<p>A new study reports microbial DNA preserved inside woolly and steppe mammoth remains that are older than one million years. The team shows that some bacteria were living with these animals while they were alive, not just invading after death.</p>



<p>Researchers analyzed DNA from 483 specimens and sequenced 440 of them for the first time. From a steppe mammoth that lived about 1.1 million years ago, they even pieced together parts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-buried-for-millions-of-years-may-guide-search-for-alien-life/">bacterial</a> genomes that once infected or inhabited the animal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-microbes-in-mammoths">Ancient microbes in mammoths</h2>



<p>The work was led by Benjamin Guinet, a postdoctoral fellow at the Centre for Palaeogenetics in Stockholm (<a href="https://palaeogenetics.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CPG</a>). The Centre is a collaboration between Stockholm University and the Swedish Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.nrm.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NRM</a>).</p>



<p>"Our results push the study of microbial DNA back beyond a million years, opening up new possibilities to explore how host-associated microbes evolved in parallel with their hosts," said Guinet. </p>



<p>The project involved an international team of experts working across multiple collections and labs.</p>



<p>The researchers used strict lab protocols, computational filters, and DNA damage checks to separate life stage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-found-alive-sealed-inside-rock-after-2-billion-years/">microbes</a> from postmortem contaminants. That approach helped them focus on organisms that were likely part of the mammoth’s own internal community.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-mammoth-dna">Inside mammoth DNA</h2>



<p>The scientists kept finding the same six types of bacteria in mammoth remains from different times and places, including close relatives of <em>Actinobacillus</em>, <em>Pasteurella</em>, <em>Streptococcus</em>, and <em>Erysipelothrix</em>. </p>



<p>This pattern suggests that these microbes had a long history with mammoths, sticking with them through environmental changes and population shifts.</p>



<p>The scientists distinguished host-associated microbes, meaning those living in or on a host while it was alive, from environmental bacteria that entered after burial. </p>



<p>They used metagenomics, a method that reads all DNA in a sample at once, then identified ancient damage patterns to authenticate the oldest material.</p>



<p>From the 1.1 million year steppe mammoth, the team reconstructed partial genomes of <em>Erysipelothrix</em> that likely came from an infection during life. This is the oldest authenticated host-associated microbial DNA ever reported, and it extends the range for studying ancient host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-aquificales-discovered-in-hot-springs-breathe-oxygen-and-sulfur-at-same-time/">microbe</a> interactions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-ancient-microbes-matter">Why ancient microbes matter</h2>



<p>This result builds on earlier work that recovered genome scale data from mammoth teeth more than one million years old, demonstrating that DNA can survive when conditions are right. </p>



<p>The previous <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03224-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> established methods and expectations for data quality at this extreme age.</p>



<p>Ancient DNA is fragile and breaks into tiny pieces, and chemical changes accumulate over time. By tracking these signatures, scientists can tell ancient sequences from modern contamination and avoid false signals.</p>



<p>"As microbes evolve fast, obtaining reliable DNA data across more than a million years was like following a trail that kept rewriting itself," said study senior author Tom van der Valk.</p>



<p>"Our findings show that ancient remains can preserve biological insights far beyond the host genome, offering us perspectives on how microbes influenced adaptation, disease, and extinction in Pleistocene ecosystems."</p>



<p>The Pleistocene was a period from about 2.6 million years ago to 11,700 years ago that included repeated ice ages.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-linked-to-mammoth-health">Microbes linked to mammoth health</h2>



<p>One bacterium in the dataset is closely related to a <em>Pasteurella</em> species implicated in lethal outbreaks among African elephants. That connection is supported by a 2023 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37880229/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a> that identified a Pasteurella relative as the likely cause of fatal septicemia in elephants in Zimbabwe.</p>



<p>The new study reports several putative <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2646308/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virulence factors</a>, which are gene features tied to disease-causing ability, in some clades. The authors are careful about cause and effect because ancient DNA is incomplete and infections leave mixed traces.</p>



<p><em>Erysipelothrix</em> is also known to sicken Arctic wildlife today, including muskoxen during unusual mortality events. That pattern has been documented in a Canadian Veterinary <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4431149/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal</a> that found <em>Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae</em> associated with widespread deaths in the Canadian Arctic.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammoth-survival-and-microbes">Mammoth survival and microbes</h2>



<p>Microbes that stayed with mammoths for hundreds of thousands of years hint at stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-without-oxygen-how-ancient-microbes-powered-early-life/">relationships</a> shaped by diet, climate, and social behavior. The persistence of these lineages across far flung regions points to deep coevolution.</p>



<p>The last woolly mammoths survived on Wrangel Island until about 4,000 years ago, long after mainland populations vanished. Genetic work on that relict group links their late survival to small population size and accumulating harmful mutations.</p>



<p>"This work opens a new chapter in understanding the biology of extinct species. Not only can we study the genomes of mammoths themselves, but we can now begin to explore the microbial communities that lived inside them," said Love Dalén, professor of evolutionary genomics at the CPG. </p>



<p>Ultimately, the data help connect health, ecology, and extinction risks in a single picture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-this-research-can-go-next">Where this research can go next</h2>



<p>Reconstructing ancient microbiomes can help set baselines for living elephant microbiomes. That matters because health, diet, and stress are all reflected in the microbiome, the community of microbes that live in and on an organism.</p>



<p>Ancient pathogen signals can also clarify whether outbreaks played a role in population declines. Learning which bacteria carried disease associated genes in the past could inform surveillance and treatment strategies for modern elephants.</p>



<p>Finally, the same tools can be applied to other Ice Age species to test whether long-lived microbial partners were the rule rather than the exception. Careful sampling, clean labs, and independent checks will keep new claims on firm ground.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(25)00917-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Cell</em></a>.</p>



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Million year-old mammoth microbes reveal new clues about disease

A new study reports microbial DNA preserved inside woolly and steppe mammoth remains that are older than one million years. The team shows that some bacteria were living with these animals while they were alive, not just invading after death. Researchers analyzed DNA from 483 specimens and sequenced 440 of them for the first time. From a steppe mammoth that lived about 1.1 million years ago, they even pieced together parts of bacterial genomes that once infected or inhabited the animal. Ancient microbes in mammoths The work...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-takes-a-greater-toll-on-astronauts-brains-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space flight</a> significantly alters kidney structure and function, with galactic radiation causing permanent damage, which could jeopardize any mission to Mars, according to new research led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL). </p>



<p>This study is the most extensive analysis of kidney health in space to date and includes the first health dataset for commercial astronauts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-flight-and-health-issues">Space flight and health issues</h2>



<p>Researchers have known since the 1970s that space flight causes various health issues, such as bone mass loss, heart and eyesight weakening, and kidney stone development.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These problems are believed to stem from exposure to space radiation, including solar winds from the Sun and Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR) from deep space, from which Earth's magnetic field partially shields astronauts in Low Earth orbit (LEO).&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the 24 individuals who traveled to the moon experienced unmitigated GCR exposure for only short durations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidney-response-to-space-flight-nbsp">Kidney response to space flight<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The current study aimed to explore how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-human-kidneys-feasible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kidneys</a> respond to space flight conditions. A UCL-led team from over 40 institutions across five continents conducted various experiments and analyses, using data and samples from 20 study cohorts. </p>



<p>This included samples from over 40 LEO space missions involving humans and mice, mostly from the International Space Station, and 11 space simulations involving mice and rats.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Seven of these simulations exposed mice to simulated GCR doses equivalent to 1.5-year and 2.5-year Mars missions, replicating space flight beyond Earth's magnetic field.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidneys-are-remodeled-in-space-nbsp">Kidneys are remodeled in space<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The results indicated that both human and animal kidneys are 'remodeled' in space, with kidney tubules responsible for calcium and salt balance showing signs of shrinkage after less than a month.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This change is likely due to microgravity rather than GCR, although further research is needed to determine if the interaction between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microgravity-causes-big-problems-with-human-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a> and GCR can worsen these structural changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidney-stone-formation-nbsp">Kidney stone formation<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>Previously, the primary reason for kidney stone formation in space was assumed to be microgravity-induced bone loss leading to a calcium build-up in the urine.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the recent findings suggest that space flight fundamentally alters how kidneys process salts, likely contributing to kidney stone formation.</p>



<p>A particularly concerning finding for potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-missions-prepare-intense-solar-storms-coming-red-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars missions</a> is that mice exposed to simulated GCR for 2.5 years experienced permanent kidney damage and loss of function.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astronauts-on-long-space-missions">Astronauts on long space missions</h2>



<p>“We know what has happened to astronauts on the relatively short space missions conducted so far, in terms of an increase in health issues such as kidney stones. What we don’t know is why these issues occur, nor what is going to happen to astronauts on longer flights such as the proposed mission to Mars,” said lead author Keith Siew, an expert in renal medicine at UCL.</p>



<p>“If we don’t develop new ways to protect the kidneys, I’d say that while an astronaut could make it to Mars they might need dialysis on the way back. We know that the kidneys are late to show signs of radiation damage; by the time this becomes apparent it’s probably too late to prevent failure, which would be catastrophic for the mission’s chances of success.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facilitating-extended-space-travel-nbsp">Facilitating extended space travel<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>“Our study highlights the fact that if you’re planning a space mission, kidneys really matter,” added senior author Stephen B. Walsh, a professor at the same university.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“You can’t protect them from galactic radiation using shielding, but as we learn more about renal biology it may be possible to develop technological or pharmaceutical measures to facilitate extended space travel.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Any drugs developed for astronauts may also be beneficial here on Earth, for example by enabling cancer patients’ kidneys to tolerate higher doses of radiotherapy, the kidneys being one of the limiting factors in this regard.”</p>



<p>Though the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49212-1"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>, only describes kidney health up to two and a half years, it provides the most comprehensive data available for this timeframe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings underscore the necessity of addressing these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-microbiome-health-is-crucial-to-future-space-exploration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health challenges</a> to ensure the success of long-duration space missions, such as those to Mars.</p>



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Astronauts’ kidneys may not survive a roundtrip to Mars

Space flight significantly alters kidney structure and function, with galactic...

<p>The sun, a brilliant display of sunspots and flares, has captivated astronomers for centuries. These mesmerizing features are driven by the solar magnetic field, generated by a process called "dynamo action."</p>



<p>Having long been thought to originate deep within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-covered-with-moss-peculiar-structure-sunspot-groups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star's interior</a>, a new study challenges this long-held assumption, suggesting that the sun's magnetic activity may be shaped by a much shallower process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shallower-origins-of-solar-dynamo">Shallower origins of solar dynamo</h2>



<p>In a paper published in <em>Nature</em>, the research team, led by Keaton Burns, a research scientist in MIT's <a href="https://math.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Mathematics</a>, presents a precise model of the sun's surface. </p>



<p>By simulating perturbations in the flow of plasma within the top 5–10% of the sun, they discovered that these surface changes were sufficient to generate realistic magnetic field patterns, closely resembling those observed by astronomers.</p>



<p>Geoffrey Vasil, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a> and co-author of the study, emphasizes the importance of this new idea, stating.</p>



<p>"We know the dynamo acts like a giant clock with many complex interacting parts. But we don't know many of the pieces or how they fit together. This new idea of how the solar dynamo starts is essential to understanding and predicting it," Vasil explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-space-weather">Forecasting space weather</h2>



<p>If the sun's magnetic field does indeed arise from its outermost layers, it could have significant implications for space weather forecasting. </p>



<p>By better understanding the origins of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-archipelago-15-times-wider-than-earth-spotted-by-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-issues-severe-geomagnetic-storm-watch-first-time-since-2005/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flares</a>, scientists may be able to more accurately predict geomagnetic storms that have the potential to damage satellites and telecommunications systems.</p>



<p>"The features we see when looking at the sun, like the corona that many people saw during the recent solar eclipse, sunspots, and solar flares, are all associated with the sun's magnetic field," explains Keaton Burns.</p>



<p>"We show that isolated perturbations near the sun's surface, far from the deeper layers, can grow over time to potentially produce the magnetic structures we see."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-sunspots-and-the-solar-dynamo">Simulating sunspots and the solar dynamo</h2>



<p>Rather than attempting to simulate the complex flow of plasma throughout the entire body of the sun, which requires millions of hours on national supercomputing facilities, Burns and his colleagues focused on studying the stability of plasma flow near the surface. </p>



<p>By leveraging data from helioseismology, a field that uses observed vibrations on the sun's surface to determine the average structure and flow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-storms-are-influenced-by-earths-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plasma beneath the surface</a>, the team was able to develop a more targeted approach.</p>



<p>Burns draws an analogy to understanding the shape and stiffness of a drumhead by observing its vibrational modes in slow motion. "Similarly, we can use vibrations that we see on the solar surface to infer the average structure on the inside," he explains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedalus-project-powerful-fluid-dynamics-tool">Dedalus Project: Powerful fluid dynamics tool</h2>



<p>To search for patterns that could explain the sun's magnetic field, the team utilized the Dedalus Project, a numerical framework developed by Burns that can simulate various types of fluid flows with high precision. </p>



<p>The code has been applied to a wide range of problems, from modeling the dynamics inside individual cells to ocean and atmospheric circulations.</p>



<p>"My collaborators have been thinking about the solar magnetism problem for years, and the capabilities of Dedalus have now reached the point where we could address it," Burns notes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunspots-and-the-solar-cycle">Sunspots and the solar cycle</h2>



<p>The team's simulations revealed patterns that match the locations and timescales of sunspots observed by astronomers since Galileo in 1612. </p>



<p>Sunspots, which are relatively cooler regions that appear as dark spots on the sun's surface, are thought to be shaped by the sun's magnetic field and follow a cyclical pattern, growing and receding every 11 years.</p>



<p>The researchers found that certain changes in the flow of plasma within the top 5–10% of the sun's surface layers were enough to generate magnetic structures in the same regions where sunspots are typically observed. </p>



<p>In contrast, changes in deeper layers produced less realistic solar dynamo fields that were concentrated near the poles rather than the equator.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspired-by-black-hole-accretion-disks">Inspired by black hole accretion disks</h2>



<p>The team's motivation to examine flow patterns near the sun's surface stemmed from the similarity between these conditions and the unstable plasma flows observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-black-hole-disrupts-a-bigger-one-causing-cosmic-hiccups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accretion disks around black holes</a>. </p>



<p>Accretion disks are massive disks of gas and stellar dust that rotate towards a black hole, driven by the "magnetorotational instability," which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">generates turbulence</a> in the flow and causes it to fall inward.</p>



<p>Burns and his colleagues suspected that a similar phenomenon might be at play in the sun and that the magnetorotational instability in the sun's outermost layers could be the first step in generating the sun's magnetic field.</p>



<p>While the team's findings may be met with some controversy, as most of the scientific community has been focused on finding solar dynamo action deep within the sun, Burns believes their results provide a better match to observations. </p>



<p>The team continues to study whether these new surface field patterns can generate individual sunspots and the full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storms-will-intensify-then-slow-as-the-solar-cycle-peaks-in-early-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">11-year solar cycle</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-the-deep-solar-dynamo-theory">Challenging the deep solar dynamo theory</h2>



<p>In summary, this important study challenges the long-held belief that the sun's magnetic field originates from a solar dynamo deep within its interior. </p>



<p>By simulating perturbations in the flow of plasma near the sun's surface and comparing the results with observational data, the team has shown that the sun's magnetic field and its associated features, such as sunspots and flares, may arise from much shallower surface depths than previously thought. </p>



<p>This finding offers a new perspective on the fundamental processes driving solar activity, and holds promise for improving space weather forecasting and protecting vital satellite and telecommunications systems. </p>



<p>As the scientific community continues to debate and build upon this research, we move closer to unraveling the enigmatic nature of our nearest star and its far-reaching influence on our technology-dependent world.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01357-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em>.</p>



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'Solar dynamo' and the secret origin of the Sun's magnetic field

The sun, a brilliant display of sunspots and flares, has...

<p>Stromatolites are ancient structures formed by layers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> that grow toward the light and precipitate carbonates.</p>



<p>First appearing 3.48 billion years ago, these formations dominated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> as the sole living carbonate factory for nearly three billion years.</p>



<p>They played a crucial role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a>, which introduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a> to our atmosphere and drastically altered Earth's environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-layers-and-stromatolites">Algae layers and stromatolites</h2>



<p>Stromatolites are layered structures formed by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/clear-lake-turns-green-with-algal-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity of algae</a>, specifically cyanobacteria. These ancient formations date back 3.48 billion years and are some of the oldest evidence of life on Earth. </p>



<p>Cyanobacteria in stromatolites perform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, capturing sunlight and producing oxygen, which was crucial in transforming Earth's early atmosphere.</p>



<p>Stromatolites thrived for billions of years, dominating Earth's shallow marine environments and playing a pivotal role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a> around 2.4 billion years ago. </p>



<p>This event introduced significant amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere, paving the way for more complex life forms to evolve.</p>



<p>Despite their ancient origins, stromatolites are not just relics of the past. They can still be found today in extreme environments where other life forms struggle to survive. </p>



<p>Notable locations include Shark Bay in Australia, where hypersaline conditions limit competition, and now, Sheybarah Island in the Red Sea. These environments mimic conditions from the Proterozoic era, allowing stromatolites to thrive.</p>



<p>The recent discovery on Sheybarah Island by Volker Vahrenkamp and his team has renewed interest in these ancient structures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-and-resurgence-of-stromatolites-and-algae-layers">Decline and resurgence of stromatolites and algae layers</h2>



<p>Stromatolites initially thrived, eliminating competition with their oxygen production. However, as more life forms adapted to the oxygen-rich atmosphere, stromatolites began to decline. </p>



<p>Today, they appear in the geological record primarily after mass extinctions or in extreme environments.</p>



<p>"The bacteria are always around, but they don't usually get the chance to make stromatolites," explains Volker Vahrenkamp, the author of a new study in <em>Geology</em>. "They are largely outcompeted by corals."</p>



<p>Today, stromatolites are found in niche environments like hypersaline marine settings (e.g., Shark Bay, Australia) and alkaline lakes. </p>



<p>Until recently, the only known modern analogue to the biologically diverse, shallow marine settings of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughing-gas-supported-life-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proterozoic</a> era was the Exuma Islands in the Bahamas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-discovery-in-the-red-sea">Surprising discovery in the Red Sea</h2>



<p>This changed when Vahrenkamp discovered living stromatolites on Sheybarah Island, located on the northeastern shelf of the Red Sea in Saudi Arabia. </p>



<p>Initially studying tepee structures -- salt crust domes visible from space -- Vahrenkamp unexpectedly came across the stromatolite field.</p>



<p>"When I stepped on them, I knew what they were," says Vahrenkamp. "It is 2000 km of carbonate platform coastline, so in principle it is a desirable area to look for stromatolites… but then, it is the same in the Bahamas, and yet there is only one small area where you find them."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-environmental-conditions">Unique environmental conditions </h2>



<p>Sheybarah Island features an intertidal-to-shallow subtidal setting with alternating wet and dry conditions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-coast-has-warmed-significantly-and-experiences-many-extreme-temperature-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme temperature</a> variations from 46.4°F (8°C) to over 118.4°F (48°C), and oligotrophic conditions, similar to those in the Bahamas.</p>



<p>These environmental conditions suggest that other stromatolite fields might exist nearby. </p>



<p>Vahrenkamp and his team are currently exploring this possibility, but finding these algae structures can be challenging due to their small size, about 15 cm across.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-stromatolite-growth">Understanding stromatolite growth</h2>



<p>The Sheybarah Island field contains several hundred stromatolites formed by algae layers, ranging from well-developed examples to more sheet-like formations.</p>



<p> "Perhaps they could be juvenile," hypothesizes Vahrenkamp, "but we don't know what a baby stromatolite looks like. They must start small, but we don't know."</p>



<p>One challenge in studying stromatolites is determining their growth rate. </p>



<p>Dating them is difficult because they contain two types of carbonate: the microbe-precipitated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-are-disrupting-earths-largest-carbon-storage-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbonate</a> of interest and the misleading carbonate sand from the environment.</p>



<p>Vahrenkamp's team monitors the field monthly to record any changes. There are plans to transfer some stromatolites to an aquarium to study their growth in a controlled environment -- an exciting experimental prospect.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-early-life-and-beyond">Implications for early life and beyond</h2>



<p>Vahrenkamp's discovery provides an opportunity to better understand algae structures like stromatolites, their formation and growth.</p>



<p>This research can offer insights into early life and ocean evolution on Earth and aid in the search for life on other planets, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-search-for-signs-of-life-on-mars-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>.</p>



<p>Stromatolites, as some of the first life forms on Earth, offer a promising avenue for understanding what life might look like on Mars and how we could recognize it.</p>



<p>By studying these ancient algae structures, we continue to uncover the mysteries of early life on our planet and beyond.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/52/5/347/634859/Discovery-of-modern-living-intertidal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Stromatolites found in the Red Sea offer new clues to the earliest life on Earth

Stromatolites are ancient structures formed by layers of algae that...

<p>Fossils discovered on the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe have unveiled a new dinosaur species, <em>Musankwa sanyatiensis</em>.</p>



<p>This discovery marks only the fourth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-species-tyrannosaurus-mcraeensis-discovered-in-new-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur species</a> named from Zimbabwe, with research published in <em>Acta Palaeontologica Polonica</em>.</p>



<p>This discovery, led by Prof. Paul Barrett from the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> in London, is significant as it is the first dinosaur named from the Mid-Zambezi Basin of northern Zimbabwe in over 50 years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-zimbabwean-dinosaurs">History of Zimbabwean dinosaurs</h2>



<p><em>Musankwa sanyatiensis</em> is only the fourth dinosaur named from Zimbabwe, following <em>Syntarsus rhodesiensis</em> (1969), <em>Vulcanodon karibaensis</em> (1972), and <em>Mbiresaurus raathi</em> (2022).</p>



<p>The new specimen's rocks date back to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-oldest-known-dinosaur-recently-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Triassic period</a>, around 210 million years ago. The dinosaur is represented by a single hind leg, including the thigh, shin, and ankle bones.</p>



<p>"Despite the limited fossil material, these bones possess unique features that distinguish them from those of other dinosaurs living at the same time," says Dr. Kimberley "Kimi" Chapelle, assistant professor at <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> and an honorary associate at Wits.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musankwa-sanyatiensis-and-its-relatives"><em>Musankwa sanyatiensis</em> and its relatives</h2>



<p>The dinosaur was named after the houseboat "Musankwa," which means "boy close to marriage" in the Tonga dialect. </p>



<p>This vessel served as the research team's home and mobile laboratory during two field expeditions to Lake Kariba in 2017 and 2018, thanks to David and Julie Glynn and their crew -- Coster Katupu, Godfrey Swalika, Simbarashe Mangoroma, and Never Mapira.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_leg-bones_zimbabwe_Paul-Barrett_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_leg-bones_zimbabwe_Paul-Barrett_1s.jpg" alt="Musankwa sanyatiensis leg bones discovered in Zimbabwe. Credit: Paul Barrett" class="wp-image-1936546"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Musankwa sanyatiensis leg bones discovered in Zimbabwe. Credit: Paul Barrett</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Evolutionary analysis shows that <em>Musankwa sanyatiensis</em> was a member of the Sauropodomorpha, a group of bipedal, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-necked-reptiles-tanystropheus-were-easily-decapitated-by-dinosaur-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-necked dinosaurs</a>.</p>



<p>It appears to be closely related to contemporaries in South Africa and Argentina. Weighing around 390 kg, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isle-of-wight-fossils-suggest-that-europe-had-unique-plant-eating-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-eating dinosaur</a> was one of the larger dinosaurs of its era.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-s-dinosaur-discovery-history">Africa's dinosaur discovery history</h2>



<p>Africa has a significant history of dinosaur discoveries. This history began with the first dinosaur found in the southern hemisphere in South Africa. </p>



<p>This discovery happened just three years after Sir Richard Owen introduced the term "dinosaur" in 1842. Since then, Africa has continued to yield important dinosaur fossils, contributing to our understanding of prehistoric life on the continent. </p>



<p>The discoveries from Africa include many species that help scientists learn more about dinosaur diversity and evolution.</p>



<p>However, most known dinosaur fossils come from just ten countries, primarily in the northern hemisphere, leading to a sparse representation of African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-highlight-dinosaur-diversity-in-prehistoric-patagonia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur diversity</a>.</p>



<p>"The main reason for the underrepresentation of African dinosaur fossils is 'undersampling,'" says Barrett. "There have been fewer people looking for and unearthing dinosaurs compared to other regions of the world."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-zimbabwe-s-fossil-record">Importance of Zimbabwe's fossil record</h2>



<p>Despite fewer discoveries in Africa, many fossils are historically and scientifically significant, including some of the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> like <em>Nyasasaurus parringtoni</em> from Tanzania and <em>Mbiresaurus raathi</em> from Zimbabwe.</p>



<p>The Late Triassic-Early Jurassic sediments of Zimbabwe are vital for studying the End-Triassic extinction event. This event occurred around 200 million years ago and significantly altered the diversity of life on Earth. </p>



<p>By examining these sediments, scientists can gain insights into the environmental changes and biological impacts that occurred during this period. </p>



<p>Understanding these changes helps researchers reconstruct the history of life on Earth and the factors that led to the mass extinction and subsequent evolution of new species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musankwa-sanyatiensis-paleontological-potential"><em>Musankwa sanyatiensis</em> paleontological potential</h2>



<p>This new species highlights the untapped potential of Zimbabwe for further paleontological discoveries. </p>



<p>"Over the last six years, many new fossil sites have been recorded in Zimbabwe, yielding a diverse array of prehistoric animals, including the first sub-Saharan mainland African phytosaurs, metoposaurid amphibians, lungfish, and other reptile remains," Barrett elaborates.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_zimbabwe_illustration_Atashni-Moopen_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_zimbabwe_illustration_Atashni-Moopen_1s.jpg" alt="Illustration of Musankwa sanyatiensis. Credit: Atashni Moopen" class="wp-image-1936548"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Illustration of Musankwa sanyatiensis. Credit: Atashni Moopen</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>As more fossil sites are explored, there is hope for uncovering further significant finds that will shed light on the early evolution of dinosaurs and their ecosystems. </p>



<p>"Based on where it sits on the dinosaur family tree, <em>Musankwa sanyatiensis</em> is the first dinosaur of its kind from Zimbabwe," Dr. Chapelle explains. "It highlights the potential of the region for further paleontological discoveries."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-effort-by-international-scientists">Collaborative effort by international scientists</h2>



<p>An international team from the University of the Witwatersrand (<a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wits</a>) in South Africa, the Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe, and <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> in New York, led by Prof. Paul Barrett from the Natural History Museum in London, conducted the study.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app011002023.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Palaeontologica Polonica</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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New dinosaur species is named Musankwa sanyatiensis

Fossils discovered on the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe...

<p>Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death globally, responsible for approximately one in three deaths. There were over 20 million CVD fatalities reported in 2021, according to a 2024 World Heart Federation report.</p>



<p>Despite significant advancements in heart disease prevention, treatment, and intervention, climate change threatens to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reverse these gains</a>.</p>



<p>NASA confirms that the average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/">global temperature</a> has risen by more than two degrees Fahrenheit over the last century, resulting in long-term shifts in weather patterns, disturbed ecosystems, and rising sea levels. Alarmingly, the ten hottest years on record have all occurred within the past decade.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-cardiovascular-health">Climate change and cardiovascular health</h2>



<p>A new study conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.bidmc.org/">Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center</a> (BIDMC) has delved into the connection between climate change-related environmental stressors and cardiovascular disease. The team systematically reviewed 492 observational studies to explore this critical issue.</p>



<p>The findings reveal a strong association between extreme temperatures, hurricanes, and increased CVD mortality and incidence. </p>



<p>Vulnerable populations, such as older adults, racial and ethnic minorities, and those from lower-income communities, are disproportionately affected.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-environmental-stressors">The impact of environmental stressors</h2>



<p>“Climate change is already affecting our cardiovascular health,” said Dhruv S. Kazi, associate director of the Richard A. and Susan F. Smith Center for Outcomes Research at BIDMC and the study's corresponding author. </p>



<p>"Exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-related-cardiovascular-deaths-may-double-in-the-coming-decades/">extreme heat</a> can adversely affect heart rate and blood pressure, ozone or wildfire smog can trigger systemic inflammation, and living through a natural disaster can cause psychological distress." </p>



<p>"Hurricanes and floods may disrupt healthcare delivery through power outages and supply chain disruptions. In the long term, the changing climate is projected to reduce agricultural productivity and the nutritional quality of the food supply, which could also compromise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-pollution-cardiovascular-health/">cardiovascular health</a>."</p>



<p>The research team screened nearly 21,000 peer-reviewed studies published between 1970 and 2023. </p>



<p>These studies evaluated the associations between acute cardiovascular events, CVD mortality, healthcare utilization, and various climate change-related phenomena, including extreme temperatures, wildfires, air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-fuels-cardiovascular-deaths-worldwide/">pollution</a>, ground-level ozone, extreme weather events, sea level rise, salt-water intrusion, and climate-related migration.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-linked-to-cardiovascular-risks">Extreme weather linked to cardiovascular risks</h2>



<p>Out of the 492 global observational studies included in the review, 182 examined extreme temperature, 210 focused on ground-level ozone effects, 45 investigated wildfire smoke, and 63 studied extreme weather events such as hurricanes, dust storms, and droughts. </p>



<p>These studies spanned 30 high-income countries, 17 middle-income countries, and one low-income country.</p>



<p>The researchers found that exposure to extreme temperature was strongly linked to increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and mortality, with the impact varying based on temperature and exposure duration. </p>



<p>Extreme weather events, including tropical storms, hurricanes, floods, and mudslides, were also associated with heightened cardiovascular risk, often lasting months or even years beyond the severe weather event.</p>



<p>One study on Hurricane Sandy, which caused nearly $20 billion in damage in New York City alone in 2012, showed that the risk of death from cardiovascular disease remained elevated for up to 12 months after the storm.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-knowledge-gaps">Addressing knowledge gaps </h2>



<p>The researchers also identified significant gaps in knowledge regarding the impact of climate change on cardiovascular risk in lower-income nations.</p>



<p>Only one study was conducted in a low-income country, and just five were based in Africa, where climate change is expected to have disproportionate effects. </p>



<p>“Though data on outcomes in low-income countries are lacking, our study shows that several environmental stressors already increasing in frequency and intensity with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/">climate change</a> are linked with increased cardiovascular risk,” noted senior author Dr. Mary B. Rice, a pulmonary and critical care physician at BIDMC.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recommendations-for-health-systems">Recommendations for health systems</h2>



<p>These findings suggest that clinicians should be aware of climate-related cardiovascular risk in their community, whether related to extreme temperatures, wildfire smoke, or extreme weather events.</p>



<p>For instance, in areas prone to hurricanes or flooding, clinicians should help patients develop contingency plans to ensure uninterrupted access to medications and healthcare as needed. </p>



<p>Health systems should also evaluate the resilience of their infrastructure to climate change.</p>



<p>“Climate change is already adversely affecting cardiovascular health in the U.S. and worldwide,” the researchers concluded. “Urgent action is needed to mitigate climate change-related cardiovascular risk, particularly among our most vulnerable populations.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/article-abstract/2820068">JAMA Cardiology</a></em>.</p>



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Climate change worsens cardiovascular health risks

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death globally,...

<p>Babies are those adorable little bundles of joy that fill our lives with giggles, cuddles, and the occasional diaper explosion. But did you know that the baby formula or breast milk they eat in their early months could shape their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-diets-of-infants-provide-the-building-blocks-of-human-vision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a> for years to come?</p>



<p>Scientists from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a> are making exciting strides in ensuring all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> get the best nutrition possible through options such as baby formula, even if they aren't exclusively breastfed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breast-milk-vs-formula-for-babies">Breast milk vs. formula for babies</h2>



<p>Breast milk, nature's own superfood for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-in-an-infant-gut-have-their-unique-circadian-rhythms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a>, is packed with a unique blend of around 200 prebiotic sugar molecules. </p>



<p>These sugars aren't just for sweetness; they play a crucial role in preventing disease and nurturing the growth of beneficial gut bacteria in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-nicotine-use-during-pregnancy-linked-to-infant-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>.</p>



<p>But here's the catch: replicating this complex cocktail of sugars in commercial infant formula has been a challenge. </p>



<p>While formula provides essential nutrients, it hasn't been able to match the full nutritional punch of breast milk. This is where the exciting world of plant engineering comes in.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-plants-in-baby-formula">Power of plants in baby formula</h2>



<p>Plants are like nature's very own sugar factories. They harness sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce a vast array of sugars, both simple and complex. </p>



<p>So, a team of brilliant scientists thought, "Why not reprogram these sugar-making machines to produce the same sugars found in human breast milk?"</p>



<p>And that's precisely what they did.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-the-baby-formula-solution">Engineering the baby formula solution</h2>



<p>In a recent study, researchers genetically modified plants to create human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), the special sugars found in breast milk. </p>



<p>The scientists tweaked the plants' genes to produce the enzymes responsible for creating the specific linkages that make HMOs unique.</p>



<p>The result? Genetically modified <em class="">Nicotiana benthamiana</em> plants, close relatives of tobacco, started churning out 11 known HMOs along with a variety of other complex sugars similar to those found in breast milk.</p>



<p>"We made all three major groups of human milk oligosaccharides. To my knowledge, no one has ever demonstrated that you could make all three of these groups simultaneously in a single organism," explains Patrick Shih, the study's senior author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boon-for-babies-and-beyond">Boon for babies and beyond</h2>



<p>This breakthrough isn't just about baby formula. The implications are far-reaching. Imagine healthier, more affordable formula for babies worldwide, or nutrient-packed non-dairy plant milk for adults. The possibilities are truly exciting.</p>



<p>Collin Barnum, the study's first author, emphasizes the significance of producing a specific HMO called LNFP1. </p>



<p>"LNFP1 is a five-monosaccharide-long human milk oligosaccharide that is supposed to be really beneficial, but so far cannot be made at scale using traditional methods of microbial fermentation," Barnum notes.</p>



<p>"We thought that if we could start making these larger, more complex human milk oligosaccharides, we could solve a problem that that industry currently can’t solve."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-plants-to-plates">From plants to plates</h2>



<p>Although engineered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-leafy-green-vegetables-safe-until-ready-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>E. coli </em>bacteria</a> have been utilized to produce certain HMOs, the extraction and purification process is complex and costly.</p>



<p>This is due to the bacteria producing not only the desired HMOs but also potentially harmful byproducts. Separating these byproducts from the HMOs requires intricate procedures, increasing production expenses.</p>



<p>In contrast, plant-based production systems offer a potentially more efficient and cost-effective approach. By utilizing plants as biofactories for HMOs, the purification process may be simpler, as plants typically do not generate the same toxic byproducts as bacteria. </p>



<p>This could streamline the extraction of HMOs, reducing costs associated with purification and making them more accessible for wider use.</p>



<p>"Imagine being able to make all the human milk oligosaccharides in a single plant. Then you could just grind up that plant, extract all the oligosaccharides simultaneously and add that directly into infant formula," notes Shih.</p>



<p>Of course, there are challenges to overcome before this becomes a reality, but the potential benefits are undeniable.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-future-ahead-for-nutrition">Sweet future ahead for nutrition</h2>



<p>The science of engineering plants to produce human milk sugars is still in its early stages, but the progress made so far is nothing short of remarkable. </p>



<p>It's a testament to human ingenuity and our unwavering commitment to providing the best possible start for our little ones.</p>



<p>So, the next time you see a baby formula aisle, remember that the future of infant nutrition might just be growing in a field, not fermenting in a lab. And that's a sweet thought indeed.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00996-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a></em>.</p>



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Engineered plants make baby formula as healthy as breast milk

Babies are those adorable little bundles of joy that fill...

<p>An international team of planetary scientists has recently discovered patches of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> frost atop the Tharsis volcanoes on Mars. These volcanoes are not only the tallest on Mars but in the entire solar system.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This is the first time frost has been observed near Mars' equator, challenging existing views of the planet's climate.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remnants-of-an-ancient-climate-cycle-nbsp">Remnants of an ancient climate cycle<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>“We thought it was improbable for frost to form around Mars’ equator, as the mix of sunshine and thin atmosphere keeps temperatures during the day relatively high at both the surface and mountaintop -- unlike what we see on Earth, where you might expect to see frosty peaks,” said lead author Adomas Valantinas, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a> who led the work as a PhD student at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>. </p>



<p>“What we're seeing may be a remnant of an ancient climate cycle on modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, where you had precipitation and maybe even snowfall on these volcanoes in the past.”</p>



<p>The study revealed that this frost is present only for a few hours after sunrise before evaporating in the sunlight. It is incredibly thin, likely about one-hundredth of a millimeter thick, roughly the width of a human hair.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-frost-on-tharsis-volcanoes">Water frost on Tharsis volcanoes</h2>



<p>Despite its thinness, the frost covers a significant area. Researchers estimate that at least 150,000 tons of water cycles between the surface and atmosphere daily during the cold seasons, equivalent to about 60 Olympic-size swimming pools.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_NASA_2big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_NASA_2s.jpg" alt="Water frost found on Mars' volcano Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA" class="wp-image-1936526"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Water frost found on Mars' volcano Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA</figcaption></figure>



<p>The Tharsis region, where the frost was found, contains numerous towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noctis-volcano-buried-glacier-discovered-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a>, some of which are one to two times the height of Earth's Mount Everest. Olympus Mons, for example, is as wide as France.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The frost is located in the calderas of these volcanoes, large hollows at their summits formed during past eruptions. The team suggests that air circulation above these mountains creates a unique microclimate allowing the frost to form.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-frost-on-mars">Significance of frost on Mars</h2>



<p>Modeling the formation of these frosts could help scientists uncover more of Mars' secrets, including the distribution and movement of water and the planet's complex atmospheric dynamics. </p>



<p>This is crucial for future exploration and the search for potential signs of life.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_perspective-view_NASA_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_perspective-view_NASA_2s.jpg" alt="Perspective view of water frost on Mars' Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA" class="wp-image-1936528"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Perspective view of water frost on Mars' Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA</figcaption></figure>



<p>The frost was detected using high-resolution color images from the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS) onboard the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>’s Trace Gas Orbiter.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings were validated with observations from the High Resolution Stereo Camera on the ESA’s Mars Express orbiter and the Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery spectrometer on the Trace Gas Orbiter.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-signatures-of-frost-on-mars">Tracing the signatures of frost on Mars</h2>



<p>The researchers analyzed over 30,000 images to initially find and then confirm the frost. Valantinas filtered the images based on their location, time of day, and season to isolate spectral signatures indicative of water frost and identify where it formed on Mars' surface.</p>



<p>“This notion of a second genesis, of life beyond Earth, has always fascinated me,” said Valantinas, who began analyzing the images in 2018. </p>



<p>As he transitions to his role at Brown, Valantinas plans to continue exploring Martian mysteries, pivoting towards astrobiology. </p>



<p>Working with Brown planetary scientist Jack Mustard, he aims to characterize ancient hydrothermal environments that could have supported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-experiment-life-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life</a>. </p>



<p>Samples from these environments might be returned to Earth by the NASA-led Mars Sample Return mission.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-life-on-mars">Signs of life on Mars</h2>



<p>Signs of life on Mars have been a subject of intense scientific investigation. Researchers have been particularly interested in the presence of water, as it's a crucial ingredient for life.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-water">Liquid water</h3>



<p>Mars rovers like Curiosity and Perseverance have found evidence of ancient riverbeds, lake beds, and mineral deposits that typically form in water, suggesting that Mars once had liquid water on its surface.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-molecules-nbsp">Organic molecules<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h3>



<p>Additionally, organic molecules, which are the building blocks of life, have been detected in Martian soil samples.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane">Methane</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Methane detection</a> has also piqued interest because on Earth, methane is predominantly produced by biological processes. However, methane can also be generated by geological processes, so its presence alone does not confirm life.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The seasonal fluctuations of methane observed by the Curiosity rover suggest that the gas may be produced and destroyed through unknown processes.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-missions">Future missions</h3>



<p>Despite these promising signs, no definitive evidence of current or past life on Mars has been found yet. Future missions aim to bring back samples to Earth for detailed analysis, which may provide clearer answers.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01457-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Geoscience</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>Image Credit: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin</p>



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Huge amount of water frost "unexpectedly" found on Mars' volcanoes

An international team of planetary scientists has recently discovered patches...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-reveal-alarming-effects-of-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gray whales</a> that spend their summers feeding off the Pacific Northwest coast have significantly decreased in body length since around 2000, according to a new study led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> (OSU). This reduction in size could have serious implications for the health and reproductive success of the gray whales and raises concerns about the state of the ecosystem. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-warning-sign-of-population-decline">Early warning sign of population decline</h2>



<p>“This could be an early warning sign that the abundance of this population is starting to decline, or is not healthy,” said co-author K.C. Bierlich, an assistant professor at OSU’s Marine Mammal Institute in Newport. </p>



<p>“And whales are considered ecosystem sentinels, so if the whale population isn’t doing well, that might say a lot about the environment itself.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-coast-feeding-group">Pacific Coast Feeding Group</h2>



<p>The experts focused on the Pacific Coast Feeding Group (PCFG), a small subset of about 200 gray whales from the larger Eastern North Pacific (ENP) population of around 14,500.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Unlike the majority that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrate</a> to the Arctic, this subgroup stays closer to shore along the Oregon coast, feeding in warmer, shallower waters. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-whales-with-worse-body-condition-nbsp">Smaller whales with worse body condition<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>Recent OSU studies have shown these whales are smaller and in worse body condition than their ENP counterparts, with the current study revealing a further decline in size over recent decades.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mmi.oregonstate.edu/gemm-lab" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Institute’s Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna (GEMM) Lab</a> has been studying this subgroup since 2016, utilizing drones to measure their size. </p>



<p>Analyzing images from 2016-2022 of 130 individual whales, researchers determined that a gray whale born in 2020 is expected to be 1.65 meters shorter as an adult than one born before 2000. This accounts for a reduction of over 13% of their total length, significant for whales that grow to be 38-41 feet long.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-smaller-size-affect-whales">How does smaller size affect whales?</h2>



<p>“In general, size is critical for animals,” said lead author Enrico Pirotta, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Andrews</a> in Scotland. “It affects their behavior, their physiology, their life history, and it has cascading effects for the animals and for the community they’re a part of.”</p>



<p>Smaller whale calves may struggle with survival post-weaning, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-atlantic-right-whales-are-getting-shorter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smaller adult whales</a> face reproductive challenges. </p>



<p>“With them being smaller, there are questions of how effectively these PCFG gray whales can store and allocate energy toward growing and maintaining their health. Importantly, are they able to put enough energy toward reproduction and keep the population growing?” Bierlich said.</p>



<p>Researchers are also concerned about the impact of scarring from boat strikes and fishing gear entanglement, which could be exacerbated by the whales’ smaller size and lower energy reserves.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gray-whale-size-and-ocean-cycles">Gray whale size and ocean cycles</h2>



<p>The study also investigated ocean environmental patterns that regulate food availability for these whales, focusing on cycles of “upwelling” and “relaxation” in the ocean. Upwelling brings <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-seafloor-nutrients-support-the-entire-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a> to shallower waters, while relaxation periods keep these nutrients in the light-rich areas for plankton growth, which is essential for the whales' prey.</p>



<p>“Without a balance between upwelling and relaxation, the ecosystem may not be able to produce enough prey to support the large size of these gray whales,” said co-author Leigh Torres, the&nbsp; director of the GEMM Lab at OSU.</p>



<p>The decline in whale size coincided with changes in these ocean cycles. “We haven’t looked specifically at how climate change is affecting these patterns, but in general, we know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-the-southern-ocean-are-losing-weight-due-to-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is affecting the oceanography of the Northeast Pacific through changes in wind patterns and water temperature,” Pirotta said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed-nbsp">Further research is needed<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>With the knowledge that PCFG gray whales' body size is decreasing, researchers are now probing the potential downstream consequences and contributing factors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We’re heading into our ninth field season studying this PCFG subgroup. This is a powerful dataset that allows us to detect changes in body condition each year, so now we’re examining the environmental drivers of those changes,” Bierlich concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17366" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Global Change Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Gray whales in the North Pacific are shrinking in size

Gray whales that spend their summers feeding off the Pacific...

<p>A new study led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> has reported significant advancements in reducing atmospheric levels of ozone-depleting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/use-of-banned-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-increasing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a>, confirming the success of historic regulations. </p>



<p>Particularly, the experts found a notable decline in hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which are both harmful to the ozone layer and potent greenhouse gasses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limiting-the-use-of-ozone-depleting-chemicals-nbsp">Limiting the use of ozone-depleting chemicals<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The Montreal Protocol, established in 1987, played a critical role by limiting the production and use of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Initially, HCFCs were introduced as replacements for the more harmful chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).&nbsp;</p>



<p>While the global production of CFCs has been banned since 2010, HCFCs are currently being phased out, with a target completion date of 2040.</p>



<p>“The results are very encouraging,” said lead author Luke Western, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Bristol’s School of Chemistry. “They underscore the great importance of establishing and sticking to international protocols.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Without the Montreal Protocol, this success would not have been possible, so it’s a resounding endorsement of multilateral commitments to combat stratospheric ozone depletion, with additional benefits in tackling human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humanity-should-brace-for-catastrophic-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adopting-ozone-friendly-alternatives-nbsp">Adopting ozone-friendly alternatives<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The study revealed that the total amount of ozone-depleting chlorine in all HCFCs peaked in 2021. This peak also marked the highest contribution of HCFCs to climate change, occurring five years earlier than predicted. Although the decrease in HCFC emissions between 2021 and 2023 was less than 1%, it indicates a positive trend.</p>



<p>“Their production is currently being phased out globally, with a completion date slated for 2040. In turn, these HCFCs are being replaced by non-ozone-depleting hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds. By enforcing strict controls and promoting the adoption of ozone-friendly alternatives, the protocol has successfully curbed the release and levels of HCFCs into the atmosphere,” Western explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-planet-for-future-generations">Protecting the planet for future generations </h2>



<p>The study relied on high-precision measurements from globally distributed atmospheric observatories, using data from the <a href="https://agage.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment</a> (AGAGE) and the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration</a> (NOAA). </p>



<p>“We use highly sensitive measurement techniques and thorough protocols to ensure the reliability of these observations,” said co-author Martin Vollmer, an atmospheric scientist at the <a href="https://www.empa.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</a> (EMPA).</p>



<p>“This study highlights the critical need to be vigilant and proactive in our environmental monitoring, ensuring other controlled ozone-depleting and greenhouse gases follow a similar trend which will help to protect the planet for future generations,” said Isaac Vimont, a research fellow at NOAA.</p>



<p>Overall, the findings offer a hopeful outlook on the effectiveness of global protocols in reducing harmful emissions and addressing both ozone depletion and climate change. Continued vigilance and adherence to these protocols are necessary to ensure the full recovery of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-particles-erode-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone layer</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-ozone-depletion">What is ozone depletion?</h2>



<p>Ozone depletion refers to the gradual thinning of the Earth's ozone layer in the stratosphere. This phenomenon is primarily caused by the release of ozone-depleting chemicals containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industrial and consumer products. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributing-factors">Contributing factors</h3>



<p>The most significant contributors are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other related substances.&nbsp;</p>



<p>When these chemicals are released into the atmosphere, they eventually reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cfcs-are-not-the-only-culprit-bushfire-smoke-may-also-destroy-ozone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratosphere</a>, where ultraviolet (UV) radiation breaks them down, releasing chlorine and bromine atoms. </p>



<p>These atoms then react with ozone (O3) molecules, causing the ozone to break apart into oxygen molecules (O2) and single oxygen atoms, thus depleting the ozone layer.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-ozone-depletion">Impacts of ozone depletion</h3>



<p>The depletion of the ozone layer has significant environmental and health impacts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A thinner ozone layer allows more harmful UV-B radiation to reach the Earth's surface, which can lead to an increase in skin cancers, cataracts, and other health issues.&nbsp;</p>



<p>It also affects ecosystems, particularly marine life, as increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-exposes-wildlife-to-harmful-uv-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UV radiation</a> can harm phytoplankton, the base of the marine food web.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02038-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Climate Change</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Decline in ozone-depleting chemicals is an encouraging trend 

A new study led by the University of Bristol has...

<p>A yellow haze of sulfur dioxide, a surprising discovery in the atmosphere of the exoplanet GJ 3470 b, has captivated astronomers and may hold crucial clues to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets are formed</a>. </p>



<p>This gas dwarf exoplanet, half the size of Neptune and ten times the mass of Earth, orbits a star 96 light-years away in the constellation Cancer.</p>



<p>GJ 3470 b is a peculiar world. According to the researchers, the planet’s orbit around its star takes it nearly over the star’s poles. In other words, GJ 3470 b is orbiting at a 90-degree angle to the expected path of planets in the system.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, it's unusually close to its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a>, leading to the loss of a significant portion of its atmosphere – approximately 40% since its formation. </p>



<p>This unique orbit and substantial atmospheric loss suggest a turbulent past, potentially involving gravitational interactions with another planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-planets-are-made">How planets are made</h2>



<p>Exoplanets, which are planets located beyond our solar system, provide astronomers with invaluable opportunities to investigate the diverse mechanisms through which planets form and evolve.</p>



<p>By studying the light emitted from a star as it passes through an exoplanet's atmosphere during transit events, scientists can obtain a spectrum - a unique fingerprint of the light's intensity at different wavelengths.</p>



<p>The spectrum contains absorption or emission lines corresponding to specific elements and molecules present in the exoplanet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Through careful analysis of these spectral features, astronomers can identify the chemical composition of the atmosphere, including the presence of gases like water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and even exotic compounds like sulfur dioxide.</p>



<p>These analyses offer crucial insights into the physical and chemical processes that govern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-finds-largest-amount-of-carbon-ever-seen-in-a-planet-forming-disk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary formation</a> and atmospheric evolution, ultimately contributing to our understanding of the diversity of worlds that exist beyond our solar system.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-dioxide-on-a-small-exoplanet">Sulfur dioxide on a small exoplanet</h2>



<p>GJ 3470 b is the lightest and coldest exoplanet found to harbor sulfur dioxide. The presence of this compound suggests active chemical reactions in the planet's atmosphere, likely triggered by radiation from its nearby star. </p>



<p>"We didn't think we'd see sulfur dioxide on planets this small, and it's exciting to see this new molecule in a place we didn't expect, since it gives us a new way to figure out how these planets formed," said Professor Thomas Beatty of the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>.</p>



<p>"Discovering sulfur dioxide in a planet as small as GJ 3470 b gives us one more important item on the planet formation ingredient list."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-window-into-planet-formation">New window into planet formation </h2>



<p>Professor Beatty compared the process of understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-of-water-vapor-may-be-involved-in-planet-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a> to unraveling a cake recipe. "Laid out on our table, we have all the ingredients that go into a cake, and we have a finished cake. Now, can we figure out the recipe - the steps that turned the raw materials into the end product - by measuring what's in the cake?"</p>



<p>GJ 3470 b's unusual orbit and atmospheric loss offer clues to the "recipe" for its formation. </p>



<p>The planet's migration history and mass loss are significant factors that astronomers don't typically know about other exoplanets. </p>



<p>These unique characteristics provide a new window into the complex processes involved in planet formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-exoplanet-research">Future of exoplanet research</h2>



<p>The study of GJ 3470 b is just one piece of the puzzle in understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-butterfly-iras-23077-discovery-flips-planet-formation-understanding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets are formed</a>. </p>



<p>With further analysis of its atmospheric composition and collaboration with experts in proto-planetary disks and migration dynamics, astronomers hope to gain a deeper understanding of how planets like GJ 3470 b came to be.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> and other advanced telescopes will continue to play a crucial role in this research, allowing astronomers to probe the atmospheres of exoplanets in unprecedented detail. </p>



<p>The discovery of sulfur dioxide on GJ 3470 b has opened a new chapter in the study of planet formation. This surprising finding, coupled with the planet's unique characteristics, provides valuable clues to the complex processes that give rise to planets.</p>



<p>As we learn more about the diverse range of exoplanets, we will gain a clearer picture of the intricate processes and ingredients like sulfur dioxide that shape worlds throughout the universe.</p>



<p>The research was presented at the&nbsp;<a href="https://aas.org/meetings/aas244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">244th meeting of the American Astronomical Society</a>&nbsp;and will soon be published in <em>Astrophysical Journal Letters</em>.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Sulfur-exoplanet.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Image Credit: University of Wisconsin–Madison</a></p>



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Essential ingredient in the "recipe of life" found in exoplanet formation

A yellow haze of sulfur dioxide, a surprising discovery in...

<p>In the vast cosmic ballet, where stars are born, live, and die, an intriguing chapter unfolds in the fading embers of white dwarfs. These stellar remnants, having exhausted their nuclear fuel, may hold a surprising secret: the potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-could-reside-in-dyson-spheres-across-1000-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life-bearing planets</a>. </p>



<p>But how could planets survive the tumultuous death throes of their parent star, and what makes them such promising targets in the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-levels-on-distant-planets-reveal-presence-of-alien-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-dwarfs">White dwarfs</h2>



<p>White dwarfs are the remnants of stars that have exhausted their nuclear fuel. When stars like our sun run out of hydrogen to fuse into helium, they undergo a series of transformations. </p>



<p>Initially, they expand into red giants, shedding their outer layers. The core that remains collapses into a very small, dense object about the size of Earth but with a mass comparable to the sun. This is a white dwarf.</p>



<p>White dwarfs no longer undergo fusion reactions and instead, slowly cool over billions of years. Despite their small size, they are incredibly dense, with one teaspoon of white dwarf material weighing tons. They emit a faint, steady light due to residual thermal energy but do not generate new energy. </p>



<p>These characteristics make white dwarfs intriguing objects for studying the potential for life on surrounding exoplanets, as their stable luminosity and small size provide a clear backdrop for observations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-death-and-rebirth">Death and rebirth</h2>



<p>As a star like our Sun nears the end of its life, it undergoes a dramatic transformation. It swells into a red giant, engulfing any close-orbiting planets. Then, it expels its outer layers, leaving behind a dense, white-hot core –- the white dwarf.</p>



<p>Juliette Becker, an astronomy professor at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>, likens this process to a fiery trial by ordeal. </p>



<p>"There are two pulses," she says, "during which the star grows to 100 times its normal radius. While it does that -- we can call this part Destruction Phase No. 1 -- it will engulf any planets that are within that radius," notes Becker.</p>



<p>Even if a planet escapes this initial onslaught, it faces another danger: the star's dramatic increase in brightness. </p>



<p>"The fact that the star gets so much brighter means that all planets in the system, even ones that used to be cold in the outer solar system, will suddenly have their surface temperatures increase drastically," Becker explains. </p>



<p>This intense heat could vaporize any existing oceans, leaving the planet barren and lifeless.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-refuge-in-the-outer-reaches">Finding refuge in the outer reaches</h2>



<p>So, how could a water-rich planet possibly survive this cosmic inferno? The key, according to Becker's research, lies in distance. </p>



<p>A planet orbiting at least 5 to 6 astronomical units (AU) away from its dying star -- about the distance of Jupiter from our Sun -- might just stand a chance.</p>



<p>At this distance, the planet could potentially retain enough water to support life, even after enduring the star's expansion and intense radiation. </p>



<p>But there's a catch: as the white dwarf cools and shrinks, the habitable zone -- the region where liquid water can exist -- moves inward. </p>



<p>This means the planet, once safely distant, would now be too far from the star to maintain a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-alien-life-searching-for-color-purple-not-green/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life-friendly environment</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tidal-migration">Tidal migration</h2>



<p>Enter tidal migration, a phenomenon that could potentially save the day. "A planet's orbit changing is pretty normal," Becker says. </p>



<p>"In tidal migration, some dynamical instability between planets in the system puts one of them into a high-eccentricity orbit, like a comet, where it swings in really close to the central body in the system and then far out again."</p>



<p>Over time, these wild orbits can settle down, bringing the planet closer to the white dwarf and potentially placing it within the new habitable zone. </p>



<p>"If you put all these models together," Becker concludes, "what you see is that it is a perilous journey for the planet and difficult for oceans to survive this process, but it is possible."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-life-on-white-dwarfs">Search for life on white dwarfs</h2>



<p>Why are white dwarfs such appealing targets in the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-telescopes-can-directly-detect-signs-of-alien-life-in-exoplanet-atmospheres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>? For one, their small size and dim light make it easier to detect and study the atmospheres of orbiting planets. </p>



<p>"White dwarfs are so small and so featureless, that if a terrestrial planet transited in front of them, you could actually do a much better job of characterizing its atmosphere," Becker explains.</p>



<p>This means that if we were to find a planet orbiting a white dwarf, we could potentially determine its atmospheric composition with greater accuracy than ever before. </p>



<p>This, in turn, could reveal telltale signs of life, such as the presence of oxygen, methane, or other biosignatures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead">The road ahead</h2>



<p>While the prospect of finding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life on planets</a> orbiting white dwarfs is exciting, there's still much work to be done. </p>



<p>Becker and her colleagues are developing theoretical models to better understand the complex dynamics of these systems and identify the most promising targets for future observations.</p>



<p>As telescopes become more powerful, we may soon be able to peer into the atmospheres of these distant worlds and answer one of humanity's most profound questions: Are we alone in the universe? The ashes of dead stars may yet hold the spark of life, waiting to be discovered.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Watery planets orbiting white dwarfs hold the key to finding alien life

In the vast cosmic ballet, where stars are born, live,...

<p>Picture a grand cosmic ballroom, where celestial dancers twirl and sway to the rhythm of an ancient melody. In this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-gravity-exists-without-mass-so-dark-matter-does-not-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mesmerizing waltz</a>, matter takes the lead, guiding spacetime through elegant curves and graceful bends. Spacetime, in turn, whispers to matter, dictating its path through the universe's vast expanse. </p>



<p>This intricate choreography, masterfully described by Albert Einstein's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-waterfall-discovery-proves-einstein-right-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">general theory of relativity</a>, serves as the foundation for understanding the motion of planets, stars, and galaxies, weaving together the very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-cosmic-object-detected-gravitational-wave-signal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fabric of our cosmos</a>. </p>



<p>Yet, as we marvel at the grandeur of this celestial dance, a perplexing dissonance emerges -- the theory that so beautifully describes the immense scales of the universe finds itself stumbling when confronted with the enigmatic realm of the infinitesimal, where quantum mechanics holds sway.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-frontiers-of-gravity">Exploring the frontiers of gravity</h2>



<p><a href="https://research.tue.nl/en/persons/sjors-heefer" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sjors Heefer</a>, a Ph.D. researcher at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.tue.nl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eindhoven University of Technology</a>, has embarked on a fascinating journey to explore the intricacies of gravity in our universe. </p>



<p>His mind-bending work holds the potential to shed light on the captivating field of gravitational waves and may even contribute to the long-sought reconciliation between the big and small in physics.</p>



<p>"According to Einstein's theory, gravity is not a force but emerges due to the geometry of the four-dimensional spacetime continuum, or spacetime for short," explains Heefer. "And it's central to the emergence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/echo-of-gravitational-waves-heard-for-the-first-time-finally-confirming-their-existence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating phenomena</a> in our universe such as gravitational waves."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warping-the-fabric-of-the-universe">Warping the fabric of the universe</h2>



<p>In Einstein's revolutionary framework, massive objects, like the sun or galaxies, warp the spacetime around them, creating cosmic curves and contours. </p>



<p>Other objects, in turn, traverse these curves, following the straightest possible paths known as geodesics. </p>



<p>While these paths may not appear straight in the conventional sense, they elegantly describe the elliptical orbits of planets around the sun and a myriad of other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dying-stars-may-be-a-source-of-gravitational-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational phenomena</a>, from the mundane to the extraordinary, such as black holes and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visible-matter-dark-matter-evolved-together-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-conundrum-of-matter-and-spacetime">Quantum conundrum of matter and spacetime</h2>



<p>Despite its triumphs, general relativity finds itself at odds with another pillar of modern physics -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>. </p>



<p>"Quantum mechanics suggests that particles (like electrons or muons) exist in multiple states at the same time until they are measured or observed," Heefer points out. "Once measured, they randomly select a state due to a mysterious effect referred to as the 'collapse of the wave function.'"</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-discovery-is-a-revolutionary-step-forward/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In the quantum realm</a>, a wave function mathematically encapsulates the position and state of a particle. The square of this wave function yields a set of probabilities indicating where the particle might be found upon observation. </p>



<p>The higher the square of the wave function at a specific location, the greater the likelihood of discovering the particle there.</p>



<p>"All matter in our universe appears to be subject to the strange probabilistic laws of quantum mechanics. And the same is true for all forces of nature -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">except for gravity</a>," Heefer emphasizes.</p>



<p>This discrepancy leads to deep philosophical and mathematical paradoxes, and resolving these is one of the primary challenges in fundamental physics today.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-language-of-spacetime">Deciphering the language of spacetime</h2>



<p>One promising avenue for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reconciling general relativity and quantum mechanics</a> involves expanding the mathematical framework that underpins general relativity. </p>



<p>Traditionally, general relativity relies on pseudo-Riemannian geometry, a mathematical language capable of describing most typical shapes that spacetime can assume.</p>



<p>"Recent discoveries indicate, however, that our universe's spacetime might be outside the scope of pseudo-Riemannian geometry and can only be described by <a href="https://math.aalto.fi/~fdahl/finsler/finsler.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Finsler geometry</a>, a more advanced mathematical language," Heefer reveals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-field-equation-and-the-shapes-of-emptiness">Field equation and the shapes of emptiness</h2>



<p>To delve into the possibilities offered by Finsler gravity, Heefer focused on analyzing and solving a specific field equation. </p>



<p>In physics, fields are used to describe various phenomena in nature, with each point in space and time assigned a specific value.</p>



<p>Heefer turned his attention to the Christian Pfeifer and Mattias N. R. Wohlfarth's vacuum field equation, which governs the gravitational field in empty space, essentially describing the possible shapes that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-glitch-in-gravity-expands-the-theory-of-general-relativity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacetime geometry</a> could assume in the absence of matter.</p>



<p>"To good approximation, this includes all interstellar space between stars and galaxies, as well as the empty space surrounding objects such as the sun and the Earth. By carefully analyzing the field equation, several new types of spacetime geometries have been identified," Heefer elaborates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripples-in-the-cosmic-fabric">Ripples in the cosmic fabric</h2>



<p>One particularly thrilling discovery emerging from Heefer's research involves a class of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curvature-propulsion-warp-drive-krasnikov-tube-future-intergalactic-space-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacetime geometries</a> that represent gravitational waves -- ripples in the fabric of spacetime that propagate at the speed of light, potentially caused by cataclysmic events like the collision of neutron stars or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-would-it-be-like-to-fall-into-a-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>.</p>



<p>The detection of gravitational waves on September 14, 2015, marked the dawn of a new era in astronomy, enabling scientists to explore the universe through an entirely novel lens. </p>



<p>Subsequent observations of gravitational waves have all aligned with the hypothesis that our spacetime possesses a Finslerian nature, as indicated by Heefer's findings.</p>



<p>While Heefer's results offer tantalizing insights, they merely scratch the surface of the implications arising from the field equation of Finsler gravity. </p>



<p>"The field is still young and further research in this direction is actively ongoing," Heefer acknowledges. "I'm optimistic that our results will prove instrumental in deepening our understanding of gravity and I hope that, eventually, they may even shine light on the reconciliation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graviton-like-particle-observed-in-quantum-material-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity with quantum mechanics</a>."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unifying-matter-spacetime-and-gravity">Unifying matter, spacetime and gravity</h2>



<p>In summary, as we strive to unravel the secrets of gravity, researchers like Sjors Heefer light the way with their pioneering work. They tirelessly explore the frontiers of physics, seeking to expand our understanding of the universe's fundamental forces. </p>



<p>By delving into the intricacies of Finsler geometry and analyzing the field equations that govern spacetime, these brilliant scientists inch closer to reconciling the grand scale of general relativity with the peculiar realm of quantum mechanics. </p>



<p>Their discoveries, from the identification of new spacetime geometries to the tantalizing implications of gravitational waves, promise to reshape our perception of the cosmos. </p>



<p>Standing on the precipice of a new era in physics, we eagerly anticipate the revelations that await us, knowing that each step brings us closer to a more comprehensive understanding of the universe we call home.</p>



<p>Sjors Heefer's full research study <a href="https://pure.tue.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/326418342/20240524_Heefer_hf.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">was published here…</a></p>



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Gravity's enigma: Cosmic dance of matter and spacetime in our elegant universe

Picture a grand cosmic ballroom, where celestial dancers twirl and...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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