<p>Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. </p>



<p>This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize.</p>



<p>A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> provides fresh insight. </p>



<p>Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element that enabled the inner core to solidify billions of years ago.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-core-composition-matters">Why Earth's core composition matters</h2>



<p>The makeup of Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/">core</a> determines not only its density but also its thermal and magnetic behavior. </p>



<p>Seismology shows that the core is less dense than pure iron, meaning lighter elements must be present. Candidates like silicon, sulphur, oxygen, and carbon have all been considered.</p>



<p>The latest simulations show that carbon, in particular, may have been essential. Without it, the inner core’s crystallization would have required impossible conditions, making its very existence a mystery.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984775"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-supercooling-paradox">The supercooling paradox</h2>



<p>Liquids rarely freeze solid the instant they cool past their <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/melting-point" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting point</a>. Instead, they must be supercooled, chilled further before crystals can form. </p>



<p>For molten iron alone, estimates suggested that a massive 800 to 1000 °C (1472 to 1832 °F) of supercooling would be needed.</p>



<p>If that had occurred, the consequences for our planet would have been dramatic. </p>



<p>The inner core would have grown far too quickly, disrupting the delicate balance of heat flow inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">Earth</a> and destabilizing the magnetic field that protects life from harmful solar and cosmic radiation.</p>



<p>Scientists know this did not happen. Geophysical evidence points instead to a modest level of supercooling, limited to about 250 °C (482 °F). </p>



<p>That small difference between theoretical predictions and observational reality has puzzled researchers for decades.</p>



<p>This contradiction, known as the inner core nucleation paradox, continues to inspire debate, experiments, and advanced simulations aimed at uncovering the true chemistry of Earth’s deepest layers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-the-impossible">Simulating the impossible</h2>



<p>To resolve the paradox, the research team ran atomic-scale simulations of iron mixed with different light elements. </p>



<p>They tested silicon, sulfur, oxygen, and carbon, and watched how each affected the first step of freezing: nucleation.</p>



<p>“Each of these elements exists in the overlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-ocean-of-fire-shaped-early-earths-core-according-to-a-new-study/">mantle</a> and could therefore have been dissolved into the core during Earth’s history,” explained co-author Associate Professor Andrew Walker from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.</p>



<p>“As a result, these could explain why we have a solid inner core with relatively little supercooling at this depth. The presence of one or more of these elements could also rationalize why the core is less dense than pure iron, a key observation from seismology.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984773"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-drives-earth-s-core-freezing">Carbon drives Earth's core freezing</h2>



<p>The simulations revealed that silicon and sulfur actually hindered freezing, which would have increased the supercooling requirement. Carbon, however, had the opposite effect.</p>



<p>With 2.4 % carbon, the required supercooling dropped to about 420 °C (788 °F). Still too high, but much closer to reality. </p>



<p>Extrapolating further, a carbon content of 3.8 % reduced the figure to 266 °C (511 °F), which is consistent with geological evidence.</p>



<p>This makes carbon the only element so far shown to both enable nucleation and align with seismic observations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-seeds-needed">No seeds needed</h2>



<p>Unlike hail forming around dust in clouds, Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-gold-reaches-earths-surface-from-the-mantle/">core</a> appears to have frozen without “nucleation seeds.” </p>



<p>Tests of possible seed materials, like oxides or metals, show they would melt or dissolve before reaching the center. That leaves chemistry itself, specifically the presence of carbon, as the driver of solidification.</p>



<p>“It is exciting to see how atomic scale processes control the fundamental structure and dynamics of our planet," said lead author Dr. Alfred Wilson from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>. </p>



<p>"By studying how Earth’s inner core formed, we are not just learning about our planet’s past. We’re getting a rare glimpse into the chemistry of a region we can never hope to reach directly and learning about how it could change in the future.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984777"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-s-role-in-earth-s-core">Carbon's role in Earth’s core</h2>



<p>The research also helps refine estimates of when the inner core formed. Some argue it began crystallizing over two billion years ago, while others suggest it happened less than half a billion years ago. </p>



<p>By identifying carbon as the critical player, scientists can narrow down these timelines. </p>



<p>This enables a better understanding of how Earth’s deep engine has evolved to influence the magnetic field, surface conditions, and even the long-term habitability of our planet.</p>



<p>The message is clear: carbon is more than a surface element of life. It may also be the hidden architect of Earth’s inner heart, shaping its stability across geological time.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62841-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Scientists have changed their minds again about the composition of Earth's core

Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize. A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and University College London provides fresh insight. Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element...

<p>The cosmos has always fascinated scientists, and NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webb.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) is now offering unprecedented views of supernovae from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-nova-explosion-nearby-star-light-up-earths-skies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early universe</a>.</p>



<p>Recently, a team of researchers used Webb's data to identify ten times more supernovae than were previously known, uncovering some of the most distant examples ever observed. </p>



<p>These findings, presented at the 244th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Madison, Wisconsin, are revolutionizing our understanding of the universe’s expansion.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-supernovae">Importance of supernovae</h2>



<p>Supernovae are powerful explosions marking the end of a star's life cycle. They occur when massive stars exhaust their nuclear fuel, leading to a collapse under their own gravity. </p>



<p>This collapse triggers a massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-blaze-star-explosion-visible-one-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">explosion</a>, dispersing elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron into space.</p>



<p>There are two main types: Type I, which occurs in binary systems when a white dwarf accumulates too much material from its companion star, and Type II, resulting from the collapse of a massive star.</p>



<p>Supernovae are crucial for several reasons. They are key sources of heavy elements, enriching the interstellar medium and contributing to the formation of new stars and planets. </p>



<p>Their intense brightness allows astronomers to measure cosmic distances, aiding in the study of the universe's expansion. </p>



<p>Additionally, supernovae can trigger the formation of new stars by compressing nearby gas clouds. Understanding supernovae helps unravel the mysteries of stellar evolution and the dynamics of galaxies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-finds-a-wealth-of-supernovae">Webb finds a wealth of supernovae</h2>



<p>Using data from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/01GKT0RRJBP5ZMJRMCQNPT8SXP" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JADES</a>), the team analyzed images to find supernovae whose light has been stretched into longer wavelengths due to cosmological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-claims-our-universe-is-27-billion-years-old-double-the-current-age-estimate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redshift</a>.</p>



<p>Before Webb, only a few supernovae were found above a redshift of 2, which corresponds to when the universe was just 3.3 billion years old. </p>



<p>The JADES program, however, includes supernovae from an even earlier era, when the universe was less than 2 billion years old.</p>



<p>“Webb is a supernova discovery machine,” said Christa DeCoursey, a graduate student from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>. “The sheer number of detections plus the great distances to these supernovae are the two most exciting outcomes from our survey.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunt-for-transients">Hunt for transients</h2>



<p>To discover these ancient supernovae, the team compared multiple images taken up to a year apart, searching for sources that appeared or disappeared. These objects, known as transients, vary in brightness over time.</p>



<p>The JADES Transient Survey Sample revealed about 80 supernovae in a tiny patch of the sky, comparable to a grain of rice held at arm’s length.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/supernovae_webb-survey_science-discoveries_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/supernovae_webb-survey_science-discoveries_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="JADES Deep Field with transients circled. Credit: Webb Telescope" class="wp-image-1937144"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>JADES Deep Field with transients circled. Credit: Webb Telescope</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>“This is really our first sample of what the high-redshift universe looks like for transient science,” said Justin Pierel, a NASA Einstein Fellow at the Space Telescope Science Institute (<a href="https://www.stsci.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">STScI</a>) in Baltimore, Maryland.</p>



<p>The team worked diligently to distinguish true supernovae from other transients, often using expert analysis to ensure accuracy.</p>



<p>Among their discoveries was the farthest supernova ever spectroscopically confirmed, at a redshift of 3.6. This core-collapse supernova exploded when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> was just 1.8 billion years old.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-distant-type-ia-supernovae">Uncovering distant Type Ia supernovae</h2>



<p>Type Ia supernovae are of particular interest because of their predictable brightness, making them essential for measuring cosmic distances and calculating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe's expansion</a> rate.</p>



<p>The team identified a Type Ia supernova at a redshift of 2.9, whose light began traveling 11.5 billion years ago when the universe was 2.3 billion years old. </p>



<p>This discovery surpassed the previous distance record for a spectroscopically confirmed Type Ia supernova.</p>



<p>Scientists are keen to analyze these distant Type Ia supernovae to determine if their intrinsic brightness changes with redshift. </p>



<p>The initial findings suggest no such change, keeping current theories about the universe's expansion rate intact. However, more data is needed for a definitive conclusion.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supernovae-as-a-window-to-the-early-universe">Supernovae as a window to the early universe</h2>



<p>The early universe was vastly different, with extreme environments and stars containing fewer heavy elements than those we see today. </p>



<p>Comparing ancient supernovae with those in the local universe will shed light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/messier-82-unlocking-the-mysteries-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> and explosion mechanisms from these early times.</p>



<p>“We’re essentially opening a new window on the transient universe,” said Matthew Siebert, an STScI Fellow leading the spectroscopic analysis of the JADES supernovae. “Historically, whenever we've done that, we've found extremely exciting things — things that we didn't expect.”</p>



<p>“Because Webb is so sensitive, it's finding supernovae and other transients almost everywhere it’s pointed. This is the first significant step toward more extensive surveys of supernovae with Webb,” added Eiichi Egami, a research professor from the University of Arizona.</p>



<p>The James Webb Space Telescope is not just a powerful tool for observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredibly-profound-evidence-of-nuclear-fission-discovered-in-the-cosmos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmos</a>; it’s a gateway to understanding the universe's past, present, and future. As more data is collected, we can expect even more groundbreaking discoveries that will enhance our knowledge of the cosmos.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Webb travels back in time to better understand supernovae

The cosmos has always fascinated scientists, and NASA's James Webb...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-turbulent-atmosphere-includes-a-high-speed-jet-stream/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a>’s iconic Great Red Spot, persisting for at least 190 years, is likely different from the spot observed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1665, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en/en-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Basque Country</a>. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-vortex-in-the-solar-system">Largest vortex in the solar system</h2>



<p>The current Great Red Spot likely emerged due to instability in Jupiter’s intense atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-use-exoplanet-hunter-to-study-jupiters-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winds</a>, forming a long-lasting atmospheric cell. This vortex, the largest in the solar system, has had its age and formation mechanisms debated for years. </p>



<p>The new study utilized historical observations and numerical models to explain its longevity and nature.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disappearance-of-the-permanent-spot-nbsp">Disappearance of the Permanent Spot&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“From the measurements of sizes and movements, we deduced that it is highly unlikely that the current Great Red Spot was the ‘Permanent Spot’ observed by Cassini,” said lead author Agustín Sánchez-Lavega, a planetary scientist at the University of the Basque Country.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The ‘Permanent Spot’ probably disappeared sometime between the mid-18th and 19th centuries, in which case we can now say that the longevity of the Red Spot exceeds 190 years.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-great-red-spot">Studying the Great Red Spot</h2>



<p>The Great Red Spot’s large size, which makes it visible with small telescopes, has intrigued scientists for centuries.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Discovered by Cassini in 1665, the dark oval he termed the “Permanent Spot” was observed until 1713, after which it was lost. A similar structure was not seen again until 1831. Scientists have debated whether today’s Great Red Spot is the same as Cassini’s spot.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-data">Historical data</h3>



<p>The researchers analyzed historical data from the mid-1600s, examining the spot’s size, structure, and location over time.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It has been very motivating and inspiring to turn to the notes and drawings of Jupiter and its Permanent Spot made by the great astronomer Jean Dominique Cassini,” Sánchez-Lavega said. “Others before us had explored these observations, and now we have quantified the results.”</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-size">Shrinking size</h3>



<p>The study found that the Great Red Spot, which measured 39,000 kilometers in 1879, has been shrinking to its current size of about 14,000 kilometers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Space missions since the 1970s, particularly NASA’s Juno, have provided insights, revealing the spot’s shallow and thin nature, crucial for understanding its formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-the-great-red-spot-nbsp">Formation of the Great Red Spot&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The scientists conducted numerical simulations to explore the formation of this massive vortex. They considered three scenarios: a gigantic superstorm, the merging of smaller vortices, or instability in the winds producing an elongated atmospheric cell.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The cell-producing wind instability seemed the most likely, leading to the “proto-Great Red Spot,” which then shrank over time.</p>



<p>Future research aims to simulate the Great Red Spot’s shrinking and explore the physical mechanisms behind its stability. Scientists hope to predict whether it will disintegrate and disappear or stabilize at a smaller size.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-great-red-spot-nbsp">More about the Great Red Spot&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Great Red Spot is a massive, persistent storm in Jupiter's atmosphere. It is an anticyclonic storm, meaning it rotates in a counterclockwise direction in the planet's southern hemisphere. The storm is so large that it can fit two to three Earths within its boundaries.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The spot is characterized by its reddish color, which is thought to be due to the complex organic molecules, red phosphorus, or other chemical compounds that are present in the atmosphere.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facts-about-jupiter">Facts about Jupiter</h2>



<p>Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, is a gas giant primarily composed of hydrogen and helium.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dozens-of-moons">Dozens of moons</h3>



<p>Jupiter has a strong magnetic field and at least 79 moons, with the four largest being Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-on-europa-co2-discovery-by-webb-increases-the-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a>. </p>



<p>These moons are of great interest to scientists due to their unique characteristics, such as the possibility of subsurface oceans on Europa.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-system-dynamics-nbsp">Solar system dynamics&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Jupiter's immense size and gravitational influence play a crucial role in the dynamics of our solar system, affecting the orbits of other planets and capturing numerous comets and asteroids.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-rotation-nbsp">Rapid rotation&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Its rapid rotation, taking just under 10 hours to complete a full spin, contributes to its oblate shape, meaning it is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations">Observations</h3>



<p>Observations and missions like Galileo and Juno have provided significant insights into Jupiter's composition, atmosphere, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere</a>, and its diverse system of moons, enhancing our understanding of this giant planet and its place in the cosmos.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2024GL108993" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Geophysical Research Letters</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Jupiter’s Great Red Spot may not be as old as we expected

Jupiter’s iconic Great Red Spot, persisting for at least 190...

Baby,Discus,Fish,Swimming,In,Freshwater.,Discus,Fishes,Are,Native

<p>While the idea of corporal discipline in children is increasingly controversial among humans, the behavior of some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish species</a> suggests that they find punishment of their offspring to be highly effective.</p>



<p>Recent research reveals that a species of fish uses physical punishment to encourage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-can-recognize-cooperative-team-players/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooperative behavior</a> among its offspring, showcasing advanced social and cognitive skills typically associated with higher vertebrates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-punishment-and-fish-dynamics">Physical punishment and fish dynamics</h2>



<p>A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.omu.ac.jp/sci/en/">Graduate School of Science at Osaka Metropolitan University</a> has discovered that <em>Neolamprologus savoryi</em>, a cooperatively breeding cichlid fish, employs physical punishment to promote helping behaviors.</p>



<p>For millennia, human societies have used punishment to foster cooperation and maintain social order. But how do other animals achieve similar cooperation?</p>



<p>The research team aimed to answer this by studying <em>N. savoryi</em>, a fish species known for its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cooperative-breeding-protects-desert-birds-from-reproductive-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooperative breeding</a> behaviors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-in-a-controlled-setting">Studying in a controlled setting</h2>



<p>The researchers observed <em>N. savoryi </em>in a controlled laboratory setting, focusing on the interactions between dominant breeders and subordinate helpers.</p>



<p>These helpers, often offspring of the dominant breeders, assist in tasks such as defending territory and maintaining breeding shelters.</p>



<p>"Even though punishment in cooperatively breeding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cichlid-fish-transform-their-shape-to-handle-environmental-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cichlid fish</a> has been studied, there is limited evidence that they use punishment to encourage cooperative behavior," said Satoshi Awata, the lead author of the study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-punishment-and-cooperative-behavior">Fish, punishment, and cooperative behavior</h2>



<p>The results were striking. </p>



<p>Dominant breeders were seen physically attacking idle helpers, including their own offspring, to encourage their participation in cooperative activities. </p>



<p>Helpers subjected to this aggression increased their helping behaviors significantly. Conversely, those who were proactive in their duties avoided such punishment.</p>



<p>"Our study demonstrated that nonhuman animals also use punishment to elicit cooperative behaviors in group members," explained Awata.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-animal-intelligence">Implications for animal intelligence</h2>



<p>These findings suggest that the use of punishment to enforce cooperation is not exclusive to human societies. </p>



<p>It highlights how other animals maintain social relationships and enforce cooperation, bridging a gap in understanding the evolution of these behaviors.</p>



<p>"Our findings reveal that fish, like humans, employ advanced cognitive abilities to sustain their societies. This compels us to reconsider the notion of ‘intelligence’ not only in fish but across the animal kingdom," Awata added.</p>



<p>This research prompts a reevaluation of intelligence and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-friendships-social-bonds-evolve-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social behavior</a> in animals, emphasizing the complexity of fish societies and their methods of maintaining order and cooperation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-behaviors-of-fish">Other behaviors of fish</h2>



<p>Fish exhibit a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-use-collective-behavior-to-reduce-energy-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse range of behaviors</a> that extend far beyond what this research highlights. Social structures in fish can be complex, involving hierarchies and intricate communication systems. </p>



<p>Many fish species, such as clownfish and cleaner wrasse, form symbiotic relationships where mutual benefits drive their interactions. For example, cleaner wrasse eat parasites off larger fish, benefiting both parties.</p>



<p>Schooling behavior is another fascinating aspect. Fish like sardines and herring move in synchronized groups, which helps reduce individual predation risk and improves foraging efficiency. This collective movement requires advanced coordination and communication.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-parental-care">Reproduction and parental care</h2>



<p>Reproductive behaviors in fish are also varied and complex. Some species, like the stickleback, exhibit elaborate courtship displays. Others, like salmon, undertake long migrations to spawning grounds, demonstrating remarkable navigational abilities.</p>



<p>Parental care in fish ranges from none to extensive. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-of-cichlid-fish-boosts-biodiversity-in-lake-tanganyika/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cichlids</a>, for instance, protect and care for their young, while some fish, like seahorses, exhibit unique roles where males carry and birth the offspring.</p>



<p>Territorial behaviors are common, with fish like damselfish aggressively defending their space from intruders. These behaviors often involve visual displays and physical confrontations.</p>



<p>Overall, fish behavior showcases a wide array of adaptive strategies for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-catastrophic-decline-in-migratory-freshwater-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>, reproduction, and social interaction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-fish-offspring-punishment">Understanding fish offspring punishment</h2>



<p>Cooperative behavior in fish holds significant ecological and evolutionary importance. It enhances survival by optimizing resource use, improving defense against predators, and increasing reproductive success. </p>



<p>Species like the cleaner wrasse benefit from mutualistic relationships, improving health and reducing disease. Cooperative breeding, seen in cichlids, ensures better care for offspring, increasing their survival rates. </p>



<p>These behaviors highlight advanced social structures, challenging traditional views of fish intelligence and social complexity. </p>



<p>Understanding these interactions aids <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-summer-fishing-shrinks-atlantic-salmon-size-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a> and offers insights into the evolution of social behaviors across species, illustrating the intricate balance of aquatic ecosystems.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347224000691?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Fish engage in physical punishment of their offspring for discipline

While the idea of corporal discipline in children is increasingly...

City,View,And,Sky,Show,Smog,Air,Pollution,Smog,City

<p>Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution between 1980 and 2020 has been linked to an estimated 135 million premature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/short-term-pollution-claims-more-than-one-million-lives-per-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deaths</a> globally.</p>



<p>This alarming statistic comes from a recent study, highlighting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-composition-of-us-air-pollution-has-changed-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devastating impact</a> of air pollution on human health.</p>



<p>Published in Environment International, the study led by researchers from Nanyang Technological University (<a href="https://www.ntu.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NTU</a>), Singapore, defines premature deaths as those occurring earlier than expected due to preventable or treatable causes such as diseases and environmental factors.</p>



<p>The researchers found that climate variability phenomena like El Niño-Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean Dipole, and North Atlantic Oscillation significantly worsened the impact of PM2.5 pollution, leading to a 14 percent increase in premature deaths.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pm2-5-air-pollution">Understanding PM2.5 air pollution</h2>



<p>PM2.5 refers to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breast-cancer-incidence-linked-to-high-particulate-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particulate matter</a> that measures 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter. These tiny particles float in the air, often invisible to the naked eye. Their small size allows them to penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, posing significant health risks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-and-health-impacts">Sources and health impacts</h3>



<p>Both natural phenomena and human activities generate PM2.5. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tens-of-thousands-of-premature-deaths-linked-to-human-ignited-fires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildfires</a>, dust storms, and volcanic eruptions release these particles naturally. </p>



<p>Human sources include vehicle emissions, industrial processes, power plants, and agricultural practices. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass contributes heavily to PM2.5 levels, especially in urban areas.</p>



<p>Inhaling PM2.5 can cause serious health problems. These particles irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, and can lead to respiratory issues like coughing and shortness of breath. </p>



<p>Long-term exposure increases the risk of lung cancer, heart disease, and other cardiovascular problems. Children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing conditions face higher risks from PM2.5 pollution.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-effects">Environmental effects</h3>



<p>PM2.5 pollution affects the environment in various ways. These particles reduce visibility, creating haze in cities and scenic areas. They contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-mountains-are-gradually-recovering-from-acid-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acid rain formation</a>, harming ecosystems and damaging buildings. PM2.5 also influences climate change by affecting the Earth's radiation balance.</p>



<p>Air quality monitors measure PM2.5 concentrations in micrograms per cubic meter of air. Many countries have established air quality standards for PM2.5 levels to protect public health. Real-time monitoring and forecasting help inform the public about air quality conditions and potential health risks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-strategies">Mitigation strategies</h3>



<p>Reducing PM2.5 pollution requires comprehensive action. Governments implement stricter emissions standards for vehicles and industries. </p>



<p>Cities promote clean energy sources and improve public transportation to decrease reliance on fossil fuels. </p>



<p>Individuals can contribute by using energy-efficient appliances, carpooling, and avoiding activities that generate smoke or dust.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-patterns-and-pm2-5-air-pollution">Climate patterns and PM2.5 air pollution</h2>



<p>Researchers utilized satellite data from NASA, disease statistics from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, and climate pattern information from the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> to understand the link between PM2.5 pollution and mortality rates.</p>



<p>They discovered that during certain climate events, increased temperatures, altered wind patterns, and reduced precipitation led to stagnant air conditions, causing higher concentrations of harmful PM2.5 particles.</p>



<p>The global scope of the study, analyzing over 40 years of data, provided fresh insights into how specific climate patterns affect air pollution in different regions.</p>



<p>The study estimated that a third of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tens-of-thousands-of-premature-deaths-linked-to-human-ignited-fires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">premature deaths</a> were linked to stroke (33.3%), another third to ischemic heart disease (32.7%), with the remaining deaths associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lower respiratory infections, and lung cancer.</p>



<p>This comprehensive analysis highlighted the complex relationship between climate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-of-air-quality-improvement-erased-by-wildfires/">air quality</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-impact-and-health-consequences">Regional impact and health consequences</h2>



<p>Asia experienced the highest number of premature deaths due to PM2.5 pollution, with China and India accounting for 49.0 million and 26.1 million deaths, respectively. </p>



<p>Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Japan also reported significant numbers of pollution-attributable premature deaths.</p>



<p>The study found that the simultaneous occurrence of the three major weather phenomena resulted in approximately 7,000 additional global premature deaths annually. </p>



<p>The Indian Ocean Dipole had the most significant impact, followed by the North Atlantic Oscillation and El Niño.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-public-health-and-policy">Implications for public health and policy</h2>



<p>The researchers emphasize the need for policymakers to prioritize public health when developing air quality strategies. </p>



<p>Instead of solely focusing on pollutant levels, governments should consider the health effects of air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/safe-air-pollution-levels-can-elevate-heart-attack-risk-within-one-hour/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a>, especially during specific weather conditions.</p>



<p>Associate Professor Steve Yim of NTU's <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.sg/ase" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asian School of the Environment</a> and Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine emphasized the significant impact of climate patterns on air pollution levels. </p>



<p>"Our findings show that changes in climate patterns can make air pollution worse," Yim stated. </p>



<p>He further explained that climate phenomena like El Niño can exacerbate PM2.5 pollution, potentially leading to increased premature deaths. Yim stressed the importance of incorporating climate pattern analysis into air pollution mitigation strategies to effectively safeguard public health worldwide.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-educating-health-workers-about-pm2-5">Educating health workers about PM2.5</h2>



<p>"Our study highlights how climate patterns affect air pollution, and this is crucial for health care professionals because it directly impacts public health," stated Distinguished University Professor Joseph Sung, NTU's Senior Vice President (Health and Life Sciences) and Dean of NTU's Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine. </p>



<p>He emphasized that understanding these climate-pollution relationships enables medical professionals to anticipate and prepare for potential surges in patients with pollution-related health issues. </p>



<p>Professor Sung also stressed the need for preventive strategies to combat pollution and its health consequences, suggesting that such measures could significantly reduce the strain on healthcare systems and improve overall community well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-air-pollution-research-and-policy">Advancing air pollution research and policy</h2>



<p>The research team plans to conduct more detailed studies to gain a deeper understanding of local air pollution patterns and further elucidate the mechanisms behind how climate patterns influence the formation and reduction of PM2.5. </p>



<p>This continued research will be crucial in developing effective strategies to combat air pollution and protect public health globally.</p>



<p>By focusing on the intersection of climate patterns and air quality, this study underscores the urgent need for comprehensive policies that address the multifaceted nature of air pollution and its far-reaching impacts on human health.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412024001739?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environment International</a></em></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Over 135 million people died prematurely due to air pollution

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution between 1980 and 2020...

<p>Researchers at the University of Virginia <a href="https://engineering.virginia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Engineering and Applied Science</a> have discovered how to scale up the production of a highly efficient “wonder material,” MOF-525, for large-scale applications. </p>



<p>This material, part of the metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) class, has unique properties that allow it to capture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-capture-technology-faces-uncertainty-despite-heavy-investment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> and convert it into valuable chemicals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-wonder-material-works">How the wonder material works</h2>



<p>The breakthrough was achieved by Gaurav Giri's lab group, which developed a method called solution shearing to fabricate large membranes of MOF-525. This technique involves mixing MOF components in a solution and spreading it across a substrate with a shearing blade.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As the solution evaporates, the MOF forms a thin film on the substrate, creating an all-in-one membrane for carbon capture and conversion.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-membranes-for-carbon-capture-nbsp">Membranes for carbon capture&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“If you can make these MOFs cover large areas, then new applications become possible, like making a membrane for carbon capture and electrocatalytic conversion all in one system,” Giri explained. Electrocatalytic conversion links <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/renewable-energy-must-be-doubled-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">renewable energy</a> sources to chemical synthesis, bypassing fossil fuel combustion.</p>



<p>MOFs have ultra-porous, crystalline structures with nanoscale cavities, creating vast internal surface areas that trap various chemical compounds. The team's method allows for scaling up the production of MOF-525 membranes, enhancing surface area and reaction efficiency.</p>



<p>“With this process, you can increase the shearing blade width to whatever size you need,” said lead author Prince Verma, a PhD graduate from Giri’s lab.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-capture-and-conversion-nbsp">Carbon capture and conversion&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers targeted carbon dioxide (CO2) conversion to demonstrate their approach. Traditional carbon capture methods reduce industrial emissions but have minimal financial return.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In contrast, MOF-525, with minimal energy input, can convert CO2 into carbon monoxide (CO), a valuable chemical for manufacturing fuels, pharmaceuticals, and other products.</p>



<p>This innovative approach offers a promising solution to carbon capture and conversion, addressing both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and energy needs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-carbon-capture-nbsp">More about carbon capture&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Carbon capture is a technology aimed at reducing the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere from industrial and energy-related sources.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The process involves capturing CO2 emissions at their source, such as power plants or factories, and then transporting and storing them underground in geological formations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This method prevents the captured CO2 from contributing to global warming and climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-capture-techniques">Carbon capture techniques</h3>



<p>There are various techniques for carbon capture, including pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel combustion.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Each method involves different ways of separating CO2 from other gases produced during industrial processes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-plants-into-carbon-capture-machines-with-cyanobacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">captured CO2</a> can also be used in other applications, such as enhanced oil recovery, where it is injected into oil fields to increase the extraction of oil. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-challenges-nbsp">Ongoing challenges&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Despite its potential, carbon capture technology faces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-capture-technology-faces-uncertainty-despite-heavy-investment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a> related to cost, efficiency, and the need for extensive infrastructure to transport and store CO2 safely. </p>



<p>It is seen as a crucial part of the strategy to mitigate climate change, especially in industries where reducing emissions is particularly difficult.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-carbon-capture-so-important">Why is carbon capture so important?</h2>



<p>Carbon capture is crucial because it addresses the pressing issue of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, which contribute significantly to climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-global-warming-nbsp">Reducing global warming&nbsp;</h3>



<p>By capturing and storing carbon emissions from industrial processes and power generation, we can mitigate the greenhouse effect and reduce global warming.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This technology not only helps in meeting international climate goals but also supports the transition to a low-carbon economy.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-emissions">Negative emissions</h3>



<p>Negative emissions are considered essential for limiting global warming to 1.5°C or 2°C, as outlined in the Paris Agreement.</p>



<p>Carbon capture can enhance the viability of renewable energy sources by providing a bridge during the transition period and can be used in combination with bioenergy to achieve negative emissions.</p>



<p>There are also other methods that may be used in efforts to achieve negative emissions, including afforestation and reforestation, ocean fertilization to boost the ocean's ability to absorb CO2, and enhancing the capacity of soils to capture and store carbon through agricultural practices.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c12011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Applied Materials and Interfaces</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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‘Wonder material’ can extract value from captured carbon 

Researchers at the University of Virginia School of Engineering and...

<p>Research focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-virus-that-attacks-black-eyed-peas-also-kills-cancer-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> native to Ethiopia is showing promise in the fight against cervical cancer cells. A collaboration is adding valuable insights into these compounds' potential.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethiopian-plants-and-cancer">Ethiopian plants and cancer</h2>



<p>Ethiopia's diverse flora, comprising over 6,000 species, boasts numerous plants with significant medicinal properties. Traditional Ethiopian medicine utilizes various indigenous plants to treat ailments ranging from infections to digestive issues. </p>



<p>Notable examples include&nbsp;<em>Moringa stenopetala</em>, known for its nutritional and medicinal benefits, and&nbsp;<em>Thymus schimperi</em>, commonly used for respiratory issues and as an antimicrobial agent.&nbsp;<em>Echinops kebericho</em>, another indigenous plant, is traditionally used to combat infections and inflammation.</p>



<p>Research into these plants reveals their potential beyond traditional uses. For instance, studies show that&nbsp;<em>Moringa stenopetala</em>&nbsp;possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic properties. </p>



<p>Additionally,&nbsp;<em>Thymus schimperi</em>&nbsp;and other aromatic herbs from Ethiopia demonstrate strong antimicrobial activities, offering natural alternatives to synthetic antibiotics.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaboration-across-borders">Collaboration across borders</h2>



<p>A research team from <a href="https://www.gsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia State University</a>, <a href="https://perimeter.gsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia State’s Perimeter College</a>, <a href="https://www.aau.edu.et/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Addis Ababa University in Ethiopia</a>, and the <a href="https://winshipcancer.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Winship Cancer Center at Emory University</a> is spearheading this initiative.</p>



<p>This project, part of the Carnegie African Diaspora Fellowship Program (CADFP), involves collecting and testing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-extinction-threatens-the-future-of-medicine-and-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> known for their medicinal properties.</p>



<p>Paulos Yohannes, a chemistry professor and associate dean for STEM/research at Georgia State University’s Perimeter College, is leading this work. </p>



<p>Yohannes explains that natural products have been used by African practitioners for centuries, but a lack of access to advanced instruments has hindered their ability to publish research. </p>



<p>The Carnegie Fellowship aims to bridge this gap by matching African-born professors with African universities to enhance research and teaching efforts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-fighting-potential-of-plant-compounds">Cancer-fighting potential of plant compounds</h2>



<p>Following early success with the fellowship, Yohannes has returned to Ethiopia to continue the work. </p>



<p>Many modern medicines originate from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-found-in-cannabis-plants-can-actually-reduce-cannabis-induced-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant chemicals</a>, which are significant in oncology. The bioactive chemicals in these plants, such as flavonoids, tannins, curcumin, and resveratrol, have known antitumor properties.</p>



<p>“There are many medicinal plants that have been used by traditional healers for centuries,” Yohannes said. “Preliminary studies have shown that we are working with plant extracts exhibiting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kencur-ginger-discovery-could-revolutionize-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anticancer</a> activities.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-plant-extracts-for-cancer-treatment">Analyzing plant extracts for cancer treatment</h2>



<p>Yohannes is collaborating with Binghe Wang, Georgia State Regents’ Professor and Georgia Research Alliance Eminent Scholar. </p>



<p>The team has analyzed over 30 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-plant-extracts-can-block-covid-19-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant extracts</a> from Ethiopia, finding several active against cervical cancer cells. The research has yielded significant results, including the discovery of a new compound not found in existing databases.</p>



<p>Materials from these plants are extracted by an Ethiopian team led by Professor Ermias Dagne, who has over 45 years of experience in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/narrowing-the-search-for-new-medicinal-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicinal plant</a> chemistry.</p>



<p>These extracts are sent to Georgia State as crude extracts or isolated compounds for testing their disease-fighting effectiveness.</p>



<p>Cytotoxicity tests are performed on HeLa cells (cervical cancer) to determine the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC-50), a key measure of a drug's efficacy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-and-analyzing-anticancer-compounds">Identifying and analyzing anticancer compounds</h2>



<p>“There are two important aspects to such a research project,” Wang explained. </p>



<p>“First, we assess these extracts or purified compounds for biological activity, starting with cell culture experiments. In searching for anticancer compounds, we look for those that exhibit potent cytotoxicity against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-molecule-can-kill-all-types-of-solid-cancer-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a>. Once activity is confirmed, we conduct spectroscopic experiments to confirm the compounds' structures.”</p>



<p>The team is working with compounds from a plant identified as <em>Commiphora sp. nov.</em>, endemic to Ethiopia.</p>



<p>Several compounds isolated from these extracts were analyzed spectroscopically by Siming Wang, Director of the Mass Spectrometry Facility, and Zhenming Du, Senior Scientist and Director of the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Facility at Georgia State. </p>



<p>Additionally, anticancer activity analysis is conducted by experts at the Winship Cancer Center at Emory University under the leadership of Wei Zhou, who heads the Cell and Molecular Research Program.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plants-and-cancer-research">Future of plants and cancer research</h2>



<p>So far, four plant extracts have shown higher activity not only against cervical cancer cells but also other cell lines. The researchers have observed “interesting cell death pathways,” and more samples are on the way for further analysis.</p>



<p>“Eighty percent of the Ethiopian population uses traditional medicine to treat their illnesses. We know these plants have medicinal value,” Yohannes said. “I am encouraged that this research will yield extraordinary findings and inspire more extensive study.”</p>



<p>This collaboration highlights the potential of traditional knowledge combined with modern scientific techniques to discover new cancer-fighting compounds, offering hope for new treatments and a deeper understanding of natural medicine's role in healthcare.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Many plant species show great promise in fight against cancer

Research focused on plants native to Ethiopia is showing promise...

<p>An international team of scientists has uncovered the oldest fossil of a polar sea reptile, called a nothosaur, from the Southern Hemisphere. The nothosaur vertebra, found on New Zealand's South Island, dates back 246 million years.</p>



<p>This period marks the dawn of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaurs-influence-human-aging-65-million-years-after-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Age of Dinosaurs</a>, during which New Zealand was part of the southern polar coast of the vast Panthalassa super-ocean.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dawn-of-sea-reptiles">Dawn of sea reptiles</h2>



<p>Following a catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-event-shows-how-life-responds-to-extreme-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass extinction</a> around 252 million years ago, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/there-are-only-100-marine-reptiles-the-iguana/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> began to invade the seas, marking a pivotal evolutionary milestone.</p>



<p>Until now, evidence of this transition had only been found in a few locations, such as Spitsbergen in the Arctic, northwestern North America, and southwestern China. </p>



<p>The discovery of a single vertebra in a stream bed near Mount Harper on New Zealand's South Island provides new insight into the early presence of sea reptiles in the Southern Hemisphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nothosaurs-ruled-the-ancient-seas">Nothosaurs ruled the ancient seas</h2>



<p>Before dinosaurs roamed the land, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-reptile-rhynchosaur-died-off-before-the-dinosaurs-due-to-weak-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> like the nothosaurs dominated the seas.</p>



<p>Nothosaurs were part of the sauropterygian group, known for its diverse and long-surviving species, including the long-necked plesiosaurs reminiscent of the Loch Ness Monster.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/seagoing-reptile_nothosaur_illustration_credit-Johan-Egerkrans_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/seagoing-reptile_nothosaur_illustration_credit-Johan-Egerkrans_1s.jpg" alt="Illustration of a nothosaur ancient sea reptile. Credit: Johan Egerkrans" class="wp-image-1936980"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Illustration of a nothosaur ancient sea reptile. Credit: Johan Egerkrans</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Nothosaurs, growing up to seven meters long, swam with four paddle-like limbs and used their flattened skulls and slender conical teeth to catch fish and squid.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-reptiles-in-the-southern-hemisphere">Sea reptiles in the Southern Hemisphere</h2>



<p>Discovered during a geological survey in 1978, the nothosaur's importance remained unrecognized until a collaborative effort by paleontologists from Sweden, Norway, New Zealand, Australia, and East Timor. </p>



<p>Dr. Benjamin Kear from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en/museum-of-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Museum of Evolution</a> at Uppsala University, lead author of the study, emphasizes the fossil's significance.</p>



<p>"The nothosaur found in New Zealand is over 40 million years older than the previously oldest known sauropterygian fossils from the Southern Hemisphere," explains Dr. Kear. </p>



<p>"We show that these ancient sea reptiles lived in a shallow coastal environment teeming with marine creatures within what was then the southern polar circle."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revising-theories-on-nothosaur-migration">Revising theories on Nothosaur migration</h2>



<p>Previously, the oldest known nothosaur fossils, dating back around 248 million years, were found in a northern low-latitude belt stretching across the Panthalassa super-ocean. </p>



<p>The origin and distribution of these reptiles have been subjects of debate, with theories suggesting various migration routes. </p>



<p>The discovery of the New Zealand nothosaur challenges these long-standing hypotheses.</p>



<p>"Using a time-calibrated evolutionary model of sauropterygian global distributions, we show that nothosaurs originated near the equator, then rapidly spread both northwards and southwards at the same time as complex marine ecosystems became re-established after the cataclysmic mass extinction that marked the beginning of the Age of Dinosaurs," Dr. Kear elaborates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-reptile-fossils-hint-at-global-migrations">Sea reptile fossils hint at global migrations</h2>



<p>The early Age of Dinosaurs was characterized by extreme global warming, which facilitated the thriving of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-known-marine-reptile-a-giant-ichthyosaur-has-been-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine reptiles</a> at the South Pole.</p>



<p>This suggests that ancient polar regions were likely routes for their global migrations, similar to the epic trans-oceanic journeys undertaken by whales today.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/seagoing-reptile_nothosaur_vertebra-fossil_credit-Stavros-Kundromichalis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/seagoing-reptile_nothosaur_vertebra-fossil_credit-Stavros-Kundromichalis_1s.jpg" alt="Nothosaur vertebra fossil. Image credit: Stavros Kundromichalis" class="wp-image-1936982"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Nothosaur vertebra fossil. Image credit: Stavros Kundromichalis</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>"Undoubtedly, there are more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trachelosaurus-fischeri-worlds-oldest-long-necked-marine-reptile-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> remains of long-extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-related-to-sea-monsters-study-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea monsters</a> waiting to be discovered in New Zealand and elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere," Dr. Kear concludes.</p>



<p>This remarkable discovery not only provides a new understanding of early sea reptiles in the Southern Hemisphere but also opens the door to further exploration and potential findings of long-extinct marine creatures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-reptiles-beyond-fossils">Sea reptiles beyond fossils</h2>



<p>Sea reptiles have a rich history that extends beyond this remarkable discovery. These creatures first appeared over 250 million years ago, following the Permian-Triassic extinction event. </p>



<p>They quickly adapted to marine environments, giving rise to diverse groups like ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs. Ichthyosaurs, resembling modern dolphins, dominated the oceans during the early Mesozoic era. </p>



<p>Plesiosaurs, known for their long necks and broad bodies, thrived throughout the Jurassic period. Mosasaurs, massive predators resembling oversized monitor lizards, ruled the seas during the Late Cretaceous period. </p>



<p>Each of these groups showcased unique adaptations, such as streamlined bodies, powerful limbs, and specialized teeth for catching prey. Their fossils have been found worldwide, offering insights into their evolution and migration patterns. </p>



<p>This rich fossil record helps scientists understand the dynamic changes in marine ecosystems over millions of years and the roles these fascinating creatures played in ancient oceans.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982224003750" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Polar sea reptile 'nothosaur' fossil is the oldest ever discovered

An international team of scientists has uncovered the oldest fossil...

<p>The next full Moon will rise on Friday evening, June 21, 2024, reaching its peak illumination at 9:08 PM EDT.&nbsp;The Strawberry Moon will appear full for about three days, from Thursday evening to Sunday morning.</p>



<p>The peak of this event will take place on Saturday from Greenland and Cape Verde time zones eastward across Eurasia, Africa, and Australia, with commercial calendars marking the full Moon on June 22.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strawberry-moon-nbsp">Strawberry Moon&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In the 1930s, the <a href="https://www.almanac.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maine Farmer's Almanac</a> popularized "Indian" names for full moons, which are now widely recognized.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to this Almanac, the June full moon is the Strawberry Moon, named after the short strawberry harvesting season in the northeastern United States.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Other names found in various sources, though sometimes conflicting about their origins, include the Flower Moon, Hot Moon, Hoe Moon, and Planting Moon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-moon">Honey Moon</h2>



<p>An old European name for this full moon is the Mead or Honey Moon. Mead, a fermented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-are-making-less-honey-and-five-decades-of-data-reveals-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey</a> drink, is sometimes called honey wine.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The end of June traditionally marked the time for harvesting honey, leading to the “sweetest” moon of the year.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The term “honeymoon” dates back to at least the 1500s in Europe. It possibly linked to this particular full moon due to the custom of marrying in June or because it is the “sweetest” moon.&nbsp;</p>



<p>There is, however, insufficient evidence to support the 19th-century theory that the term originated from gifting newlyweds mead for their first month of marriage.</p>



<p>Another European name for this full moon is the Rose Moon. Some sources attribute this to the blooming of roses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-summer-solstice-nbsp">Summer solstice&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This weekend, the Strawberry Moon will peak the day after the summer solstice, the longest day of the year.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The moon's orbit around Earth aligns closely with Earth's orbit around the sun. On the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysteries-of-the-summer-solstice-the-longest-day-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">summer solstice</a>, the sun is at its highest point, and the full moon, being opposite, is at its lowest.</p>



<p>For Washington, DC, the Strawberry Moon will be the lowest full moon of the year, reaching only 21.9 degrees above the southern horizon at 1:20 AM EDT.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colorful-strawberry-moon-nbsp">Colorful Strawberry Moon&nbsp;</h2>



<p>According to Bob Bonadurer, director of the Milwaukee Public Museum's planetarium, the Strawberry Moon is the most colorful of the year because it takes a low, shallow path across the sky. Despite its name, however, it does not usually look pink or red.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Instead, the June full moon may appear to have an orange or yellow glow due to the low arc of the moon across the sky, which means moonlight will travel through more of Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-beyond-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>. This atmospheric scattering of light is similar to what happens during sunrises and sunsets. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-the-strawberry-moon-nbsp">Cultural significance of the Strawberry Moon&nbsp;</h2>



<p>For Hindus, this full moon is Vat Purnima, a time when married women show love for their husbands by tying a ceremonial thread around a banyan tree, based on the legend of Savitri and Satyavan.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For Buddhists, particularly in Sri Lanka, this full moon is Poson Poya, marking the introduction of Buddhism in 236 BCE.</p>



<p>Another unique name for this full <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Moon&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> comes from a diverse tribe devoted to lunar studies, now scattered but originally from the mid-Atlantic region of the United States.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This tribe, speaking primarily English with scientific and engineering terms and Hawaiian phrases, calls it the LRO Moon. This name honors NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, launched on June 18, 2009, which continues to provide valuable data about the moon.</p>



<p>Lunar and lunisolar calendars typically begin months with the new moon, placing the full moon in the middle. This full moon falls in the fifth month of the Chinese year of the Dragon, Sivan in the Hebrew calendar, and Dhu al-Hijjah in the Islamic calendar, a sacred month prohibiting fighting.</p>



<p>As is customary, the wearing of celebratory celestial attire is encouraged to honor the full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-aims-to-build-a-train-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>. Enjoy strawberries, flowers, and honey during this "sweetest" month of the year, and observe the notably low position of this full moon in the sky.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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'Strawberry Moon' tonight is the sweetest of the year

The next full Moon will rise on Friday evening, June...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-tend-to-each-others-wounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimpanzees</a> appear to use plants with medicinal properties to treat their ailments, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-actively-seek-medicinal-plants">Do chimpanzees actively seek medicinal plants?</h2>



<p>Many plants produce compounds that have medicinal effects on humans and animals. Wild chimpanzees consume various plant matter, including some that may treat or lessen symptoms of illness.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, it is challenging to determine whether chimpanzees actively seek out medicinal plants or consume them incidentally.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The researchers combined behavioral observations of wild chimpanzees (<em>Pan troglodytes</em>) with pharmacological testing of the plants they eat. They monitored the behavior and health of 51 chimpanzees from two communities in Uganda's Budongo Central Forest Reserve.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They collected plant extracts from 13 species of trees and herbs suspected of being used for self-medication and tested them for anti-inflammatory and antibiotic properties.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These plants included those observed being eaten by sick or injured chimpanzees, even if they were not part of the usual diet, and plants previously suggested to have medicinal properties.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-know-which-plants-treat-wounds">Chimpanzees know which plants treat wounds</h2>



<p>The study found that 88% of the plant extracts inhibited bacterial growth, while 33% had anti-inflammatory properties. Dead wood from <em>Alstonia boonei</em> showed strong antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity, suggesting it could be used to treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-tend-to-each-others-wounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wounds</a>. </p>



<p>Bark and resin from <em>Khaya anthotheca</em> and leaves from <em>Christella parasitica</em> exhibited potent anti-inflammatory effects.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers observed a male chimpanzee with an injured hand seeking out and eating leaves of the fern, which may have helped reduce pain and swelling. They also recorded an individual with a parasitic infection consuming bark of the cat-thorn tree, <em>Scutia myrtina</em>.</p>



<p>These findings suggest that chimpanzees intentionally seek out specific plants for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-orangutan-treats-his-facial-wound-with-a-healing-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicinal effects</a>. This study is one of the first to provide both behavioral and pharmacological evidence of the medicinal benefits to wild chimpanzees of feeding on bark and dead wood. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-resources-for-medicinal-purposes-nbsp">Natural resources for medicinal purposes&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“In this paper, we demonstrate how watching and learning from our primate cousins may fast-track the discovery of novel medicines, while also emphasizing the importance of protecting our forest pharmacies,” the authors wrote.</p>



<p>Overall, the study highlights the importance of integrating behavioral observations with pharmacological testing to understand better how chimpanzees and potentially other animals use natural resources for medicinal purposes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This approach can lead to significant discoveries in medicine and conservation efforts, ensuring that these natural habitats and their valuable resources are protected for future generations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selective-behavior-towards-plants">Selective behavior towards plants</h2>



<p>Beyond chimpanzees, many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-of-fruit-eating-animals-will-endanger-the-atlantic-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> instinctively seek out specific plants for various purposes, such as nutrition or even protection. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutritional-value-nbsp">Nutritional value&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Herbivores like deer, rabbits, and certain bird species choose plants that provide the best nutritional value, such as those rich in essential vitamins and minerals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These animals are often very selective, preferring young, tender leaves and shoots that are easier to digest and more nutritious.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nest-building">Nest building</h3>



<p>Some animals use plants for purposes other than food. Birds like the European starling incorporate aromatic herbs into their nests.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The volatile compounds from these plants can deter parasites, providing a cleaner and safer environment for their eggs and chicks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-butterflies">Monarch butterflies</h3>



<p>Insects also exhibit selective behavior towards plants. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-dont-like-aphids-any-more-than-humans-do/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monarch butterflies</a>, for example, lay their eggs exclusively on milkweed plants. </p>



<p>The larvae (caterpillars) feed on these plants, which contain toxins that make the caterpillars and the adult butterflies unpalatable to predators.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digestive-purposes-nbsp">Digestive purposes&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Carnivorous mammals, such as domestic cats and dogs, are known to eat grass occasionally. This behavior is believed to help induce vomiting to clear their digestive systems of indigestible materials or to aid in digestion.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-instinctual-knowledge-nbsp">Instinctual knowledge&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Animals seek out specific plants for a variety of reasons, including nutritional needs, medicinal benefits, protective measures, and reproductive purposes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This behavior showcases the intricate relationship between fauna and flora and highlights the instinctual knowledge animals possess about their natural environment.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Chimpanzees seek medicinal plants when they're sick or injured 

Chimpanzees appear to use plants with medicinal properties to treat...

<p>Imagine you’re a student preparing for a big exam: do you pull an all-nighter or get some rest? As many students know, lack of sleep makes retaining information difficult.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Two new studies led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) have recently revealed why this happens, what occurs in the brain during sleep and sleep deprivation, and how these processes impact memory formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurons-involved-in-memory-formation-nbsp">Neurons involved in memory formation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Specific neurons can be tuned to particular stimuli. For example, in a maze, rats have neurons that activate when they reach specific spots. These neurons help with navigation and are also active in humans. But what occurs during sleep?</p>



<p>“If that neuron is responding during sleep, what can you infer from that?” said Kamran Diba, an associate professor of anesthesiology at U-M Medical School, and senior author of both studies.</p>



<p>Diba and his team examined neurons in the hippocampus, a brain structure involved in memory formation, and visualized neuronal patterns associated with a location while an animal sleeps.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forming-and-updating-memories">Forming and updating memories</h2>



<p>Sharp-wave ripples, a type of electrical activity, emanate from the hippocampus every few seconds during restful states and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/too-much-sleep-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>. These ripples are thought to help neurons form and update memories, including spatial ones.</p>



<p>For their study, the researchers measured a rat’s brain activity during sleep after it completed a new maze. Using Bayesian learning, they tracked which neurons responded to which maze locations for the first time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reactivation-of-neurons-during-sleep-nbsp">Reactivation of neurons during sleep&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Let’s say a neuron prefers a certain corner of the maze. We might see that neuron activate with others that show a similar preference during sleep. But sometimes neurons associated with other areas might co-activate with that cell,” noted Diba.</p>



<p>“We then saw that when we put it back on the maze, the location preferences of neurons changed depending on which cells they fired with during sleep.”</p>



<p>This method allows visualization of neuronal plasticity or representational drift in real time and supports the theory that reactivation of neurons during sleep is crucial for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/too-much-sleep-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-sleep-and-memory-formation">Lack of sleep and memory formation </h2>



<p>Given sleep's importance, Diba's team investigated what happens in the brain during sleep deprivation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the second study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07538-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a><em> </em>and led by Diba and former graduate student Bapun Giri, they compared neuron reactivation - where place neurons that fired during maze exploration fire again at rest - and their sequence (replay) during sleep versus sleep loss.</p>



<p>They found that neuron reactivation and replay of the maze experience were higher during sleep compared to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-increases-the-risk-of-stroke-by-70-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep deprivation</a>. A lack of sleep resulted in similar or higher rates of sharp-wave ripples but with lower amplitude waves and power.</p>



<p>“In almost half the cases, however, reactivation of the maze experience during sharp-wave ripples was completely suppressed during sleep deprivation,” noted Diba.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-effects-of-sleep-deprivation-nbsp">Negative effects of sleep deprivation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>When sleep-deprived rats caught up on sleep, reactivation rebounded slightly but never matched the levels of rats with normal sleep. Replay was also impaired and did not recover with regained sleep.</p>



<p>Since reactivation and replay are vital for memory, these findings highlight the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-impairs-the-brain-potentially-causing-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">negative effects</a> of sleep deprivation on memory.</p>



<p>Diba’s team aims to further explore memory processing during sleep, the necessity of reactivation, and the impact of sleep pressure on memory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-memory-formation-nbsp">More about memory formation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Memory formation involves a complex interplay of neural processes that encode, store, and retrieve information.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encoding">Encoding</h3>



<p>This process begins with encoding, where sensory input is transformed into a neural code that the brain can use.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During encoding, attention and perception play critical roles in determining which information is processed further.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storage">Storage</h3>



<p>Once encoded, the information moves to storage, where it is maintained over time. This can occur in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wasabi-linked-to-substantial-boost-in-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">short-term memory</a>, which holds information temporarily, or long-term memory, which can store vast amounts of information for extended periods. </p>



<p>Consolidation is an essential part of this storage process, involving the stabilization of memories, often during sleep.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retrieval-nbsp">Retrieval&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The final stage is retrieval, where stored information is accessed and brought back into conscious awareness.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Retrieval can be influenced by various factors, including the context in which the memory was formed and cues that trigger recall.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-structures-nbsp">Brain structures&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The brain structures most involved in memory formation include the hippocampus, which is crucial for consolidating new memories, and the cerebral cortex, where long-term memories are stored.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, the amygdala plays a role in emotional memories, highlighting the interconnectedness of cognitive and emotional processes in memory formation.</p>



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Sleep is essential for memory formation

Imagine you’re a student preparing for a big exam: do...

<p>Living beings have evolved over millennia to respond to varying amounts of sunlight, affecting everything from sleep-wake cycles to seasonal changes. The proteins responsible for these responses, called opsins, are still an underexplored area of science. </p>



<p>Now, a study led by <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York University</a> has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-toads-see-color/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> have retained a surprising number and diversity of these light-sensing proteins over evolutionary time. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nonvisual-opsin-genes-in-frogs">Nonvisual opsin genes in frogs</h2>



<p>“We, and other animals, have many different types of nonvisual opsins and they can be present in different parts of the body including the eyes, brain, and skin,” said senior author Ryan Schott, an assistant professor of biology at York.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We found that frogs, despite being a largely nocturnal group, actually maintain more of these nonvisual opsin genes than any other group that is ancestrally nocturnal.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-sensing-third-eye-in-frogs">Light-sensing third eye in frogs</h2>



<p>Nonvisual opsins are present throughout the animal kingdom. In humans and other mammals, information about lighting conditions enters through the eye and is sent to the pineal gland, which responds to light by suppressing or secreting hormones.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This process is indirect, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-how-poison-frogs-store-their-toxins-without-harming-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> still possess a directly light-sensing “third eye” that other animals lost long ago. </p>



<p>“There are several nonvisual opsins present in that organ in the top of the head, and that is going to help them regulate their day and night cycles,” Schott explained. “Most of these opsins are also still expressed in the eye, playing a large role in light detection functions not directly related to vision.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-data-from-frog-eyes">Genetic data from frog eyes</h2>



<p>Frogs provide an excellent opportunity to study these proteins under diverse ecological conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To investigate this diversity, the researchers combined genetic data from the eyes of 81 frog species with publicly available genomes and multi-tissue transcriptome data from 21 additional species. This sampling covered a wide range of frogs with different ecological adaptations.</p>



<p>“Frogs are cool because different species can live in the water, on land, in trees, or even underground,” said lead author Jack Boyette, a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a>. “All these different habitats have very distinct light environments, which has implications for the evolution and function of sensory systems.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drastically-different-light-environments-nbsp">Drastically different light environments&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-vision-see-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> groups, including mammals and snakes, have lost opsin genes through evolution, frogs have retained all 18 ancestral vertebrate nonvisual opsins. This light-sensing retention may be due to the complex life histories of frogs. </p>



<p>“Within the lifetime of a single animal, many frog species transition between drastically different light environments. Even though a lot of adult frogs are nocturnal, that's not necessarily true of the larval tadpoles,” Boyette said.</p>



<p>The researchers also identified genetic differences in opsins between groups with different ecologies, life histories, and body types, suggesting that frog nonvisual opsins have adapted to specific lifestyles or environments. This finding aligns with Schott’s previous research on visual opsins in frogs’ eyes.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unknown-functions-of-opsin-genes-nbsp">Unknown functions of opsin genes&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Thus, this study offers initial insights into how opsin genes, whose functions are currently unknown, might operate in frogs. The experts have already identified a candidate gene that may be involved in regulating seasonal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-with-small-testes-are-invested-in-caring-for-their-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a> in frogs. </p>



<p>“We still need a better understanding of the specific functions of each type of nonvisual opsin and how those functions have evolved and adapted in different animals, like the frogs in our study, to meet their specific need,” said Schott.</p>



<p>“It's a really exciting step towards a better understanding of these seasonal patterns and how frogs and other animals use light in different ways to regulate their biological functions.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specialized-vision-in-frogs">Specialized vision in frogs</h2>



<p>Frogs have a unique and specialized vision that allows them to thrive in their environments.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their eyes are typically positioned on the sides of their heads, giving them a wide field of view and enabling them to see almost 360 degrees around them. This positioning is crucial for detecting predators and prey.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retinal-ganglion-cells">Retinal ganglion cells</h3>



<p>Frog eyes have a horizontal stripe of retinal ganglion cells, which is highly sensitive to movement across the water's surface. This adaptation helps them detect the movement of insects and other prey.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-night-vision">Night vision</h3>



<p>Frogs also have excellent night vision, as many species are nocturnal. They possess a high number of rod cells in their retinas, which are more sensitive to low light levels than cone cells.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-vision">Color vision</h3>



<p>Additionally, frogs can see in color, which is uncommon among many nocturnal animals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They have three types of cone cells that detect different wavelengths of light, allowing them to see a range of colors. This capability is essential for recognizing potential mates and food sources.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underwater-vision">Underwater vision</h3>



<p>Interestingly, frog <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-tadpole-vision-changes-from-water-to-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vision</a> is adapted to their semi-aquatic lifestyle. When underwater, frogs can adjust their focus by moving the lens in their eyes, similar to how humans focus their vision, allowing them to see clearly both in water and on land. </p>



<p>This multifaceted visual system is a key factor in their ability to survive and thrive in various environments.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msae090" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Molecular Biology and Evolution</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Frogs have a ‘third eye’ for direct light-sensing

Living beings have evolved over millennia to respond to varying...

<p>A remarkable study has shed new light on how psilocybin, a naturally occurring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-drug-induces-feelings-of-oceanic-boundlessness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychedelic</a> compound, affects our ability to learn and explore.</p>



<p>The research suggests that the substance enhances exploratory behavior without impairing learning.</p>



<p>This marks the first investigation into how psilocybin influences reinforcement learning, a type of learning based on rewards and cues.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-psilocybin">Understanding psilocybin</h2>



<p>Psilocybin is found in certain "magic" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-magic-mushrooms-evolve-to-contain-psilocybin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mushrooms</a> and has been used for centuries in various cultures for spiritual and ritual purposes.</p>



<p>When ingested, this substance converts into psilocin, which interacts with serotonin receptors in the brain and leads to altered states of consciousness, changes in perception, mood, and cognition.</p>



<p>Recently, psilocybin has gained attention for its potential therapeutic benefits, particularly in treating psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-study">Insights from the study</h2>



<p>Andrea F. Casanova, a psychiatry resident at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, and her team conducted the study to explore psilocybin's effects on learning when emotional cues are involved.</p>



<p>"Psilocybin has shown promise in treating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-microdosing-may-improve-mental-health-by-boosting-stress-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> conditions like depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and substance use disorder among others," said Casanova. "Understanding how psilocybin affects the cognitive capacities required for therapy helps optimize therapeutic approaches."</p>



<p>The study involved 30 healthy volunteers, aged 29 on average, with no personal or family history of major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychiatric disorders</a> or significant medical conditions.</p>



<p>Participants were randomly assigned to receive either psilocybin or a placebo in two sessions spaced two weeks apart. </p>



<p>Dosages were adjusted based on body weight, and the study employed a double-blind method to minimize bias.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotlearn-task">EmotLearn task</h2>



<p>The core of the study was the EmotLearn task, a probabilistic learning task designed to investigate how emotional cues influence learning. </p>



<p>Participants aimed to maximize virtual monetary rewards by selecting between two symbols, with emotional cues (neutral or fearful faces) presented before the symbols either consciously or subconsciously. </p>



<p>Each participant completed 240 trials, resulting in a comprehensive dataset of 7,200 trials for analysis. The results indicated that psilocybin did not impair learning compared to the placebo.</p>



<p>Both groups demonstrated similar learning curves, indicating that the substance preserves the ability to learn from rewards. </p>



<p>Interestingly, psilocybin induced higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-holds-the-keys-to-both-your-heart-and-your-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exploratory behavior</a>, with participants showing greater variability in their choices, suggesting an increased willingness to explore different options.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-emotional-cues">Role of emotional cues</h2>



<p>The impact of emotional cues on learning varied. Subconscious cues significantly disrupted learning under psilocybin, particularly with neutral faces, indicating that the drug might interfere with processing subtle emotional cues.</p>



<p>However, conscious neutral cues led to better learning outcomes with psilocybin, highlighting a nuanced effect where the mode of presentation plays a critical role.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dosage-matters">Dosage matters</h2>



<p>Dosage effects were notable. The 20 mg dose of psilocybin significantly improved learning rates compared to placebo, suggesting a dose-dependent enhancement in cognitive flexibility and learning efficiency.</p>



<p>However, the 15 mg dose resulted in poorer performance compared to placebo, indicating that psilocybin's effects vary with dosage.</p>



<p>Participants who received psilocybin first performed worse overall compared to those who received placebo first, suggesting initial exposure to the substance might introduce cognitive or emotional disruption affecting subsequent task performance. </p>



<p>Reaction times were generally slower under psilocybin, indicating a general slowing of cognitive processing. However, those on the highest dose exhibited faster reaction times compared to the mid-dose group, underscoring the complex relationship between dosage and cognitive effects.</p>



<p>"We thought psilocybin would fare equally or worse than placebo in a learning task, but the higher dosage led to better performance and faster reaction times," Casanova told PsyPost.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-s-impact-on-emotional-perception">Psilocybin's impact on emotional perception</h2>



<p>Despite subjective reports of impaired vigilance and cognition under psilocybin, objective performance measures did not reflect a significant decline. </p>



<p>This discrepancy underscores the need to consider both subjective experiences and objective data when evaluating psychedelics' cognitive effects. </p>



<p>"Psilocybin broadens the window of emotional perception, offering a novel perspective and potentially disrupting maladaptive thought patterns," Casanova explained. "Learning is not impeded when in an altered state of awareness induced by psilocybin, as applied in sessions of psychedelics-assisted psychotherapy."</p>



<p>However, the study had limitations, including a small sample size and a focus on short-term effects. Future research with larger groups and long-term studies are needed to understand psilocybin's lasting impact on learning and cognition.</p>



<p>Casanova emphasized the importance of careful screening and instruction for patients undergoing psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy, which remains illegal in many parts of the world. Legal regulations and guidelines must be followed to ensure safety and efficacy.</p>



<p>This research paves the way for a deeper understanding of psilocybin's potential in therapeutic settings, offering hope for innovative treatments for mental health conditions.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01259-8?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004224012598%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.</p>



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Psilocybin may boost our ability to learn and explore

A remarkable study has shed new light on how psilocybin,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



<p id="block-eff5dea3-a9bb-40b5-a923-e5a9978bc0e2">Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



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<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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