reported in mammals outside of women,” she said. </p>



<p>“The study tells us that over the first six weeks of gestation, this will likely be the primary cause of pregnancy loss following natural conception.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>De Mestre is the corresponding author of the study titled “Naturally Occurring Horse Model of Miscarriage Reveals Temporal Relationship Between Chromosomal Aberration Type and Point of Lethality,” set to be published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2405636121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Science</em></a><em>s</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-horses-as-a-model-for-human-miscarriages-nbsp">Horses as a model for human miscarriages<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>Human miscarriages, occurring in 10-20% of pregnancies, are often linked to chromosomal errors. However, finding a suitable animal model that mirrors the human condition has been challenging.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This study not only sheds light on the causes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-may-speed-up-aging-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pregnancy</a> loss in horses but also highlights their potential as a model for understanding human miscarriage.</p>



<p>“We were able to study the impact of chromosome errors across the entire pregnancy in the horse,” de Mestre said. “We found that triploidy is only associated with losses in early pregnancy.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnancy-loss-in-horses">Pregnancy loss in horses</h2>



<p>The research involved examining 256 fetus and placenta samples collected over ten years from veterinarians treating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-origin-of-horse-domestication-has-finally-been-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a> with failed pregnancies. The samples were analyzed to determine the prevalence of various chromosomal abnormalities associated with pregnancy loss.</p>



<p>The findings showed that chromosomal errors were present in 57.9% of pregnancy losses up to day 55 of gestation, 57.2% of losses between days 56 and 110, and only 1.4% of losses from day 111 to the end of pregnancy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study also revealed that aneuploidy, involving the loss or gain of a whole chromosome, was primarily associated with miscarriages in the first 10 weeks, while partial chromosome deletions or duplications were linked to miscarriages occurring after 110 days.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These results closely parallel findings from large studies on human pregnancies, reinforcing the relevance of horses as a model for human chromosomal errors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-miscarriage-in-humans-nbsp">Early miscarriage in humans<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>Horses are particularly suitable for studying human pregnancies due to their similar gestation periods - 11 months in horses compared to nine months in humans - and the comparable rate of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-grow-models-of-human-embryos-in-the-lab-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">embryo development</a>. </p>



<p>Additionally, horse chromosomes contain genetic content similar to that of human chromosomes, making them relevant for research on chromosomal anomalies.</p>



<p>Determining the causes of early miscarriage in humans has been challenging due to the loss of most fetuses during this period at home, which leaves scientists without necessary material and data for study.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research provides crucial insights into the frequency of chromosomal errors during the equivalent of the first six weeks of human gestation.</p>



<p>Horses, often highly valued and receiving extensive care, provide a wealth of data through routine pregnancy tracking, unlike other animal models such as mice.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Mice, with a gestation period of about three weeks and a low rate of natural pregnancy loss, are not comparable to human pregnancies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-causes-of-pregnancy-loss-nbsp">Genetic causes of pregnancy loss<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The study's findings have practical implications for equine health, particularly in the clinical management of pregnancies. For instance, if a significant chromosomal error is detected, clinicians might reconsider using hormones to prolong the pregnancy, a common practice in managing pregnant mares.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research also paves the way for developing new diagnostic tests for chromosomal abnormalities in horse fetuses and further investigation into the molecular mechanisms behind these abnormalities.</p>



<p>“This research has provided a foundation for understanding the genetic causes of pregnancy loss in horses, often referred to as pregnancy loss of unknown cause,” said Shebl Salem, a postdoctoral researcher in de Mestre’s Equine Pregnancy Lab and co-first author of the study.</p>



<p>The study not only enhances the understanding of equine pregnancy but also offers valuable insights into human reproductive health, highlighting the potential for horses to serve as a key model in studying pregnancy loss due to chromosomal abnormalities.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Horse miscarriages offer insights into human pregnancy loss

A recent study has revealed that 42% of miscarriages and...

<p>There's an astounding sight to behold in the west of Eifel, a region synonymous with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activities</a>. Nestled within the sediment of the Kyll River are diminutive blue wonders - sapphires. But there's more to these 0.9 mm diameter gemstones than their sheer beauty. </p>



<p>They are indeed the missing pieces of a captivating geological conundrum - how could they take shape amidst such tumultuous, fiery conditions, a scenario far detached from our perception of tranquil gemstone genesis?</p>



<p>Stepping in to solve the mystery are the seasoned researchers from <a href="https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heidelberg University</a>. The scientific sleuths have been delving deep into the phenomenon of these blue marvels that formed among the fiery crucible of volcanic activities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-demystifying-eifel-sapphires">Demystifying Eifel sapphires</h2>



<p>Let's take a sidebar here. What are sapphires? These treasured stones are essentially 'contaminated' aluminum oxide or corundum. </p>



<p>The term "contamination" alludes to a few impurities that present sapphires with their iconic blue shade. Intriguingly, most sapphires are discovered in regions boasting silicon-poor volcanic rocks.</p>



<p>Are these gemstones, found on Earth's surface, a tell-tale sign of having originated deep within the crust, ushered to the surface by the ascending magma?</p>



<p>Dr. Axel Schmitt, a researcher at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a>, Australia, and an honorary professor at Heidelberg University, Germany, is grappling with this very question.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eifel-scenario-sapphire-central">Eifel scenario: Sapphire central</h2>



<p>Our sapphire narrative unravels in Eifel, a volcanic hotspot tucked in Europe's heart. For about 700,000 years, magma from Earth's mantle has been inching its way up through the crust in this region, bringing forth an intriguing enigma. </p>



<p>The puzzling link between the silicon-deficient, sodium and potassium-abundant magma found here and the prevalence of sapphires has left geologists in a quandary. The Heidelberg team scrutinized 223 sapphires from the Eifel region.</p>



<p>"Like gold, sapphire is very weathering-resistant compared to other minerals. Over protracted time periods, the grains are washed out of the rock and deposited in rivers. Because of their high density, they are easy to separate from lighter sediment components using a gold pan," explained Sebastian Schmidt, who conducted the research as part of his master's degree.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin-of-eifel-s-sapphires">Origin of Eifel's sapphires</h2>



<p>To trace the roots of these sapphires, the investigators determined their age by deploying the uranium-lead method on mineral inclusions found within the sapphires themselves. This approach can also uncover the composition of oxygen isotopes in the sapphires.</p>



<p>The findings were remarkable. Sapphires in Eifel took shape simultaneously with the region's volcanism. </p>



<p>Some gemstones bore the isotopic signature of mantle melts that had been tainted with the heat and partially liquefied crustal rock, at a depth of approximately 5-7 kilometers, while others seemed to have crystallized when subterranean melts permeated the adjacent rock, catalyzing their crystallization.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-the-crucial-catalyst">Water: The crucial catalyst </h2>



<p>Water plays an instrumental role in the exceptional process of sapphire formation in volcanic settings. Magma ascending through Earth's crust commonly encounters water-rich zones, propelling a phenomenon known as metasomatism. </p>



<p>During this occurrence, element-laden fluids intermingle with the surrounding rock, spurring the migration of aluminum and other vital components necessary for sapphire crystallization. </p>



<p>This interplay not only precipitates the growth of sapphires but also enhances their unique chemical composition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study </h2>



<p>The unearthing of sapphires in Eifel doesn't just shed light on gem genesis, but it also enriches our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-tremors-can-now-be-detected-to-forecast-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comprehension of volcanic activities</a>. </p>



<p>By examining these precious stones and the conditions under which they originated, geologists can gain insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-affects-magma-formation-deep-within-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics of magma</a> movement and the interactions between variant geological materials.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-the-puzzle">Piecing together the puzzle</h2>



<p>"In the Eifel, both magmatic and metamorphic processes, in which temperature changed the original rock, played a role in the crystallization of sapphire," noted Schmidt.</p>



<p>So, as it emerges, sapphires aren't just a pretty sight; they are a testament to Earth's might, a gateway to understanding our planet's inner mechanics. </p>



<p>Hence, the next time you lay eyes on a sapphire, remember to honor this blue marvel for its remarkable voyage from the scorching depths of Earth's crust right up to the sun-soaked surface.</p>



<p>Moreover, the interdisciplinary collaboration between geologists and gemologists is pivotal in unraveling the complex narrative encapsulated within these gemstones. </p>



<p>Such synergy not only illuminates the geological history of the Eifel but also propels future research in gem formation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-magma-traced-to-melting-in-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a>. The implications extend far beyond sapphires, inviting a broader exploration of earth science.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00410-024-02136-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

How blue sapphires form amidst fiery volcanic activity

There's an astounding sight to behold in the west of...

<p>When the term "white ants" comes up, images of destroyed houses, damaged wood, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-pest-control-the-hidden-power-of-aloe-vera-peels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest control</a> might be the first things that pop into your mind. </p>



<p>Many associate these creatures with the necessity of spending money on costly repairs. However, there's much more to these tiny critters than meets the eye.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-white-ants">The mystery of white ants</h2>



<p>Ironically, despite the name "white ant," these creatures are not ants at all. They're actually specialized, social cockroaches known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termites</a>. </p>



<p>Living in extensive colonies that can house well over a million individuals, these insects have incredibly complex social lives and construct amazingly elaborate habitats.</p>



<p>Mathematical equations have even been developed by researchers to understand their complicated behaviors, such as how they dig and forage. </p>



<p>Termites' abilities to build intricate nests are so astounding that they've been hailed as "one of the architectural wonders of the living world." </p>



<p>These can be found everywhere, from trees and soil to power poles and towering mounds two meters high. Some of these awe-inspiring constructs are believed to be over <a href="https://apnews.com/article/oldest-termite-mounds-africa-climate-eb9b49dbbbb770c739398cef894a99a8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">30,000 years old</a> and still inhabited today.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-white-ants-in-nature">The role of white ants in nature</h2>



<p>Among the approximately 300 Australian species of white ants, only a few are recognized as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cockroaches-became-global-pests-cleverly-hitching-rides-with-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>. In tropical forests, they are major invertebrate decomposers.</p>



<p>White ants are pivotal organisms that work closely with other microorganisms to cycle nutrients back into the environment. By doing so, they support the survival of both plants and animals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversity-of-white-ants">Diversity of white ants</h2>



<p>With more than 2,000 termite species worldwide and multiple feeding/nesting groups, white ants' appearances vary dramatically. </p>



<p>Even within the same species, depending on their roles as king, queen, worker, soldier, or alate, they can look strikingly different. White ants usually have soft, pale-colored bodies with straight antennae and broad waist.</p>



<p>Not all white ants can fly. Only the sexually mature termites, known as alates, are capable of flight. Their mission is to fly out of the nest to establish a new one where they'll become the reigning kings or queens.</p>



<p>This occurrence, referred to as "social swarming," typically happens on warm and humid spring or summer evenings. After the swarm, the alates lose their wings and start burrowing to become the newly appointed termite royalty.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warning-signs-of-termite-invasion">Warning signs of termite invasion</h2>



<p>The presence of alates around a home or property is a clear signal that a mature nest is close and expanding. It's even advised to have annual termite inspections by a registered pest control company. </p>



<p>Visible wood and structural damage, hollow-sounding wood, and termite droppings can indicate an invasion. </p>



<p>White ants might also construct small mud tunnels and patches on both interior and exterior house walls for protection and airflow mitigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effective-termite-control">Effective termite control</h2>



<p>The methods to control termites differ based on the type of termite present. Determining the kind of termite, locating their nests, and selecting the appropriate eradication method is a complex process. </p>



<p>It's recommended to consult with a registered pest control company, and not just solely rely on preventive measures like using termite-resistant wood or adding chemical and physical barriers in the soil around buildings.</p>



<p>White ants, despite their notoriety as pests, play an essential role in the natural world. Their vital ecosystem services underscore their significance, yet their potential for destruction necessitates vigilant management and control. </p>



<p>Fully understanding the nature of termites is crucial to both preserving natural ecosystems and protecting human infrastructure and investments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-white-ants">Fascinating facts about white ants</h2>



<p>While white ants may often be viewed through the lens of destruction, they possess some truly fascinating traits that are worth exploring. </p>



<p>For instance, termites have been around for over 250 million years, making them one of the oldest social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shock-study-insects-are-also-declining-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> on the planet. Their resilience and adaptability have allowed them to thrive in diverse environments, from rainforests to arid deserts.</p>



<p>One interesting aspect of termite behavior is their communication methods. Termites use pheromones, vibrations, and even touch to convey messages within the colony. This complex system enables them to coordinate tasks such as foraging, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termite-mounds-could-inspire-living-and-breathing-buildings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nest building</a>, and defense against threats.</p>



<p>Additionally, some species of termites are known to exhibit a unique form of mutualism with certain fungi. They cultivate these fungi in specialized chambers within their nests, providing a sustainable food source for the colony. This relationship not only benefits the termites but also contributes to nutrient cycling within their environment.</p>



<p>Understanding these fascinating characteristics can shift our perspective on white ants from mere pests to remarkable organisms that contribute significantly to the balance of nature. By appreciating their role in ecosystems, we can better navigate the challenges they present in our homes and communities.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

White ants have dual roles as builders and decomposers

When the term "white ants" comes up, images of destroyed...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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