Close-up,Of,A,Bitter,Bracket,Fungus,At,The,Veluwe

Most of us experience bitterness as a simple taste - something triggered by a vegetable that makes us wrinkle our noses and push a plate away.



But there’s more going on behind the scenes. The molecules that cause bitterness can vary wildly in shape and source, and scientists are still piecing together how our bodies recognize and react to them. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-a-bitter-mushroom">The mystery of a bitter mushroom</h2>



A recent study has taken that search into lesser-known territory, using a forest mushroom with an extremely bitter flavor to find out more.



In a collaborative effort, scientists from the Leibniz Institute for Food Systems Biology at the <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Munich</a> and the Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry in Halle (Saale) set out to explore the bitter properties of Amaropostia stiptica, commonly called the bitter bracket mushroom.



This fungus can be found growing on the trunks and branches of dead trees. It has a shelf-like fruiting body that juts out from the wood and, although not harmful, it is known for its intensely bitter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taste-buds-are-the-first-line-of-defense-against-eating-too-much-and-too-fast/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">taste</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-amaropostia-stiptica">Understanding Amaropostia stiptica</h2>



Amaropostia stiptica is a crust fungus that hangs out mostly on decaying wood, especially in tropical and subtropical forests. 



You’ll spot it forming thin, resiny patches on dead hardwood, often with a waxy or slightly sticky texture. Its surface tends to look smooth to slightly bumpy, and it usually has a pale color - think creamy beige to light yellow. 



Even though it's not flashy, it plays a crucial role in breaking down tough plant material, recycling nutrients back into the forest floor.



While it’s not edible or medicinal, this fungus still earns respect for doing the gritty work of decomposition in ecosystems where that kind of job is essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-know-about-bitter-compounds">What we know about bitter compounds</h2>



Most of what we know about bitter compounds comes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> or synthetic chemicals. 



In fact, the BitterDB database - the main catalog of known bitter molecules - currently lists over 2,400 entries. For around 800 of them, researchers have matched at least one specific human bitter taste receptor. 



But animal, bacterial, and fungal sources of bitter compounds are still a mystery. This makes mushrooms an ideal place to look for new insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-bitter-compounds-are-toxic">Not all bitter compounds are toxic</h2>



Our bodies rely on bitter receptors, called TAS2Rs, to warn us against potentially dangerous substances. But there’s a twist: not all bitter compounds are toxic, and not all toxins taste bitter.



The infamous death cap mushroom, for example, contains toxins that don’t taste bitter at all. Clearly, something more complex is happening.



Adding to the mystery, bitter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-tongue-now-has-six-basic-taste-receptors-instead-of-just-five/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">taste receptors</a> aren’t only found on the tongue. They also show up in the stomach, intestines, heart, lungs, and even on some blood cells. 



These receptors aren’t used for tasting in the traditional sense, so scientists wonder what role they’re playing in the rest of the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-new-bitter-compounds">Identifying new bitter compounds</h2>



"Comprehensive data collections on bitter compounds and their receptors could help us to find answers to these open questions," said Maik Behrens, who heads a research group at the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/institute/leibniz-institute-alle-listen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute</a> in Freising.



"The more well-founded data we have on the various bitter compound classes, taste receptor types and variants, the better we can develop predictive models using systems biology methods to identify new bitter compounds and predict bitter taste receptor-mediated effects." 



This applies to both food constituents and endogenous substances that activate extraoral bitter taste receptors.



To support this effort, the team focused on finding new, underrepresented sources of bitterness. Their latest work adds rare fungal-derived compounds to the growing database of known bitter substances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushroom-with-three-bitter-compounds">Mushroom with three bitter compounds </h2>



Using advanced analytical techniques, the team identified three new bitter compounds from Amaropostia stiptica and mapped out their chemical structures. 



When tested in cell-based systems, all three compounds triggered at least one of the human bitter taste receptors.



The standout discovery, however, was a molecule called oligoporin D. This substance activates the TAS2R46 receptor at extremely low concentrations - about 63 micrograms per liter.



To put it in perspective, that’s like dissolving a single gram of the compound into more than 100 bathtubs of water. One gram is about the same as the tip of a knife full of baking soda.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bitterness-as-a-clue-to-better-health">Bitterness as a clue to better health</h2>



"Our results contribute to expanding our knowledge of the molecular diversity and mode of action of natural bitter compounds," explained Behrens.



"In the long term, insights in this area could enable new applications in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-region-that-influences-our-food-preferences-can-be-manipulated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> and health research, for example in the development of sensorially appealing foods that positively influence digestion and satiety."



The discovery of new bitter molecules from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-all-fungi-matter-not-just-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> shows just how much is left to learn. Bitterness isn't just a taste - it’s a signal, a potential tool, and possibly even a pathway to better health.



With each new entry into the bitter compound database, researchers come one step closer to understanding how taste shapes our bodies in ways we’re only just beginning to grasp.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.4c12651" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry</a>.



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Most bitter tasting substance on Earth identified by scientists

Most of us experience bitterness as a simple taste -...

Most people know sauerkraut as a tart, crunchy topping for bratwurst or hot dogs. But this humble fermented cabbage could be doing much more than adding flavor. 



New research from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, shows that sauerkraut may help protect and strengthen your intestinal barrier. 



The study focuses on the way fermentation transforms cabbage - and how those changes may improve gut health.



Fermented foods are not new. Humans have been fermenting vegetables for thousands of years. In many cultures, cabbage is transformed into regionally loved dishes: sauerkraut in Europe, suan cai in China, and curtido in Latin America. 



But while these foods have long been praised for taste and preservation, modern science is now catching up. Researchers are investigating what’s happening on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular level</a> when we consume these fermented foods, and why they could be so beneficial for the human body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fermentation-transforms-more-than-flavor">Fermentation transforms more than flavor</h2>



In the new study, Professor Maria Marco and postdoctoral researcher Lei Wei examined how sauerkraut differs from raw cabbage in its chemical makeup. They wanted to see whether the transformation brought about during fermentation had any measurable effect on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-may-be-the-key-to-anxiety-relief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut health</a>. 



To do this, they analyzed hundreds of metabolites - small molecules formed through the breakdown of food and by microbial action.



The researchers compared raw cabbage, homemade sauerkraut, and commercial, store-bought sauerkraut. They also tested the leftover brine to see whether it carried any beneficial effects on its own.



Using Caco-2 cells, a well-established model of human intestinal epithelium, they exposed the cells to inflammatory cytokines to simulate gut stress.



They found that fermented cabbage helped protect the intestinal barrier, preventing the kind of damage typically caused by inflammation. Raw cabbage and the fermentation brine did not provide the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/targeting-the-gut-might-be-key-in-preventing-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefit</a>.



“It doesn't matter, in a way, if we make sauerkraut at home or we buy it from the store; both kinds of sauerkraut seemed to protect gut function,” Marco said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-gut-barrier-matters">Why the gut barrier matters</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut</a> lining is more than just a digestive surface. It forms a tight barrier that keeps harmful pathogens out while letting nutrients in. 



When this barrier breaks down, it can lead to inflammation, infection, and chronic conditions like irritable bowel syndrome. Inflammation also plays a key role in the progression of metabolic diseases.



The study showed that sauerkraut maintains trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TER), a measurement that reflects how well the gut barrier holds together. 



It also reduced paracellular permeability, meaning fewer unwanted substances passed through the gut wall. These effects were observed for both lab-fermented and store-bought samples.



“Some of the metabolites we find in the sauerkraut are the same kind of metabolites we're finding to be made by the gut <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-detects-changes-in-gut-health-to-help-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a>, so that gives us a little more confidence that this connection we found between the metabolites in sauerkraut and good gut health makes sense,” Marco said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauerkraut-has-unique-helpful-molecules">Sauerkraut has unique helpful molecules</h2>



What’s going on inside sauerkraut that gives it these powers? The UC Davis team analyzed over 500 metabolites using two high-resolution techniques: gas chromatography and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. 



Compared to raw cabbage, fermented versions had increased levels of beneficial compounds like D-phenyl-lactate (D-PLA), indole-3-lactate (ILA), and lactic acid.



These are not random byproducts. These metabolites are also made by beneficial gut microbes and are known to support the immune system and strengthen the gut lining. Some even help with antioxidant activity and metabolic regulation.



In particular, ferments that included the probiotic strain Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LP8826R produced a metabolite profile closer to commercial sauerkraut. These samples had more sugar alcohols like sorbitol and mannitol, and higher acidity, which helps prevent spoilage and supports beneficial bacteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whole-sauerkraut-works-better">Whole sauerkraut works better</h2>



The researchers didn’t stop at identifying these compounds. They isolated D-PLA, ILA, and lactate to test their effect on gut cells. While these molecules reduced permeability, they didn’t fully protect the gut barrier on their own. 



In contrast, the whole sauerkraut preparation worked much better, suggesting that the full spectrum of fermentation byproducts works together to support gut health.



This synergy reinforces the idea that whole fermented foods often outperform isolated compounds. The food matrix and microbial complexity likely play important roles that can’t be captured by a single supplement.



“A little bit of sauerkraut could go a long way,” Marco said. “We should be thinking about including these fermented foods in our regular diets and not just as a side on our hot dogs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauerkraut-and-gut-inflammation">Sauerkraut and gut inflammation</h2>



Interestingly, the team also measured levels of IL-8, a key marker of inflammation. Sauerkraut didn’t reduce IL-8 in every sample, especially not in the lab-fermented versions. 



However, the intestinal barrier still stayed intact. This suggests that fermented cabbage may act through a different pathway than previously assumed. It might not block inflammatory signals, but instead may prevent those signals from damaging the gut.



The study also looked at gene expression tied to gut integrity. Only the lab ferments with added L. plantarum restored normal levels of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), a gene involved in regulating tight junctions between intestinal cells.



“Along with eating more fiber and fresh fruits and vegetables, even if we have just a regular serving of sauerkraut, maybe putting these things more into our diet, we'll find that can help us in the long run against inflammation, for example, and make our digestive tract more resilient when we have a disturbance,” Marco said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fermentation-gives-cabbage-protective-powers">Fermentation gives cabbage protective powers</h2>



With rising interest in gut health, fermented foods are becoming more popular. But not all ferments are created equal, and most benefits are anecdotal. This study provides a clearer picture. It shows how cabbage fermentation creates a consistent core of protective metabolites.



Commercial sauerkraut also had higher levels of putrescine and tyramine - compounds that increase during storage. Though these didn’t appear harmful, their presence highlights how storage conditions may influence health effects. 



The probiotic-added lab ferments mimicked commercial samples more closely, suggesting that starter cultures might offer ways to tailor health benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-from-cells-to-humans">Next steps: From cells to humans</h2>



This study was done using cell models, not people. Human trials will be the real test. Future research should look at how long fermented cabbage metabolites stay active in the body and what quantity is beneficial. 



It will also be important to see how sauerkraut interacts with the diverse microbial communities in actual human guts.



Still, the results are promising. Fermented cabbage consistently protected intestinal cells from damage. Its effect was not tied to one specific brand, strain, or fermentation setup. This points to a resilient and adaptable health benefit - one that might fit easily into many diets around the world.



Whether you ferment your own cabbage or pick it up at the store, that tangy forkful might be doing your gut a favor. And that makes sauerkraut more than just a topping - it makes it a potential ally in maintaining everyday health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/epub/10.1128/aem.02234-24" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied and Environmental Microbiology</a>.



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Potential new superfood proves incredibly beneficial for gut health

Most people know sauerkraut as a tart, crunchy topping for...

Rice has long been a symbol of nourishment and security. Across vast stretches of Asia, it serves not just as a meal but as a cultural constant - present in everyday dishes and sacred celebrations alike. Now, climate pressure threatens that deep-rooted connection.



But a new study led by researchers at Columbia University’s <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mailman School of Public Health</a>, in collaboration with teams from China and the United States, reveals a brewing crisis. 



As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> warms and carbon dioxide levels climb, a quiet transformation is taking place deep in paddy soils. This change could soon place millions at risk - not from scarcity, but from toxicity.



The findings, published in The Lancet Planetary Health, detail how a hotter, CO₂-rich atmosphere is likely to increase levels of inorganic arsenic in rice. This toxic compound is linked to a wide array of serious health problems, including cancers, cardiovascular disease, and developmental disorders. 



With rice being a staple food for over half the world’s population, the implications are far-reaching and deeply concerning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-factors-and-arsenic-accumulation">Climate factors and arsenic accumulation </h2>



Until recently, studies examining arsenic accumulation in rice focused on isolated climate factors. Researchers had explored how elevated temperatures or increased CO₂ levels might influence arsenic uptake, but never both at once in a natural setting. 



This new study is the first to simulate real-world growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> over multiple years and varieties using Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment (FACE) platforms.



Over a ten-year span, researchers observed 28 genetically diverse rice cultivars across four field sites in the Yangtze River Delta, a region emblematic of Asian rice agriculture. 



The FACE system introduced CO₂ levels 200 ppm above ambient conditions and used infrared heating to simulate a 2°C rise in temperature. The results were clear: temperature and CO₂ together had a synergistic effect, raising inorganic arsenic levels in rice grains more than either factor alone.



“Our results suggest that this increase in arsenic levels could significantly elevate the incidence of heart disease, diabetes, and other non-cancer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health effects</a>,” said Dr. Lewis Ziska, associate professor of Environmental Health Sciences at the Columbia Mailman School.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-increases-arsenic-uptake">Climate change increases arsenic uptake</h2>



What makes these findings especially alarming is the mechanism behind them. The study uncovered that elevated temperature and CO₂ don't just influence rice physiology - they reshape the microbial and chemical makeup of paddy soils.



Increased temperatures lowered redox potential in the soil, creating more anaerobic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-constantly-reshuffling-earths-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. These conditions favor the release of arsenic into the water where rice roots grow. 



Additionally, key soil microbial genes responsible for transforming arsenic into its more toxic forms became more abundant. One gene in particular, arsC, saw a sixfold increase in presence during the grain-filling stage when both temperature and CO₂ were elevated.



Dr. Ziska explained that the higher arsenic levels are likely due to climate-related changes in soil chemistry that favor arsenic that can more easily be absorbed into rice grain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-risks-of-arsenic-exposure">Health risks of arsenic exposure </h2>



The study didn’t stop at biochemistry. Using the latest population and consumption data, researchers modeled health risks for seven Asian countries: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Vietnam. 



These countries were selected because of their high rice consumption and the prevalence of irrigated paddy systems, where arsenic mobility is highest.



Their projections for the year 2050 are alarming. Under the combined CO₂+Temp scenario, mean inorganic arsenic exposure through rice was highest in Vietnam and Indonesia. 



Lifetime cancer risks, particularly for lung and bladder cancer, saw a 44% rise compared to ambient conditions. China alone may face 19.3 million excess cancer cases related to arsenic exposure through rice.



“Ingesting rice in regions like southern China and Southeast and South Asia is already a significant source of dietary arsenic and cancer risk,” said Dr. Ziska.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diseases-linked-to-arsenic-in-rice">Diseases linked to arsenic in rice </h2>



From a public health perspective, arsenic is not just a cancer risk. Long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic has been linked to diabetes, ischemic heart disease, adverse pregnancy outcomes, neurodevelopmental delays, and immune dysfunction.



In every country assessed, non-cancer risks also rose sharply under the CO₂+Temp scenario. Hazard quotients for health issues like heart disease and diabetes reached worrying levels. 



In Vietnam, for instance, the hazard quotient for these conditions reached 12 - far above the safety threshold of 1. The pattern was similar for fetal and infant health effects and cognitive development concerns.



“From a health perspective, the toxicological effects of chronic iAs exposure are well established; and include cancers of the lung, bladder, and skin, as well as ischemic heart disease,” said Dr. Ziska.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-patterns-and-rice-arsenic-levels">Climate patterns and rice arsenic levels</h2>



While the FACE experiments simulated future climate conditions, natural seasonal variations from 2014 to 2023 added another layer of evidence. 



Arsenic levels in rice tracked closely with temperature changes across those years, even under current CO₂ levels. This real-world correlation supports the experimental data and suggests that climate-induced arsenic risks may already be escalating.



Furthermore, the presence of organic arsenic compounds like dimethylarsenic acid (DMA) also increased under warmer, CO₂-enriched conditions. Although these compounds were not found in highly toxic forms like DMMTA in this study, their rise raises concerns for future rice safety and yield.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-global-action-needed">Urgent global action needed</h2>



“Based on our findings, we believe there are several actions that could help reduce arsenic exposure in the future,” noted Dr. Ziska.



He and his co-authors recommend urgent attention to agricultural adaptation. That includes breeding rice strains that naturally accumulate less arsenic, managing irrigation to reduce soil anaerobic conditions, and improving milling processes to lower arsenic content in edible rice.



Policy gaps remain a critical issue. Most countries lack enforceable standards for arsenic in rice. For example, under the simulated climate scenarios, over half the rice samples exceeded China's proposed 200 ppb safety threshold for inorganic arsenic. 



Meanwhile, many nations either lack such standards entirely or rely on voluntary guidelines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rice-safety-in-a-changing-world">Rice safety in a changing world</h2>



“Our study underscores the urgent need for action to reduce arsenic exposure in rice, especially as climate change continues to affect global food security,” said Dr. Ziska.



Rice is too important to ignore. It sustains billions and shapes cultures. But as this study reveals, it can also quietly carry a growing threat when climate stress meets overlooked soil dynamics. 



The good news? The problem is not irreversible. With the right investment in science, policy, and farming practices, we can protect rice as a safe and trusted food for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(25)00055-5/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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Climate change is quietly making rice more toxic

Rice has long been a symbol of nourishment and security....

Trees in tropical forests, which thrive in some of the most biologically rich ecosystems on Earth, are known for their staggering diversity. But a new study shows that the chemical diversity hidden within those trees may be just as impressive - and just as important.



Trees don’t just differ in size, shape, or leaf color. Each one brings its own chemical strategy to the forest floor, using unique compounds to fend off pests and diseases. Researchers from <a href="https://washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> and the Missouri Botanical Garden set out to learn more about this chemical variation. 



The findings shed light on the ecological forces that make tropical forests so rich in diversity. Furthermore, the research offers a reminder that these forests aren’t just beautiful - they may also hold the key to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-extinction-threatens-the-future-of-medicine-and-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future medicines</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-trees-reveal-through-their-leaves">What trees reveal through their leaves</h2>



The research team analyzed leaves from 470 tree species, gathered as part of the Madidi Project - a large-scale survey in Bolivia’s Andes Mountains.



By focusing on trees from both low and high elevations, the team was able to compare how chemical compounds shift across climates. Using mass spectrometry, the experts identified over 20,000 unique chemical compounds in the leaf samples.



“It’s an amazing level of chemical diversity,” said Jonathan Myers, a professor of biology at Washington University.



Many of these compounds help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants survive in harsh conditions</a> - especially in the warm, humid, and insect-rich tropics.



Over one-third of the compounds were terpenoids, chemicals that plants use to ward off threats like insects and pathogens. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruits-and-plants-are-powerful-allies-for-disease-prevention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Terpenoids</a> are already known for their medicinal uses. Some can fight cancer, reduce inflammation, and kill harmful bacteria and viruses.



Another quarter of the compounds were alkaloids, a class of chemicals found in many well-known medicines, including painkillers and antimalarial drugs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversity-as-a-defense-strategy">Diversity as a defense strategy</h2>



As the researchers moved up in elevation, the diversity of both tree species and their chemical compounds decreased. In plots at 4,000 feet, they found nearly 140 species of trees per hectare. At 11,000 feet, there were fewer than 20 species.



This shift also impacted chemical diversity. Trees at higher elevations, even from different species, tended to rely on similar types of chemical compound defenses. But in the highly competitive lowland forests, chemical originality was the norm.



“If a tree has the same chemistry as a neighbor, it could be vulnerable to the same herbivores and pathogens," said Myers.



In contrast, if each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-forests-with-diverse-tree-species-increases-likelihood-of-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a> uses different compounds for protection, it becomes harder for insects and diseases to adapt to all of them at once.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-global-tree-chemical-library">Building a global tree chemical library</h2>



The findings support efforts to study and protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-have-strategies-to-survive-in-nutrient-poor-soils/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical forests</a> - not only for their biological value but also for their chemical potential.



The team contributed their data to a growing global database of tree and plant compounds. “With such a database, researchers could look for unique chemicals that could have real value for society,” said Myers.



The study also raises larger questions about how plant chemistry varies across regions. Myers is involved in a separate National Science Foundation project comparing tree communities from the Amazon, Canada, and the forests near Tyson Research Center in Missouri.



While the local forests can’t match tropical diversity, they are still richer in species and chemicals than the conifer-heavy forests of the north.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-patterns-of-plant-diversity">Global patterns of plant diversity </h2>



What drives this pattern of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>? Climate might be a major factor. Warmer, wetter, and more stable environments allow more plant species to thrive - each with its own set of defenses. 



This chemical arms race may help explain why tropical regions are rich in both species and compounds. According to Professor Myers, it could be another clue to understanding global patterns of plant diversity.



The take-home message is clear: Every tree in the forest is not only a life form but also a tiny chemistry lab. And the more species we protect, the more likely we are to preserve the invisible tools they use to survive - tools that could someday help us too.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70069" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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How a tree's chemical defense could spark future medical breakthroughs

Trees in tropical forests, which thrive in some of the...

As climate patterns shift and seasons grow less predictable, trees must adapt in ways science is only beginning to understand. Beneath their bark and branches lies a powerful, invisible system: a circadian clock. 



Much like the one that governs human sleep cycles, the tree's biological clock regulates daily and seasonal activities. It tells the tree when to grow, when to bud, and when to conserve energy. 



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå University</a> have unlocked more of this inner world. Their recent study shows how genetic changes to this clock can help trees better align with the rhythm of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-use-an-inner-clock-to-grow-nbsp">Trees use an inner clock to grow&nbsp;</h2>



Most earlier studies explored plant circadian rhythms under greenhouse conditions. While useful, these environments don’t capture nature’s chaos - temperature swings, shifting daylight, rainfall variation, and insect threats. 



In the wild, trees must handle all these factors while maintaining their growth and seasonal behaviors.



To tackle this, researchers at the Umeå Plant Science Centre studied 68 genetically modified Populus trees under both controlled and natural conditions. Over several years, they examined how alterations to specific clock-related genes influenced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-and-steady-tree-growth-wins-the-race-for-carbon-capture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth</a>, leaf senescence, and bud activity.



The team's approach combined advanced statistical modeling with experimental plant biology. Each modified tree had a distinct genetic profile targeting clock components like TOC1, LHY, GI, or EBI1.



The goal was to pinpoint how internal timing shapes external performance. The field experiments added crucial context, allowing the team to track the effects of gene modification under real-world seasonal cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circadian-clock-controls-tree-growth">Circadian clock controls tree growth</h2>



“Our study is the first to combine datasets from greenhouse and field studies to show that multiple aspects of the circadian clock system influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-trees-absorb-much-more-carbon-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> growth and the timing of life-cycle events,” said Bertold Mariën, lead author of the study.



In both greenhouse chambers and open fields, some trees with altered clock genes grew significantly taller or faster. Others delayed leaf senescence or bud set, effectively prolonging the growth period. 



These effects were most pronounced in northern Sweden, where short summers restrict tree development. The researchers observed that the clock doesn’t just set a tree’s internal rhythm - it fine-tunes how trees respond to day-length and environmental signals.



For instance, the lhy-10 and toc1-5 variants displayed faster growth in outdoor conditions, suggesting that their altered clocks helped trees maximize growth within shorter seasons. 



These core clock genes are part of a feedback loop that coordinates when cells divide, when leaves expand, and when energy is stored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-genes-helps-trees-grow-stronger">Changing genes helps trees grow stronger</h2>



“This study is a proof-of-concept that trees conditioned to a particular length of day at a certain latitude can be adapted to a new latitude, effectively extending their growing season," explained study co-author Maria E. Eriksson. 



"This is especially useful at higher latitudes like in Northern Sweden where short growing seasons limit timber production."



Among the most promising findings was the role of EBI1, a gene previously associated with stress resistance in Arabidopsis. Trees with modified EBI1 generally showed faster growth and higher chlorophyll content index (CCI), a sign of delayed leaf aging. 



These trees didn't just grow more - they remained greener for longer. That extended greening can boost photosynthesis and carbon storage.



The study also highlighted how different promoters affected growth. AtGA20ox1 trees, which overproduce gibberellins, grew quickly and developed more biomass. 



Interestingly, some trees increased growth even with a shorter growth period, showing that timing can be more important than duration. The type of genetic promoter used, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-trees-might-be-misleading-us-about-climate-change-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree’s</a> background genotype, both influenced the outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clockwork-in-leaves-and-roots">Clockwork in leaves and roots</h2>



The research also supported a shift in how we think about tree development. Traditional views focused heavily on carbon source limitation, assuming trees grow more when photosynthesis is high. 



But this study adds weight to an alternative model: growth is also limited by when internal conditions - like water pressure and hormone levels - meet the right thresholds.



The circadian clock seems to act as a gatekeeper, opening and closing growth windows in sync with environmental conditions. For example, the team found that cell division and DNA replication were gated to nighttime, when the risk of DNA damage is lower, and air humidity supports turgor pressure in cells.



Even root clocks may follow different rhythms than leaf clocks, leading to asynchronous growth. Such tissue-specific timing mechanisms further complicate models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> behavior but also offer new opportunities to improve forestry by targeting these internal dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-tree-clocks-for-better-forests">Using tree clocks for better forests</h2>



"In the future, forestry management could be improved by integrating trees’ circadian clocks and their natural growth cycles with traditional practices,” said Eriksson. "In this way, tree growth and resilience could be optimized in a changing world.”



Integrating the clock into forestry could enable smarter planting schedules, more efficient use of resources, and the development of trees suited to rapidly warming regions. But there’s more. These findings may reshape how global vegetation models are built.



“By properly incorporating our findings on the circadian clock into global vegetation models, we can improve predictions of how forests will respond to climate change,” said Mariën.



That’s because many existing models treat trees as passive responders to light and temperature. They don’t account for how internal clocks modulate those responses. Adding this layer of complexity could significantly improve how we predict carbon uptake and forest health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-timing-and-forest-management">Tree timing and forest management</h2>



This work is more than a scientific milestone - it’s a step toward a new kind of forestry. The researchers call it chronosilviculture: aligning forest management with biological timekeeping. 



Instead of forcing trees into rigid planting cycles, foresters could one day select species or cultivars with clock traits tailored to specific climates or latitudes.



By revealing how the circadian clock acts as nature’s master of ceremony, the Umeå team has given foresters and ecologists a powerful new tool. With climate change pushing ecosystems to their limits, understanding how trees grow with their natural rhythm may be the smartest way forward.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44323-025-00034-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Biological Timing and Sleep</a>.



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Timing is everything: How trees use an inner clock for smarter growth

As climate patterns shift and seasons grow less predictable, trees...

In many cultures, herbal remedies are treated as a trusted source of healing and wellness. People often assume that it must be safe if something grows in nature.



Recent <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/17/5/875" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> points to a more complicated picture. Concerns have risen over the potentially harmful effects of long-term folk herb consumption.



Dr. Noura Abou Zeinab, an assistant professor at <a href="http://www.bau.edu.lb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beirut Arab University</a>, has led an investigation into some of these concerns. She explored how certain frequently consumed plants might impact liver and kidney health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbs-under-suspicion">Herbs under suspicion</h2>



"Historically, medications have been primarily sourced from plants. Due to their high therapeutic potential and ability to improve well-being, which has improved quality of life since ancient times, herbal drugs are widely accepted by the general population," noted the researchers.



Various communities in the Middle East have long relied on homegrown solutions for digestive complaints and overall vitality. Some of these plants are now under the microscope because they may carry unknown risks.



According to the study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-often-contain-hidden-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbs</a> that are known among locals are rarely tested for prolonged use. Investigators discovered that certain extracts could affect internal organs in unexpected ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-use-of-herbal-remedies">Long-term use of herbal remedies</h2>



The researchers conducted experiments on adult male rats. Tissue studies and <a href="https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/ncds/ncd-surveillance/steps/part3-section6.pdf?sfvrsn=73a06c16_2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biochemical measurements</a> offered fresh insights into how these plant extracts might alter body function.



“Our findings highlight a real need for caution when using these plants for extended periods. Although these herbs have a long history of traditional use, their potential adverse effects should not be overlooked,” said Dr. Noura Abou Zeinab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspectives-on-health"><a></a>New perspectives on health</h2>



Many people turn to <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/traditional-complementary-and-integrative-medicine#tab=tab_1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traditional medicine</a> to avoid <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/synthetic-drugs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synthetic drugs</a>. They might assume that a leaf or root with a long lineage of human use is free of undesirable effects.



However, experts caution that some herbal remedies contain potent chemicals that burden the liver and kidneys. Regulators continue to stress the importance of quality control to avoid contaminated or adulterated products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experts-are-cautious">Experts are cautious</h2>



Studies on herbal toxicity remain relatively scarce in comparison to pharmaceutical research. That gap in data means individuals might be tempted to assume safety without scientific proof.



Investigators in different parts of the world have raised questions about the daily consumption of certain teas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chia-seeds-have-great-potential-to-improve-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seeds</a>, or extracts. There is also concern that people may self-prescribe herbs at higher doses than recommended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflict-between-herbs-and-modern-drugs">Conflict between herbs and modern drugs</h2>



Pharmacists and healthcare practitioners often advise people to inform their doctors about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-are-not-always-safe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbal supplements</a> that they regularly consume. Even mild interactions could pose problems, especially for those on prescription medications.



Assessing the potential synergy or conflict between herbs and modern drugs is an ongoing challenge. Experts emphasize that patients should report all substances to their doctor, whether natural or synthetic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-balance-with-herbal-remedies">Finding balance with herbal remedies</h2>



Some individuals argue that centuries of usage point to inherent safety. Others believe that scientific validation is necessary for each claim, no matter how time-honored.



This study encourages a cautious stance toward daily reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-plant-extracts-can-block-covid-19-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant extracts</a>. When it comes to health choices, knowledge can reduce unfortunate outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-paths-forward"><a></a>Potential paths forward</h2>



Future trials may explore whether moderate dosages or different preparations of these herbs could lessen any strain on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-causes-liver-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liver</a> and kidneys. A better grasp of chemical composition might also pave the way for safer herbal solutions.



Public outreach campaigns could inform consumers about the possible downsides of unsupervised herbal remedies. This might involve educational programs that outline risks and emphasize expert guidance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fine-print-on-herbal-products">The fine print on herbal products</h2>



Labels on herbs often lack comprehensive warnings. More detailed descriptions would help users make better choices before trying something new.



Companies that process or market these items might consider investing in toxicity research. A product with thorough safety data will gain trust more easily than one without it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tradition-and-science">Tradition and science</h2>



Every generation refines its approach to well-being. By blending traditional knowledge with scientific scrutiny, society can benefit from the best of both worlds.



Decisions about herbal remedies should always involve careful thought and consultation. These concerns highlight why further research remains vital.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/17/5/875" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrients</a>.



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Herbal remedies are raising new concerns

In many cultures, herbal remedies are treated as a trusted...

Metabolic syndrome affects many people who struggle with obesity, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol. This health issue may increase the likelihood of other serious conditions, including heart disease or stroke.



In a recent study, researchers investigated whether plant extracts can help address metabolic syndrome.



Hammad Ullah, an expert in the Department of Pharmacy at the <a href="https://www.unina.it/home;jsessionid=D2791051CD70D173B32795B5F05F0D73.node_publisher12" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Napoli Federico II</a>, is the study's lead author. He and his colleagues explored scientific evidence on botanical compounds and their potential effects on factors linked to metabolic syndrome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-metabolic-syndrome">Looking at metabolic syndrome</h2>



Many people are not familiar with what metabolic syndrome really involves. It typically includes several issues like high blood pressure, large waist size, and elevated glucose.



“Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes,” stated a representative from the <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/metabolic-syndrome/about-metabolic-syndrome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Heart Association (AHA)</a>. This combination worries physicians because it may lead to further complications if left unmanaged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-plant-extracts-boost-metabolic-health">Can plant extracts boost metabolic health?</h2>



Certain herbs or fruit-derived compounds appear to influence blood sugar or inflammatory processes. Researchers have looked into phytochemicals, which are compounds produced by plants, for their effects on metabolic health.



Those same compounds might help the body respond better to insulin or maintain balanced lipid levels. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cinnamon-boost-metabolism-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cinnamon</a>, for instance, has been studied for its possible role in lowering blood glucose in those with type 2 diabetes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-safety-matters-in-plant-extracts">Why safety matters in plant extracts</h2>



Plant-based solutions sometimes contain chemicals that can interact with conventional medicines. Not everything labeled as herbal is automatically safe.



The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) acknowledges that some herbal and dietary <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/using-dietary-supplements-wisely" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supplements</a> may offer health benefits but warns that scientific evidence varies considerably.



This advice encourages people to check reliable sources or trained professionals before considering certain supplements and plant extracts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-technology-and-extraction-methods">New technology and extraction methods</h2>



Improved laboratory approaches now allow scientists to isolate purified parts of plants. One primary goal is to enhance absorption, which could make these plant extracts more effective.



Modern processes rely on fine-tuned conditions to maintain stability. This precision might open new options for those who need consistent results from plant-derived supplements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-science-and-tradition">Balancing science and tradition</h2>



Some cultures have used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/4000-year-old-skulls-reveal-ancient-egyptian-attempts-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbal remedies</a> for many generations. In those communities, people sometimes rely on local resources to manage health concerns.



Today, clinical trials add a scientific lens. By testing formulas in controlled settings, researchers can see whether specific extracts or doses truly benefit groups of people dealing with metabolic syndrome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-for-better-metabolic-health">Steps for better metabolic health</h2>



Weight control, balanced nutrition, and regular activity can work together to support metabolic health. Plant extracts may act as an extra tool.



Studies have suggested that fenugreek seeds, for instance, might help with glucose regulation and cholesterol levels. Still, experts recommend combining sensible lifestyle measures with any nutritional approach.



The hope behind these botanical investigations is to identify ways to address key elements of metabolic syndrome. Early interventions often yield better long-term outcomes.



Some individuals might experience benefits if they incorporate these compounds under professional guidance. Over time, more data can clarify how best to use these extracts responsibly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-extracts-need-further-testing">Plant extracts need further testing</h2>



Global teams continue to evaluate these nutritional possibilities. Publishers, universities, and medical institutes come together to share findings.



Credible research organizations offer a platform for vetting proposals and confirming any positive outcomes. Transparency and repeat experiments serve as vital checkpoints for quality.



Many of these botanical products await further testing. Researchers remain interested in how specific plant-based chemicals work in diverse populations.



Better insights may come from large-scale projects that follow volunteers over months or years. Such efforts might reveal who benefits most and what side effects may occur.



Some experts urge caution, especially when it comes to unproven claims around plant extracts. Trustworthy sources back up their statements with verifiable data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle-strategies-still-count">Lifestyle strategies still count</h2>



Consumers can safeguard their health by asking for credentials and checking peer-reviewed studies. A balanced approach avoids oversimplified promises that lack real support.



Patients with metabolic syndrome should also focus on improving their health through physical activity, stress management, and a nutrient-rich plan. Healthcare teams generally agree that daily habits shape long-term progress.



While a supplement might help, it usually does not replace medical advice or medications. Everything works best in harmony with proper care and monitoring.



Communities worldwide face growing numbers of individuals dealing with metabolic risk factors. Researchers are investigating cost-effective, accessible strategies for the future.



Plant extracts fit into a bigger plan for promoting healthy living. They do not stand alone but may support existing practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-p-lant-extracts-and-metabolic-syndrome">Plant extracts and metabolic syndrome</h2>



Examining how plant extracts can complement treatment for metabolic syndrome is an ongoing conversation. Simple adjustments may bring hope to some readers who wish to explore natural alternatives.



Experts continue to refine formulas and safety guidelines. This ensures that any recommendations come from real evidence rather than guesswork.



Two essential questions remain: how well do these plant-based options work over time, and which populations are likely to benefit most? Scientists continue to seek answers.



Such efforts aim to offer clarity in a medical world that sometimes overlooks gentle interventions. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/17/5/877">Nutrients</a>.

Plant extracts may help treat metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome affects many people who struggle with obesity, high...

Shot,Of,Group,Of,Friends,Laughing,While,Eating,Healthy,Food

Avocados are having a moment, especially in the U.S. These luscious, green fruits appear in sandwiches, salads, and various social media feeds. 



Part of their appeal comes from their smooth flavor, which blends well with other ingredients. Another part comes from their nutrient-packed profile, which seems to support a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eight-healthy-lifestyle-habits-could-extend-your-life-by-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy lifestyle</a>.



Their popularity has led researchers to look deeper into what happens when these fruits are made a daily habit. 



After investigating different dietary approaches, a notable study gained attention for its focus on the potential of one avocado per day to enhance overall diet quality and encourage healthier eating patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-avocados-the-study">Eating avocados - the study</h2>



Associate Professor Kristina Petersen and retired Professor Penny Kris-Etherton from Penn State University’s <a href="https://hhd.psu.edu/nutrition" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Nutritional Sciences</a> led an effort that put a spotlight on how a single daily avocado could affect everyday food choices. 



Their work provides a window into how simple additions to meals might improve nutritional habits without major overhauls to what people eat.



Their publication in the journal Current Developments in Nutrition examined how a straightforward intervention could lead to better adherence to dietary guidelines. 



It comes at a time when many are looking for ways to improve their health through small but meaningful changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-guidelines">Following the guidelines</h2>



A total of 1,008 adults participated in the investigation. Researchers gathered details about what everyone ate through telephone interviews that involved 24-hour dietary intake data. 



The team tracked how closely each individual stuck to the <a href="https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dietary Guidelines for Americans</a> by using the Healthy Eating Index as a yardstick.



Participants were split into two groups over 26 weeks. One group continued with their existing patterns but limited avocados, while the other added one avocado daily. 



Since only about 2% of American adults <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fruit-can-protect-you-from-late-life-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eat this fruit regularly</a>, the project offered new information on how avocados might fit into many different diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-they-learned-about-eating-avocados">What they learned about eating avocados</h2>



Those who enjoyed a daily avocado experienced a meaningful shift in their diet. 



“Avocados are a powerhouse of nutrition, and our objective was to ascertain if their regular consumption could boost diet quality,” explained Petersen. 



Investigators noticed that this single change had an influence on how individuals approached meals, with greater emphasis on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-foods-with-these-key-nutrients-will-dramatically-slow-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient-rich items</a> overall.



“This improvement suggests that simple strategies like daily avocado consumption can significantly enhance diet quality,” said Petersen. 



Researchers also uncovered one more result that caught their attention. 



“The substitution effect we observed is particularly noteworthy, as it demonstrates avocados’ potential in replacing higher-calorie, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaking-free-from-ultra-processed-foods-the-surprising-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">less nutritious foods</a>,” Petersen added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“By fostering better compliance with dietary guidelines, we can substantially lower the risk of chronic conditions and improve overall health outcomes,” said Petersen. 



The findings point to avocados as a practical avenue for people interested in following established nutrition recommendations. 



By emphasizing basic, tasty items, this fruit may spark positive steps toward heart health, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/type-2-diabetes-heightens-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">type 2 diabetes</a> management, and more.



Avocados contain fiber and beneficial fats, which contribute to a satisfying feeling after a meal. That quality might support strategies that keep a person on track when planning or cooking dinner. 



Each time they are used in place of sodium-heavy or refined-grain foods, the odds of maintaining a balanced diet appear to increase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-avocados-a-short-history">Eating avocados - a short history</h2>



Avocados, known by the scientific name <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocado" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Persea americana</a>, have a long history traced to Mexico and Central America. Indigenous peoples domesticated this fruit well over 10,000 years ago. 



When Spanish explorers arrived in the 16th century, they introduced avocados to Europe, setting the stage for their eventual spread around the world.



The name “avocado” comes from the Nahuatl word “ahuacatl.” The shape of the fruit may have inspired that original term. 



Regardless of the origin, the popularity of this versatile item continues to climb, with new dishes popping up in cafes and restaurants everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutritional-details">Nutritional details</h2>



Avocados are recognized for their monounsaturated fats, which may help reduce bad cholesterol levels. 



This can be good news for heart health, especially when combined with a balanced approach to other foods. They also contain an impressive amount of potassium, which supports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/relaxation-techniques-can-lower-high-blood-pressure-at-least-temporarily/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood pressure regulation</a>.



Many people notice how avocados fit into a weight-management plan. They are known to help individuals feel satisfied, so there is less temptation to grab a snack soon after a meal. 



The presence of fiber helps maintain a steady flow through the digestive system, possibly providing an extra advantage for everyday wellness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainability-considerations">Sustainability considerations</h2>



Some regions face pressure to keep up with the rising demand for this fruit. Farms require a fair amount of water, and shipping them long distances can raise concerns about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biotic-homogenization-human-impacts-diminish-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological footprints</a>. 



Making choices that align with sustainable sources is one way to reduce any negative impact.



Producers have started exploring new farming methods to preserve soil and use resources more efficiently. 



Awareness of these efforts can be beneficial for those who want to enjoy avocados while showing respect for the environment at the same time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-ve-learned-about-eating-avocados">What we've learned about eating avocados</h2>



The Penn State findings shine a spotlight on how a modest change might be enough to elevate meal quality. 



Even though these results are encouraging, continued exploration may uncover additional food-based strategies that fit different lifestyles or dietary needs.



Small steps hold promise for those seeking to improve their daily habits. A simple addition in the kitchen can open the door to better eating patterns.



Avocados have stood out as a delicious candidate that suits many palates, which makes it easier to stick with a plan over the long haul.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2475299124000052" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Developments in Nutrition</a>.



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Eating this fruit every day can add years to your life

Avocados are having a moment, especially in the U.S. These...

A team of scientists has recently identified a widely available, naturally occurring plant compound that appears to safeguard nerve cells from deterioration, potentially offering a breakthrough in the treatment of ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and dementia. 



Many fruits and vegetables, including kale, endives, and berries, naturally contain the compound kaempferol, which is an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-proven-to-be-a-nutritional-treasure-packed-with-antioxidants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antioxidant</a>.



Despite its common presence in our diet, new findings reveal that the compound kaempferol’s benefits for nerve cell health may far exceed what we previously understood.



“It’s exciting to discover a naturally occurring compound that may help people suffering from ALS or dementia,” said Smita Saxena, a professor of physical medicine and rehabilitation at the <a href="https://medicine.missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri School of Medicine</a> and the lead investigator on this study. 



“We found this compound had a strong impact in terms of maintaining motor and muscle function and reducing muscle atrophy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-plant-compound">A unique plant compound </h2>



Kaempferol is a flavonoid, a class of molecules prized for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this research, scientists honed in on how kaempferol might help nerve cells deal with two major sources of stress.&nbsp;



First, neurons depend on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/damaged-mitochondria-recycled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondria</a> to produce the energy they need to function. If these mitochondria falter, neurons become less able to maintain the electrical signals and chemical communications essential to muscle control.&nbsp;



Second, neurons rely on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to assemble and process proteins correctly. In many neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS, the ER is under tremendous strain, leading to protein misfolding and cell damage.



In nerve cells sampled from ALS patients, the plant compound significantly boosted the cells’ energy production and reduced ER stress.



The experts argued that this is one of the first compounds scientists have identified to directly act on both mitochondria and the ER at once. That double-targeting mechanism could be a potent means of slowing or preventing neuronal loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compound-has-potential-to-fight-als">Compound has potential to fight ALS</h2>



ALS is a progressive condition that disrupts muscle control, often beginning with twitching or weakness and ending in complete paralysis. Current treatments for ALS are limited and generally only slow progression marginally.&nbsp;



As a result, the demand for new therapeutic options is high. Kaempferol’s ability to bolster two of the cell’s most vulnerable processes - energy generation and protein management - makes it stand out as a promising candidate.



Lab tests showed that kaempferol not only delayed the deterioration of nerve cells but also retained motor function in experimental models.&nbsp;



According to Saxena, the compound is particularly interesting because it seems effective even after symptoms of ALS begin manifesting.



Many potential therapies lose their efficacy once a disease’s clinical signs emerge, so a compound that works in symptomatic patients could represent a major step forward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obstacles-to-overcome">Obstacles to overcome</h2>



Despite these promising findings, there are two major challenges to transforming kaempferol into a widely used treatment.&nbsp;



The first issue is that the human body absorbs it poorly. While foods such as kale or berries do contain kaempferol, you would need to eat staggering amounts - at least 10 to 11 pounds of kale in a single day - to reach the dosage levels shown to be beneficial in laboratory conditions.



This poor absorption means only a small fraction of dietary kaempferol reaches nerve cells.



Second, the blood-brain barrier adds another challenge. While it protects the brain from harmful substances, it also blocks helpful compounds like kaempferol from reaching target cells in effective amounts. Even if one manages to consume enough kaempferol, delivering it to the brain is another significant challenge.



“Our bodies don’t absorb kaempferol very well from the vegetables we eat,” Saxena said. “Because of this, only a small amount reaches our tissues, limiting how effective it can be. We need to find ways to increase the dose of kaempferol or modify it so it’s absorbed into the bloodstream more easily.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paving-the-way-for-clinical-tests">Paving the way for clinical tests</h2>



To address these issues, Saxena’s team is experimenting with improved delivery strategies. One leading idea is to use lipid-based nanoparticles as carriers. 



Researchers have already explored these tiny fat-based spheres in other areas of medicine - particularly vaccines - to ferry molecules across biological barriers.



By packaging it in this way, scientists can help it dodge some of the body’s natural defense systems and enable more of it to reach the neurons. Essentially, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> would take up these nanoparticles more efficiently, delivering a potent dose of kaempferol to the exact spot where it’s needed.



Saxena’s lab aims to finalize their nanoparticle formulations and begin testing them in model systems later this year. 



If these trials are successful, it could pave the way for clinical testing in humans, a process that could eventually yield a new class of neuroprotective drugs derived from compounds found in common foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-compound-s-potential-beyond-als">Plant compound's potential beyond ALS</h2>



While the research is focused on ALS, the mechanisms targeted by kaempferol - such as energy metabolism and protein folding - are also at play in other neurodegenerative diseases, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s</a> and Parkinson’s. 



This raises the possibility that a kaempferol-based therapy, once refined, could have broader applications in neurology.



By stabilizing both energy production and protein management, there’s a chance the compound could alleviate several types of degenerative stress in neurons.



Of course, researchers must still conduct substantial studies before they can consider kaempferol a bona fide treatment. Still, these early results renew hope in a field that desperately needs effective solutions.



For now, this work reminds us that even a molecule we routinely consume in fruits and vegetables may harbor remarkable secrets - if only we can figure out how to harness its power.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-025-01927-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Neuropathologica Communications</a>.



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Plant compound shows potential for treating ALS and dementia

A team of scientists has recently identified a widely available,...

For centuries, the Amazon has drawn treasure seekers in search of gold. These days, that pursuit continues, but what’s left is harder to find and comes with a heavy cost – toxic mercury pollution.



Small-scale and artisanal miners often use mercury to extract even the tiniest specks of gold. Unfortunately, this practice releases toxins that harm the natural environment and human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-mercury-pollution-in-tree-rings">Tracking mercury pollution in tree rings</h2>



Scientists from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, working with an international research team, have found a surprising new way to track mercury pollution: tree rings.



By studying trees in the Peruvian Amazon, they’ve shown that mercury <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-directly-linked-to-atmospheric-mercury-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a> can be traced by measuring the amount of heavy metals stored year by year inside tree trunks.



Dr. Jacqueline Gerson is an assistant professor in biological and environmental engineering at Cornell University and the lead author of the study.



“We show that&nbsp;Ficus insipda&nbsp;tree cores can be used as a biomonitor for characterizing the spatial and potentially the temporal footprint of mercury emissions from artisanal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/illegal-gold-mining-dumps-mercury-in-the-peruvian-rainforest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gold mining</a> in the neotropics,” said Dr. Gerson.



“Trees can provide a widespread and fairly cheap network of biomonitoring, by archiving a record of mercury concentration within tree bole wood.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mercury-ends-up-in-the-forest">How mercury ends up in the forest</h2>



In many artisanal mining operations, workers add mercury to gold-rich soil. The mercury binds with the gold particles and produces a substance called amalgam.



These amalgams have a low melting point, so miners can easily burn them to extract the gold. Consequently, this process releases mercury vapor into the atmosphere.



To test whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-reveal-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-a-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record these emissions, the researchers collected core samples from three different tree species: wild figs (Ficus insipida), Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa), and tornillos (Cedrelinga catenaformis).



Only the Ficus insipida trees produced visible rings that could be studied reliably year by year. These trees are common across the region and form annual rings even in tropical climates.



The researchers sampled five sites. Two were far from mining, and three were within five kilometers of gold mining towns. One of the mining sites bordered a protected forest, offering a unique comparison point.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-record-heavy-metal-concentrations">Trees record heavy metal concentrations</h2>



“There are many variables that drive individual tree Hg concentrations, and it is difficult to determine the specific drivers,” explained Dr. Gerson.



“The trees in the study were all the same species and from the same sites, exposed to the same atmospheric Hg concentration. That is why we sample multiple trees and then use average values.”



The findings revealed clear patterns. For example, trees closer to mining towns contained significantly higher mercury pollution levels in their bole wood - the dense inner wood of the trunk.



The protected forest site had slightly lower levels. The most distant sites had the lowest concentrations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-levels-surged-after-mining-boom">Mercury levels surged after mining boom</h2>



“Higher atmospheric Hg concentrations are generally associated with nearby mining locations,” noted Dr. Gerson. 



"In the Peruvian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-is-rapidly-approaching-a-tipping-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon</a>, where mining is the main source of Hg, the association between higher Hg concentrations and proximity to a mining site can readily be drawn.”



Notably, mercury levels spiked after the year 2000, especially in trees near the towns. This trend tracks with the region’s mining boom. 



"This is likely due to the expansion of gold mining activities around this time,” said Gerson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-tree-rings-can-tell-us">What tree rings can tell us</h2>



While the study supports the use of trees as a mercury-tracking tool, it also points out a few challenges. One limitation is that researchers didn’t always know the exact distance of the trees from active mining sites. That’s because many of these operations are illegal and not well documented.



This uncertainty could have affected the mercury <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-levels-found-in-remote-pacific-trenches-are-unprecedented/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a> found in each tree. Even so, Ficus insipida shows strong promise for tracking mercury emissions over large areas.



“Ficus insipida can be used as a cheap and powerful tool to examine large spatial trends in Hg emissions in the neotropics,” said Dr. Gerson. “Using bole wood could allow for regional monitoring efforts.”



This type of monitoring could help international efforts to reduce mercury pollution under agreements like the UN’s Minamata Convention on Mercury. Organizations like limit mercury emissions worldwide and protect people and ecosystems.



By looking inside trees, researchers have found a quiet but reliable witness to decades of pollution. This important data may help protect the future of the Amazon rainforest.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/environmental-science/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2025.1531800/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Environmental Science</a>.



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Mercury pollution in the Amazon is recorded in tree rings

For centuries, the Amazon has drawn treasure seekers in search...

The new season of “<a href="https://www.hbo.com/the-last-of-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Last of Us</a>” arrives on April 13. In the show, a fictional fungus infects humans and spreads through the air. This idea feels unsettlingly real because some actual fungi spread through airborne spores, causing fungal infections.



Scientists have long known about fungi that invade organisms in surprising ways. One of these is <a href="https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cordyceps" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cordyceps</a>, which can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-may-fuel-the-spread-of-diseases-by-unleashing-frozen-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infect</a> ants and influence their behavior until the fungus extends and scatters spores onto unsuspecting targets on the forest floor.



Mention of the show’s new spore angle has also spotlighted research by <a href="https://www.msl.ubc.ca/people/dr-jim-kronstad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jim Kronstad</a>, a microbiologist at the Michael Smith Laboratories at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>. 



He is among those who study fungi that can adapt to warming climates, raising concerns that certain species might become more harmful to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-worries">Climate worries</h2>



One fungus called <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/valley-fever/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coccidioides</a> causes valley fever. It can trigger serious lung <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-infectious-disease-landscape-is-changing-and-we-must-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infections</a>, and scientists suspect that hotter temperatures could expand its range.



Another pathogen, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/candida-auris/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Candida auris</a>, is making headlines for its ability to spread in hospital settings. Many available antifungal drugs do not work against it, and some fear it could thrive more widely in a hotter environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-spores-and-deadly-infections">Fungal spores and deadly infections</h2>



“Fungi love to make spores,” remarked <a href="https://kronstadlab.msl.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Kronstad</a>. Microscopic spores can lodge in the lungs of people who breathe them in, setting off infections.



In real life, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/cryptococcosis/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cryptococcus neoformans</a> offers an example of a fungus that enters the body through inhalation of spores. It sometimes leads to meningitis, particularly in individuals who have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-infection-equips-the-body-to-fight-off-the-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weakened immune systems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-are-jumping-from-soil-to-humans">Fungi are jumping from soil to humans</h2>



Researchers recently found <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38898217/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhodosporidiobolus fluvialis</a> in humans after previously detecting it only in soil. Some see this as more proof that fungi can shift hosts and environments in unexpected ways.



Climate change might encourage certain fungal species to adapt to higher temperatures. Experts are looking into whether these organisms can learn to thrive inside human bodies more easily as global temperatures climb.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-also-help-humans-and-the-planet">Fungi also help humans and the planet</h2>



“Fungi are super important, it’s phenomenal what they’ve done for humans,” added Dr. Kronstad. Fungi are not all threats. They break down waste into nutrients, help store carbon in soils, and have long served as food sources.&nbsp;



Scientists have experimented with fungal-based materials in various fields, from eco-friendly packaging to potential construction elements. These unique fibers can be sturdy yet light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fiction-highlights-real-fungal-infection-threats">Fiction highlights real fungal infection threats</h2>



The show’s creators might have chosen to highlight spores to reflect real-world research that suggests airborne fungal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-could-cause-39-million-deaths-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission</a> can be perilous. 



While an actual fungus controlling human minds is far-fetched, the idea of sneaky microscopic travelers is not so outlandish.



Recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08419-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> details how fungal infections in wildlife and humans can intensify with more frequent travel and shifting climate patterns. Scientists hope that exploring fungal biology now will give us the upper hand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-beyond">Food and beyond</h2>



People often associate fungi with mushrooms or yeasts. Beyond these, numerous species serve crucial roles in producing bread, cheese, and even alternative meat.



They also offer lifesaving benefits. Penicillin emerged from fungi, sparking a medical revolution that continues to save countless lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-infection-threats-are-rising">Fungal infection threats are rising</h2>



Some fans of “The Last of Us” may wonder if the storyline signals a future fungal threat to humanity. Others feel it simply underscores how versatile and surprising nature can be.



Experts point out that while caution is wise, maintaining perspective is equally important. Practices such as infection control in hospitals and consistent monitoring of emerging pathogens could help address these concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-change">Preparing for change</h2>



Environmental scientists encourage efforts to track fungal populations and observe how rising temperatures affect them. They hope to predict potential risks before serious outbreaks happen.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8962932/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> also emphasize developing new antifungals to tackle resistant infections. This preventive approach could stop the spread of challenging species in healthcare settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-with-knowledge">Adapting with knowledge</h2>



Fungal biology remains a lively area of study. More advanced genetic tools could soon reveal how these organisms evolve to survive in hotter climates or new hosts.



There is growing interest in whether our bodies might also adapt. The interplay between changing fungi and human immune responses is a subject with many questions still to be answered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-are-both-dangerous-and-essential-to-life">Fungi are both dangerous and essential to life</h2>



Fungi are ancient, diverse, and often helpful. Their ability to mutate and jump into new niches is a reminder that we share our planet with organisms we are still learning to understand.



The latest season of “The Last of Us” might spark a fresh wave of curiosity about how fungal spores spread. If that curiosity leads to more research and careful preparation, the lessons could be invaluable.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08419-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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The Last of Us? Fungal diseases that infect humans are becoming more common

The new season of “The Last of Us” arrives on...

Urban trees have become popular guinea pigs for studying how climate change might affect plant life in the future. Predicting these effects is complex as there are numerous variables - shifting temperatures, rainfall, soil conditions, and genetics.



To simplify the task, many researchers compare plants growing in cities with those in nearby rural areas. The idea is that cities form heat islands, where concrete and buildings trap warmth, raising local temperatures by a few degrees.



These spots offer a natural glimpse into how plants might respond in a warmer world. But recent research from scientists at <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> suggests this common method may be giving us a false sense of security - at least when it comes to forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-trees-could-hide-climate-risks">City trees could hide climate risks</h2>



City trees, it turns out, aren’t telling the whole story. While comparing urban and rural plant life seems straightforward, the researchers found that the trees growing in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-the-best-option-to-reduce-the-urban-heat-island-effect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat islands</a> often have less genetic diversity than their rural counterparts.



This hidden difference changes the way they respond to heat. In fact, it might be masking the full impact of climate change. 



“The appeal of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-urban-heat-experts-plan-to-cool-a-desert-city-by-4-5c/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban temperature</a> gradients is, well, it's already there,” said David Des Marais, one of the researchers. “We can't look into the future, so why don't we look across space, comparing rural and urban areas?”



The data is readily available, which has made this approach popular among ecologists. 



But even though they knew the method wasn’t perfect - differences in soil nutrients such as nitrogen were already a known issue - researchers still saw urban trees as a useful stand-in to test the possible effects of future conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-vs-rural-trees-genetic-mismatch">City vs. rural trees: Genetic mismatch</h2>



This latest study took a different approach. Instead of just comparing how trees grow in the city and the countryside, the researchers looked at their genetics as well.



Specifically, they focused on red oaks in and around Cambridge, Massachusetts, and in the Harvard Forest in rural central Massachusetts. 



The project actually began during the pandemic. With travel limited, the researchers started studying trees close to home.



Over three years, they gathered temperature data, tracked when trees began to leaf out in spring, and analyzed the trees’ genomes. What they discovered was surprising.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/city-trees_red-oak-genotypes_respond-differently-heat_credit-PNAS_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/city-trees_red-oak-genotypes_respond-differently-heat_credit-PNAS_1s.webp" alt="Meghan Blumstein studied red oak genotypes across New England, concentrating on trees that were within reach in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She then collaborated with people doing research at the Harvard Forest, a research forest in rural central Massachusetts. Credit: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2025)" class="wp-image-1964704"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Meghan Blumstein studied red oak genotypes across New England, concentrating on trees that were within reach in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She then collaborated with people doing research at the Harvard Forest, a research forest in rural central Massachusetts. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2025)</figcaption></figure>



“So, lo and behold, you think you're only letting one variable change in your model, which is the temperature difference from an urban to a rural setting,” Des Marais explained. “But in fact, it looks like there was also a genotypic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> that was not being accounted for.”



Urban red oaks were genetically different from rural red oaks. And those genetic differences made city trees more resistant to warmer temperatures. 



As a result, urban trees didn’t show the same level of sensitivity to heat that rural trees did. 



Because of this, previous studies comparing plant responses in cities and rural areas may have underestimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-forests-are-being-transformed-by-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how forests will react to global warming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-affects-climate-predictions">How this affects climate predictions</h2>



“Initially, we saw these results and we were sort of like, oh, this is a bad thing,” Des Marais said. “Ecologists are getting this heat island effect wrong, which is true.” But there’s an upside: the problem is fixable.



“It's not that much more work, because sequencing genomes is so cheap and so straightforward. Now, if someone wants to look at an urban-rural gradient and make these kinds of predictions, well, that's fine. You just have to add some information about the genomes,” explained Marais.



The lack of genetic diversity in urban trees actually makes sense. For decades, growers have selected varieties that can survive harsh city conditions, including poor soil, pollution, and inconsistent drainage. 



Over time, this trial-and-error approach has narrowed the genetic pool of city trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-global-assessments">What this means for global assessments</h2>



The implications are bigger than a few city parks. These urban-to-rural comparisons are part of the toolset used by organizations, including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>), to make global predictions.



“When the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) releases its regular reports on the status of the climate, one of the tools the IPCC has to predict future responses to climate change with respect to temperature are these urban-to-rural gradients.”



“If these results are generally true beyond red oaks, this suggests that the urban heat island approach to studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-genetics-research-just-got-a-lot-easier-with-a-simple-trick/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant response to temperature</a> is under predicting how strong that response is.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-way-forward">A better way forward</h2>



This study doesn’t throw out the idea of using urban environments to study climate change. It just asks researchers to look a little deeper. 



Adding a genetic lens to these comparisons could make future predictions more accurate - and help us better prepare our forests for the changes ahead. 



As climate pressures increase, getting these predictions right could be the difference between a thriving forest and one in decline.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2408564122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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City trees might be misleading us about climate change impact

Urban trees have become popular guinea pigs for studying how...

A recent experiment has shown that certain lichen species can remain metabolically active in an environment similar to that found on Mars. The study challenges assumptions that Mars is entirely inhospitable, highlighting the life's adaptability under extreme conditions.



This research, published in the open-access journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/imafungus.16.145477">IMA Fungus</a>, demonstrates that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-trees-help-the-endangered-wolf-lichen-survive/">lichens</a> can function despite exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation and other harsh factors that characterize the planet’s surface.&nbsp;



The discovery builds on prior findings suggesting that some microorganisms can endure environments analogous to Mars, but this is the first time the metabolic activity of the fungal component in lichens has been observed under such conditions.&nbsp;



In this study, the focus centered on two lichen species, Diploschistes muscorum and Cetraria aculeata. 



The researchers found that the former was especially able to continue its metabolic processes and resistance mechanisms despite exposure to doses of X-ray radiation and temperatures reflecting extremes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-water-reservoir-discovered-medusae-fossae-formation-two-miles-deep/">Mars</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lichens-accept-the-mars-challenge">Lichens accept the Mars challenge</h2>



Mars has captivated scientists for centuries, primarily because it is the most Earth-like planet in our solar system. 



Yet its thin atmosphere, lack of a global magnetic field, and the resulting bombardment of radiation make the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> an extreme and potentially lethal environment for most known life-forms. 



Temperatures can fluctuate widely, and intense ionizing radiation - particularly during periods of heightened solar activity - is considered a principal threat to any organisms that might attempt to exist there.



Despite these obstacles, researchers have gradually gathered evidence suggesting that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-life-exist-below-the-icy-surface-of-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">terrestrial extremophiles</a> may find ways to cope with the Red Planet’s challenging conditions. 



This latest study takes that line of reasoning one step further, revealing that lichens - a symbiotic partnership between fungi and photosynthetic organisms - have a surprising capacity for survival and metabolic activity in simulated Mars-like conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-lichens-the-basics">Understanding lichens - the basics</h2>



Lichens are remarkable organisms formed through a symbiotic partnership between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium. 



The fungus provides structure and absorbs moisture and minerals from the environment, while the algal or bacterial partner produces food through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-photosynthesis-could-transform-power-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. 



Together, they create a highly adaptable organism capable of surviving in some of the harshest environments on Earth - from tree bark and rocky cliffs to deserts and polar regions. They don’t require soil to grow and can thrive with minimal resources.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_Cetraria-aculeata-species_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_Cetraria-aculeata-species_1s.webp" alt="Cetraria aculeata is a species of lichen that’s known for its tough, spiny appearance and ability to survive in harsh, nutrient-poor environments. It belongs to the Parmeliaceae family and typically forms dark brown to blackish, bushy mats on soil, moss, or rocks." class="wp-image-1964640"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cetraria aculeata is a species of lichen that’s known for its tough, spiny appearance and ability to survive in harsh, nutrient-poor environments. It belongs to the Parmeliaceae family and typically forms dark brown to blackish, bushy mats on soil, moss, or rocks. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



What makes lichens especially fascinating is their resilience and ecological value. 



Many species grow extremely slowly, sometimes only a few millimeters per year, yet they can live for decades or even centuries. Scientists often study lichens to monitor air quality, as some species are highly sensitive to pollutants. 



Though they may appear simple, lichens play an important role in ecosystems and continue to offer insight into the complexities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exposing-lichens-to-mars-like-conditions">Exposing lichens to Mars-like conditions </h2>



In the new study, scientists exposed Diploschistes muscorum and Cetraria aculeata lichen species to a mixture of factors replicating what might be encountered on Mars. 



These factors included a rarefied atmospheric pressure, temperatures that could dip and rise in short order, a Mars-like gas composition, and X-ray radiation on par with what would be expected over a year of strong solar activity. 



The experts ran this experiment for five hours, then looked at whether the fungal component of the lichen remained metabolically active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-lichens-survive-on-mars">Could lichens survive on Mars?</h2>



The results indicated that D. muscorum was particularly adept at coping with these trials. According to the team, this species managed to carry out essential biochemical functions despite being subjected to Mars-like conditions. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">fungus</a> also showed clear signs of triggering defense mechanisms to mitigate the harmful effects of ionizing radiation.



“Our study is the first to demonstrate that the metabolism of the fungal partner in lichen symbiosis remained active while being in an environment resembling the surface of Mars," Kaja Skubała, team leader explained. 



"We found that Diploschistes muscorum was able to carry out metabolic processes and activate defense mechanisms effectively."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-radiation-survival">Exploring radiation survival</h2>



Ionizing radiation poses a grave danger for any organism lacking robust protective strategies or the ability to repair damage to cellular components. 



The research team specifically scrutinized whether high levels of X-ray radiation would effectively halt metabolic activity. 



Previous assertions held that a steady stream of intense radiation from the Sun and cosmic sources might render the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> permanently sterile. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_survival-experiment_illustration_credit-IMA-Fungus_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_survival-experiment_illustration_credit-IMA-Fungus_1s.webp" alt="Experiment arrangement of vacuum chamber with the additional facility, including metal grate with lichens, cooling table, temperature, pressure and humidity sensors, X-ray lamp with the controller, CO2 valve with cylinder, controllers of vacuum chamber, pressure, cooling table, and computer. Credit: IMA Fungus (2025)" class="wp-image-1964642"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Experiment arrangement of vacuum chamber with the additional facility, including metal grate with lichens, cooling table, temperature, pressure and humidity sensors, X-ray lamp with the controller, CO2 valve with cylinder, controllers of vacuum chamber, pressure, cooling table, and computer. Click image to enlarge. Credit: IMA Fungus (2025)</figcaption></figure>



Yet in this experiment, the fungal partner was clearly able to maintain function, offering insight into how certain organisms might defy radiation-related stress.



These findings expand our understanding of biological processes under simulated Martian conditions and reveal how hydrated organisms respond to ionizing radiation - one of the most critical challenges for survival and habitability on Mars. 



Ultimately, this research deepens our knowledge of lichen adaptation and their potential for colonizing extraterrestrial environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



By establishing that lichen fungi can endure - and remain active - amid Mars-like conditions, the study opens new doors for astrobiology. 



It challenges the belief that Mars’s radiation exposure alone is an insurmountable barrier for life, prompting further investigations into how multiple species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/">extremophiles</a> might cope with the various hazards of the Martian environment.



"The findings call for longer-term studies that examine how chronic exposure to radiation influences lichens and other organisms, as well as how they might adapt or evolve when subjected to such stressors for months or even years," Skubała concluded.



Understanding these processes could be integral not only for unearthing ancient life on Mars (if it ever existed) but also for potentially selecting candidate species that could be used in experimental greenhouses or bio-based life-support systems during future crewed missions to the Red Planet.



-----



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://imafungus.pensoft.net/article/145477/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IMA Fungus</a>.



Image Credit: Cetraria aculeata, a species of lichens, superimposed on Mars. Credit: Lichen: Skubała et al. Design: Pensoft Publishers.



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Lichens thrive in Martian simulation, another step towards life on Mars

A recent experiment has shown that certain lichen species can...

The endangered "corpse flower" (Amorphophallus titanum) faces pressure from habitat loss, climate change, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-use-wildfires-and-drought-as-an-opening-to-move-in/">invasive species</a>. Unfortunately, a new study reveals that there is yet another threat: incomplete and inconsistent historical records.



Without properly documented plant ancestry and breeding history, horticulturists cannot make informed decisions about pollination. 



This lack of information has led to inbreeding in collections worldwide, which degrades the gene pool and jeopardizes the plant's long-term survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-scent-that-draws-crowds">The scent that draws crowds</h2>



The corpse flower gets its name from the distinctive stench it emits. To attract pollinators (like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beetle-diversity-is-influenced-by-energy-stored-in-dead-wood/">carrion beetles</a> and flesh flies), the plant relies on an overpowering odor that smells like decaying flesh. 



Visitors to botanic gardens line up when this specimen is about to bloom, eager to see - and smell - the giant spadix and brief flower display.



"Usually, you have to get close to a flower to be able to smell it," said Olivia Murrell, lead researcher and first author of the study. "That is not true for the corpse flower. The second you walk into its greenhouse, its smell smacks you across the face." 



When in bloom, the plant also generates heat which disperses the infamous aroma even more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-complex-living-collections">Managing complex living collections</h2>



Because corpse flower seeds cannot tolerate drying and seed banking, they are carefully maintained as full-sized specimens. 



Botanic gardens and research facilities maintain these plants in "living collections," which is a delicate and complex undertaking.



These institutions work under unpredictable conditions because corpse flowers bloom only rarely and for a very short time - just 24 to 48 hours. 



Adding to this challenge is the bloom timing: female flowers open first, and by the time the male flowers mature, the female flowers are no longer viable.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> and the <a href="https://www.chicagobotanic.org/">Chicago Botanic Garden</a> set out to understand why the species continues to show declining genetic health in captivity, despite dedicated care.



They discovered that inconsistent data transfer between institutions has muddled the plants' genetic histories. When a corpse flower moves to a new site, its records often don't travel along with it. 



This haphazard approach leads to unintended pollination events, such as using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-can-actually-change-the-weather/">pollen</a> from a closely related plant or the same plant's previous bloom, which can lead to inbreeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incomplete-corpse-flower-records">Incomplete corpse flower records</h2>



Murrell and her colleagues discovered that the difficulties facing corpse flowers are partly due to missing or inconsistent data.



The team gathered information on nearly 1,200 corpse flowers across 111 different institutions worldwide. They received handwritten notes, spreadsheets, email text, and other varied record formats. 



Ideally, a plant's file should list its parentage, origin, health status, and significant events such as pollination or propagation.



Unfortunately, these details were often absent or fragmented. Many gardens did not record which plant's pollen was used for fertilization. When a plant was transferred, a file might never arrive with it. 



The result is that 24% of the surveyed plants were confirmed clones, while 27% were crosses between close relatives. 



Additional genetic testing on a sample of 65 plants confirmed low overall diversity and a high degree of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inbreeding-can-actually-be-beneficial-for-some-species-in-the-long-run/">inbreeding</a>.



This troubling data reveals that the problem involves more than a few isolated individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corpse-flowers-and-genetic-diversity">Corpse flowers and genetic diversity</h2>



"There are many risks associated with low genetic diversity," Murrell said. "Generally speaking, inbred plants might not produce as much pollen or might die right after they flower."



In some cases, none of the offspring from an inbred plant survive because they are albino seedlings with no chlorophyll. 



Even if a plant appears healthy, a population dominated by inbred specimens has limited defenses against pests, disease, and environmental change.



According to recent figures published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10531">Biodiversity and Conservation</a>, only 162 individuals are estimated to remain in the wild. 



With such diminished numbers, robust, genetically varied captive populations have grown increasingly important.



The complications of inbreeding are magnified by the corpse flower's challenging reproductive biology. Because female and male flowers do not bloom simultaneously, pollen is often stored or collected from available sources, including closely related genetic lines. 



With each new reproductive event, the overall diversity narrows and pushes the species closer to a genetic bottleneck that could threaten its survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-focus-on-sharing-data">More focus on sharing data</h2>



Recognizing the need for better management, Murrell and her co-authors propose several remedies. They urge institutions to document the plant origins and parentage, standardize data collection practices, track parent plants across gardens, and ensure that documentation follows all relocated plants. 



Adopting a consistent recordkeeping language is also critical. Gardeners, scientists, and conservationists must share data without confusion.



Murrell emphasizes that the clock is ticking for Amorphophallus titanum. Natural habitats in Sumatra continue to degrade, and the species' wild numbers are dwindling. 



Success in botanic collections may be the only hope for restoring the corpse flower to its natural range.



By reducing inbreeding and expanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">genetic diversity</a>, gardens, and research facilities can offer a lifeline for this captivating plant. 



However, even the most well-intentioned efforts will fall short without a greater commitment to reliable recordkeeping.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/aob/advance-article/doi/10.1093/aob/mcaf038/8104011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Botany</a>.



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Smells like trouble: Popular 'corpse flower' is headed towards extinction

The endangered "corpse flower" (Amorphophallus titanum) faces pressure from habitat...

When we talk about climate solutions, we often look up - to the canopy of trees that pull carbon from the air. But there’s something unexpected happening below. The logs and branches that tumble into forest streams are quietly locking away carbon, too.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a> have discovered that large dead trees in upland streams store impressive amounts of carbon. In fact, the amount of carbon stored in this submerged wood is increasing over time.



The study was focused on forested headwaters in the northeastern United States. The researchers also found that big, old trees along streambanks play an important role in feeding this natural carbon reserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-climate-solution">A natural climate solution</h2>



“We know that about 20% of global annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a> come from land use and deforestation,” said study co-author Dr. William Keeton, professor at the University of Vermont.



“But we can also use forests and other land cover as what we call a natural climate solution - finding ways to sequester and store more carbon in vegetation.”



Dr. Keeton had long suspected that fallen logs lying in water were storing carbon, but the scale of it surprised even him.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dead-trees-store-a-lot-of-carbon">Dead trees store a lot of carbon </h2>



Stephen Peters-Collaer is the study’s lead author and a graduate student at the University of Vermont’s Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-microclimates-impact-bird-species-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Old-growth forests</a> stored four to five times more carbon in the wood lying in the streams than mature forests did,” said Peters-Collaer.



“And in mature forests, this in-stream, dead-wood carbon pool is about 50% to 60% larger than that stored in downed wood in an area of equivalent size on the forest floor.”



The research showed that while streams take up much less space than the forest floor, they hold an outsize share of carbon - especially when they’re filled with large pieces of wood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-isn-t-well-quantified">Carbon storage isn't well-quantified</h2>



“One of the reasons that we were interested in this question is because there’s been increasing realization in recent years that wood in streams, lakes and other aquatic systems stores carbon, but that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a> wasn’t well-quantified,” said Peters-Collaer.



To get answers, the team studied streams in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire and old-growth forests in New York’s Adirondack State Park. 



These field sites have long research histories, providing the team with important background and context for their data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dead-trees-boost-carbon-storage">Dead trees boost carbon storage </h2>



The researchers focused on large woody debris - logs and branches that fall from nearby trees into streams. 



These oversized pieces tend to decompose more slowly, especially when submerged. Their large volume and relatively small surface area make it harder for decomposers to break them down, meaning they can store carbon for much longer.



The logs also do more than sit still. In small upland streams, they often stretch all the way across, creating natural dams. These structures trap additional wood, leaves, and organic debris - boosting the amount of carbon held in place even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-streams-big-role">Small streams, big role</h2>



Although they may look minor on a map, headwater streams make up about 70% of total river miles. And because they’re usually in upland areas, they tend to be less disturbed by development.



This means that the streams offer a surprisingly stable and effective place for carbon storage - if the right conditions are met.



Taken together, the findings suggest that fallen wood in forest streams may be a more significant piece of the global carbon budget than previously thought. 



Peters-Collaer explained that researchers hadn’t measured this carbon pool in detail before, especially when comparing old-growth to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mature-forests-play-a-surprising-role-in-climate-mitigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mature forests</a>. 



Dr. Keeton believes that part of the oversight comes from how scientists typically work. “Scientists will often study either the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-is-the-climate-impacting-aquatic-life-in-mountain-streams/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">streams</a> or the forest, but not both, or they won’t look at the relationships between them.”



“The connection between stream and forest is not static but dynamic. One of our major messages is that we must take a long view, and we must think of these as dynamic systems.”



The study points to a quiet but important insight. The story of carbon storage doesn’t stop when trees die - it just flows in a new direction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10021-025-00965-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosystems</a>.



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Dead trees in forest streams hold more carbon than expected

When we talk about climate solutions, we often look up...

The forest holds many wonders - towering trees, elusive animals and, sometimes, plants that seem plucked from myth. Deep in a hill dipterocarp forest in eastern Peninsular Malaysia, scientists have discovered one such marvel: a new species from the mysterious fairy lantern genus, Thismia.



Hidden beneath <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dense vegetation</a> and largely invisible to the casual hiker, this species represents both a scientific breakthrough and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> warning.



The discovery was made in Terengganu’s Chemerong Forest Eco Park, a mountainous region known more for waterfalls and trails than rare plants. On the edge of a mountaineering path, something extraordinary emerged from the soil - a glowing flower with a strange structure and a name now etched into Malaysian botanical history: Thismia aliasii.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-world-of-thismia">Unveiling the world of Thismia</h2>



The genus Thismia is a botanical enigma. These plants are mycoheterotrophic, meaning they cannot perform photosynthesis but depend on fungi for nutrition.



In fact, this is a symbiotic relationship involving plants that parasitize fungi in the soil. This underground network links them to nearby trees, forming a delicate chain of dependency. Without sunlight, leaves, or green stems, these unusual plants remain hidden for most of the year, only revealing themselves when they flower.



These flowers are not ordinary. They often resemble small lanterns or otherworldly structures, and are adapted to attract specific pollinating insects. Small flies, especially fungus gnats, act as pollinators, being lured by the plant’s architecture and scent.



This system is highly specialized, making Thismia species incredibly vulnerable to change. Thismia aliasii joins this unique lineage with features that have astonished researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-moment-of-chance-and-recognition">A moment of chance and recognition</h2>



The journey to identify Thismia aliasii began in 2019. Mohamad Alias Shakri, a researcher from the Terengganu Forestry Department, spotted the strange plant during a field expedition.



"The discovery of Thismia aliasii is very interesting as it was found in a mountainous region known for its natural beauty. The discovery was made on the edge of a popular mountaineering trail but, remarkably, the species was first recognised by Alias," the author noted.



“It was not easy to obtain specimens for further study as its habitat is on the mountain and COVID time delayed search efforts. Fortunately, targeted field work to find this plant was successful with the support of NAGAO."



What began as an accidental sighting turned into a focused mission to locate and study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-heliconia-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>. The pandemic made fieldwork difficult, but the team persisted. Eventually, enough data was gathered to confirm that the plant represented a species new to science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thismia-aliasii-is-endangered">Thismia aliasii is endangered</h2>



In the study, published in the open-access journal PhytoKeys, Thismia aliasii was provisionally classified as Critically Endangered (CR) under the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>. 



Only five individuals were documented across multiple surveys. Such low numbers raise immediate alarm about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>’ future.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fairy-lantern-plant_new-species_Thismia-aliasii_credit-Siti-Munirah_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fairy-lantern-plant_new-species_Thismia-aliasii_credit-Siti-Munirah_1s.webp" alt="Newly discovered fairy lantern species, Thismia aliasii can't photosynthesize. Credit: Siti Munirah" class="wp-image-1964533"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Newly discovered fairy lantern species, Thismia aliasii can't photosynthesize. Click to enlarge. Credit: Siti Munirah</figcaption></figure>



The biggest threat to Thismia aliasii is its own location. Chemerong Forest is a popular destination for hikers, and foot traffic disturbs the leaf litter and soil layers on which the plant depends.



Unlike tall trees or shrubs, these small organisms can’t withstand repeated damage or shifting microhabitats. If nothing changes to improve their chances of survival, their extinction could happen unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-terengganu-is-a-sanctuary-for-rare-flora">Terengganu is a sanctuary for rare flora</h2>



The discovery of Thismia aliasii cements Terengganu’s position as a global hotspot for Thismia diversity. 



To date, 13 species of the genus have been recorded in the state, including six found nowhere else in the world. This concentration of diversity signals a unique evolutionary history that has unfolded beneath the forest canopy.



Such richness also carries <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responsibility</a>. Local conservation policies must now take into account these less-visible species. Their survival depends not only on preserving large tracts of land but also on managing how people move through the area.



Public awareness, trail regulations, and scientific monitoring all become essential parts of the solution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-window-into-life-hidden-from-sight">Window into life hidden from sight</h2>



Thismia aliasii is more than a new entry in a scientific journal. It is a reminder of the unseen lives that flourish in the shadows of the forest. These plants evolved without light, adapting in ways that few other organisms have. They challenge our understanding of survival and symbiosis.



Yet their fragility is just as instructive. A few careless footsteps could destroy a species that took millions of years to evolve.



Their presence urges us to rethink conservation - not as a matter of grand landscapes alone, but as a responsibility that includes even the smallest flowers that are buried in leaf litter, waiting to be seen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-team-behind-the-discovery">Team behind the discovery</h2>



The study was led by Siti-Munirah Mat Yunoh of the <a href="https://www.frim.gov.my/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Research Institute Malaysia</a> and Mohamad Alias Shakri of the <a href="https://trgforestry.terengganu.gov.my/index.php?lang=my" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Terengganu Forestry Department</a>. 



Their research received funding under the 12th Malaysian Plan from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Sustainability. Additional support came from the <a href="https://www.nagaofoundation.or.jp/e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagao Research Grant</a>, which has backed numerous biodiversity studies in Southeast Asia.



Without this backing, the expedition may not have resumed after initial delays. Financial and institutional support remains key to discovering and documenting species before they disappear.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/article/136085/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PhytoKeys</a>.



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Newly discovered fairy lantern species can't photosynthesize

The forest holds many wonders - towering trees, elusive animals...

The rise of farming ranks among the most significant shifts in human history. For thousands of years, people lived by hunting, gathering, and moving with the seasons. 



Then, around 12,000 years ago, they began to settle, plant crops, and raise animals. This change transformed how societies lived, organized space, and related to the land.



For decades, scholars pointed to the environment as the prime mover behind this transformation. Climate change, richer soils, and predictable rainfall were seen as the main reasons humans started farming. 



A new study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences offers a different view. It says human interaction, not the natural world, played the biggest role in the shift from foraging to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-as-a-human-driven-process">Farming as a human-driven process</h2>



The research, led by a team from the&nbsp;University of Bath,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>, introduces a fresh approach. Rather than focusing on rainfall or rivers, the team studied people - looking specifically at how groups interacted during this key moment in human history.



They used a mathematical model originally created to study predator-prey dynamics in ecosystems. In this case, early farmers and hunter-gatherers took the place of wolves and deer. The researchers treated them as two populations sharing space and resources but with competing interests.



The model showed that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agroforestry-could-transform-farming-in-the-midwest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming</a> transition was not something that happened to humans. It was something they did to each other. Migration, cultural exchange, and even conflict between groups played a critical role in shaping early agricultural societies.



“Our study provides a new perspective on prehistoric societies,“ noted Dr. Javier Rivas, from the Department of Economics at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bath</a>.



“By statistically fitting our theoretical predator-prey model to observed population dynamics inferred from radiocarbon dates, we explored how population growth shaped history and uncovered interesting patterns - such as how the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-threaten-the-future-of-banana-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming</a>, whether by land or sea, influenced interactions between different groups."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-dynamics-and-interaction">Population dynamics and interaction</h2>



At the heart of the study lies a six-parameter model. These parameters include growth rates for both groups, mortality linked to conflict, migration of farmers, and cultural assimilation - the rate at which foragers adopted farming. The model shows that no single factor explains the shift. Rather, it is the combination of these factors that shaped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outcomes</a>.



The researchers tested their model on three regions: eastern Iberia, Denmark, and Kyushu in Japan. Each region showed a unique pattern of interaction. These case studies helped the team test how robust the model was and how well it could explain real-world archaeological data.



The model revealed that interactions could result in coexistence, rapid replacement, or gradual transitions. The team paid special attention to the point at which farming populations exceeded forager numbers, and when hunter-gatherer populations disappeared entirely. 



These events were influenced by the balance between growth, competition, and assimilation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-driven-farming-replaced-foragers">Human-driven farming replaced foragers</h2>



In eastern Iberia, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-farming-could-save-the-future-of-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming</a> took over quickly. Farmers surpassed foragers in about 175 years, and the hunter-gatherer population declined sharply within 340 years. The data suggest that early farmers may have entered largely uninhabited areas or replaced the local population rapidly.



This region supports what's called the "Dual Model." It includes two scenarios: one where farmers mixed with foragers and another where they settled nearly empty land. Evidence points to both processes happening in different locations, but the model shows that full replacement happened fast in most cases.



For Iberia, cultural mixing was modest. The dominant trend was population replacement. Archaeological findings also suggest maritime migrations brought farmers along the coastlines, possibly reducing direct land-based interaction with foragers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-pattern-in-denmark">A different pattern in Denmark</h2>



In Denmark, the pattern looked very different. Farmers exceeded foragers in population after about 450 years. But many foragers still remained even 700 years after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming</a> began.



This suggests a long period of coexistence. Genetic studies and archaeological records support this. The two groups likely interacted for centuries before farming became the dominant lifestyle. 



The model shows that, in over half the simulated scenarios, foragers still had a visible presence at the end of the time window.



The spread of agriculture in Denmark likely involved a mix of demic diffusion (migration of people) and cultural transmission. Unlike Iberia, where rapid dominance happened, Danish foragers appear to have influenced and slowed the spread of farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kyushu-a-slower-maritime-transition">Kyushu: A slower maritime transition</h2>



On the island of Kyushu in Japan, the pattern was more complex. Farming spread from the Korean peninsula, and the process spanned 800 years. Farmers often moved by sea, and early contact with foragers was slow and uneven.



Farmers in Kyushu had a lower growth rate compared to the European cases. Still, the forager population declined over time. The model suggests this was due more to the decline of the forager population than the rapid rise of farmers.



Assimilation in Japan was lower, meaning few foragers adopted farming. Despite slower growth, farmers eventually replaced the foragers, though only at the very end of the study window.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-model-matters">Why the model matters</h2>



The research team believes their model can be used well beyond these three regions. It applies to any case where two populations share land and compete. 



Whether it’s early farmers and foragers, or even modern societies in transition, the framework holds.



“We hope the methods we've developed will eventually become a standard tool for understanding how populations interacted in the past, offering fresh insight into other key moments in history, not just the shift to farming,” said Dr. Rivas.



This approach highlights the power of demographic processes. Instead of assuming outside forces drove human history, the model lets researchers test how people shaped their own future. It gives weight to population size, group interaction, and human decisions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-farming-a-tool-for-human-history">Beyond farming: A tool for human history</h2>



The model’s creators suggest it could be applied to other turning points in human history. 



This includes the spread of Homo sapiens, Neanderthal extinction, and later migrations during the Bronze Age. Anywhere two groups meet and compete, the model has potential.



By focusing on human behavior and interaction, the study reminds us that history often comes down to people - how they live, where they go, and who they meet. 



Farming didn't just happen because the earth got warmer. It happened because people made choices, formed communities, and changed the world around them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/epub/10.1073/pnas.2416221122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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The birth of farming was driven by people, not the planet

The rise of farming ranks among the most significant shifts...

Aloe vera is a familiar name in everyday skincare and therapeutic products. Many people trust its soothing gel to help with various skin concerns or to add a gentle touch to cosmetics. 



While the gel is widely used, the leftover aloe peels become waste that might reach millions of tons each year.



This issue recently caught the attention of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Debasish-Bandyopadhyay-2">Debasish Bandyopadhyay</a>, an assistant professor in chemistry at The <a href="https://www.utrgv.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas Rio Grande Valley</a>, who explored turning the discarded rinds into a natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insecticides-may-be-helping-weeds-thrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insecticide</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aloe-waste-peels-found-new-purpose">Aloe waste peels found new purpose</h2>



Aloe vera fields, located in places such as Australia, China, India, South Africa, and the U.S., focus on harvesting gel from the thick leaves. The outer covering is rarely used on a large scale.



Some people blend gel with onions or other ingredients to repel bugs, but that approach often leaves the peels out of the equation. 



Hoping to address that gap, researchers decided to test the peels for possible <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9862941/#:~:text=Phytochemicals%20are%20plant%2Dbased%20bioactive,have%20been%20discovered%20to%20date." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytochemicals</a> that might discourage insects.



They noticed that many bugs refuse to munch on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-can-absorb-and-neutralize-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. That observation led them to check whether the same compounds protecting aloe in nature could help farms in regions plagued by pests.



They dried the rinds at room temperature without sunlight. This step preserved valuable properties that might otherwise degrade under harsh conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aloe-waste-extract-kills-bugs">Aloe waste extract kills bugs</h2>



Scientists analyzed peel extracts made with different solvents, including dichloromethane (<a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Methylene-Chloride" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DCM</a>). They discovered potent activity against insects that destroy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-affect-bumble-bee-health-in-complex-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a>.



“We identified [certain substances] as potential insecticidal compounds,” said Bandyopadhyay. These molecules appeared safe for people while still packing a punch against pests.



Tests showed the insect-killing capabilities might relate to <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/bioactive-compound" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioactive substances</a> that disrupt insects’ feeding behavior. That disruption may eventually cause the insects to die, offering a more natural defense for vulnerable fields.



Early findings suggest the compounds in aloe peels could also have antibacterial or antifungal properties. Researchers continue to catalog more elements hidden in the dried peel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-and-the-environment">Farmers and the environment</h2>



Crop losses to insects can be huge, pushing many farmers toward strong chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-pesticide-exposure-impacts-their-behavior-in-both-current-and-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pesticides</a>. A 2021 review in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/26/16/4835" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecules</a> revealed that the heavy use of these chemicals harms the environment, creates resistant pests, and endangers people’s health.



Natural alternatives that rely on plant-derived elements often offer a kinder impact on local ecosystems. They break down faster, target pests without lingering in soil or water, and pose fewer risks for farmworkers.



Turning aloe waste into a new defense strategy brings financial and environmental upsides. It transforms what was formerly “trash” into a resource that can help feed populations reliant on staple crops.



A shift to plant-based pest controls may also align with sustainable farming approaches. Researchers see aloe-based insecticide as another tool in this more balanced strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-plans-with-aloe-spray">Practical plans with aloe spray</h2>



Real-world testing is the next step to verify how peel extracts perform against pests in places where insects often threaten staple grains and vegetables. 



The researchers want to confirm how strongly the compounds repel or eliminate harmful bugs in open fields.



Studies into any anti-mosquito or anti-tick properties of these extracts are also under way. 



“By creating an insecticide that avoids hazardous and poisonous synthetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-increases-the-risk-of-parkinsons-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a>, we can help the agricultural field,” said Bandyopadhyay. If the extracts repel disease-carrying pests, there might be a public health benefit too.



This approach could cut back on synthetic pesticides, which often have harsh side effects. Natural methods can still be powerful if used correctly and monitored for consistent quality.



Peel-based formulations could be simpler to handle than certain standard pesticides. This method might bring cost savings for farmers who pay high prices for chemical products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anti-aging-properties-of-aloe">Anti-aging properties of aloe</h2>



In addition to being a great insecticide, aloe vera packs a surprising punch when it comes to anti-aging. 



It’s loaded with antioxidants like vitamins C and E, which help fight off free radicals - the little troublemakers that speed up wrinkles and skin damage. 



Aloe also encourages <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen production</a>, which is a big deal because collagen keeps your skin firm, bouncy, and smooth. 



As we get older, our natural collagen levels dip, so giving it a boost can help reduce fine lines and keep skin looking fresh.



On top of all that, aloe is a hydration hero. It soaks into the skin fast and locks in moisture, which helps plump things up and make your face look more youthful and dewy. 



It also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scratching-that-itch-science-confirms-it-only-makes-rashes-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soothes inflammation</a>, evens out skin tone, and can help calm down any irritation or redness that tends to make aging skin look a little tired.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aloe-waste-and-sustainable-farming">Aloe waste and sustainable farming</h2>



Researchers are collaborating with growers and local producers to see if these extracts fit into their routine spraying practices. They want to ensure that the product meets safety guidelines without being burdensome to apply.



Experts continue to measure the shelf life of this plant-based solution. Proper drying and storage can help maintain stability, ensuring that farmers and communities benefit from a reliable product.



Many wonder if large-scale aloe peel recycling can become a fresh revenue stream. If it does, aloe growers will have an added reason to collect the rinds rather than sending them off as compost or letting them rot.



Sustainability is the underlying theme of this new venture. Adding aloe peel extracts to pest management could aid global efforts to grow healthy produce while protecting soil, water, and wildlife.



The press release is published <a href="https://www.acs.org/pressroom/newsreleases/2023/august/discarded-aloe-peels-could-be-sustainable-natural-insecticide-video.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



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Wonder plant: This natural insect repellent also has anti-aging properties

Aloe vera is a familiar name in everyday skincare and...

Most people have heard that cannabis can boost mood, but not everyone realizes that it can also bring on nervous feelings and anxiety in certain situations. 



<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/add.14842" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Interest in balancing</a> these effects is soaring, with many folks wondering if specific parts of the cannabis plant might soften the jangled moods tied to its psychoactive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-pain-relief-potential-of-cannabis-without-the-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">component</a>.



This newly published work comes from <a href="https://profiles.hopkinsmedicine.org/provider/ryan-g-vandrey/2777317" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryan Vandrey, PhD,</a> professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.



He and his team uncovered fascinating details about an essential oil that appears to dampen the jittery edge often sparked by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-helped-patients-feel-better-for-a-full-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thc-can-relax-or-cause-anxiety">THC can relax or cause anxiety</h2>



<a href="https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2020-nsduh-annual-national-report" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> say more people in the United States are giving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-cannabis-users-face-higher-heart-attack-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> a try these days. Some do it for medical reasons, while others do it for casual relaxation.



<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/psychoactive-substance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psychoactive compounds</a> affect mood and perception. THC, the main psychoactive part of cannabis, can prompt both calm and stress. 



Determining how it influences our minds is central to figuring out ways to reduce the negative side of the experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-cannabis-linked-mood-anxiety">Reduced cannabis-linked mood anxiety</h2>



The research spotlight is on d-limonene, a terpene in citrus fruits. A terpene is a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38932560/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">naturally occurring oil</a> that can influence taste and scent in plants.



Preclinical results have hinted that d-limonene might help with <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9774566/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxious</a> moods. Many have wondered if it could work in combination with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-reduces-the-unwanted-side-effects-of-thc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a> to curb the uncomfortable restlessness some people feel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-d-limonene-the-basics">Understanding d-limonene - the basics</h2>



D-limonene is a natural compound that gives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citrus-fruits-where-did-they-come-from-and-how-would-we-live-without-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citrus fruits</a> their fresh, zesty smell. Basically, it's what makes oranges smell like oranges. 



It’s found in the peels of lemons, limes, oranges, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruits-and-plants-are-powerful-allies-for-disease-prevention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citrus fruits</a>, and companies often extract it to use in cleaning products, air fresheners, and even food flavorings. 



It’s oily, smells amazing, and happens to be a pretty effective solvent, which makes it great for cutting through grease and grime.



Some research suggests it might have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and even anti-cancer properties, though scientists are still figuring out the full picture. 



It’s also used in some natural insect repellents and eco-friendly products because it's biodegradable and less harsh than many synthetic chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-blends-vs-anxiety-changes">Cannabis blends vs. anxiety changes</h2>



Twenty healthy adults, averaging 26 years old, took part in as many as 10 test visits. 



Each participant inhaled various mixtures that included <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-impacts-working-memory-and-brain-function/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a> alone, d-limonene alone, a combination of both, or a placebo (4).



Researchers measured mood shifts, vital signs, and cognitive changes. They also examined blood and urine to see how THC and d-limonene moved through the body. 



The goal was to see if adding d-limonene could help people stay more at ease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-d-limonene-eased-cannabis-anxiety">D-limonene eased cannabis anxiety</h2>



The new <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871624001881" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> found that d-limonene lowered reports of anxious or paranoid feelings with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-potency-cannabis-use-linked-to-epigenetic-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a>. That was true when used with higher levels of THC.



Ratings of other THC effects, such as changes in thought patterns and overall relaxation, were not altered when d-limonene was introduced. 



The essential oil by itself produced no changes in mood, heart rate, or mental clarity that stood out from the placebo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-cannabis-anxiety">Managing cannabis anxiety</h2>



“Our study demonstrates that d-limonene can modulate the effects of THC in a meaningful way and make THC more tolerable to people using it for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes,” said Vandrey. 



His team believes adding d-limonene may widen the comfort range for folks who rely on THC, especially if they are prone to anxiety.



“This study is a first step in uncovering how we can mitigate risks of THC when used in medicine, and also is targeted at making cannabis safer for the general, non-therapeutic consumer,” said <a href="https://profiles.hopkinsmedicine.org/provider/tory-r-spindle/2777649" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tory Spindle, PhD</a>, associate professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at the Johns Hopkins University <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/som" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Medicine</a>.



He hopes to test other terpenes that may work in tandem with THC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-medical-treatments">Potential impact on medical treatments</h2>



THC-containing <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9223837/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicines</a> already help with certain conditions, such as chronic pain or chemotherapy-induced nausea. 



However, high doses can sometimes be challenging for people who are easily rattled by the psychoactive “high.”



More studies will show if d-limonene can consistently cushion those uneasy feelings. The prospect of an essential oil that smoothly partners with THC could change how some medical users approach dosing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thc-d-limonene-and-future-health">THC, d-limonene, and future health</h2>



Scientists plan to explore ways to administer THC and d-limonene together in oral forms. They are also eyeing different dose ranges that may yield the strongest relief.



They believe these steps will add clarity to how cannabis components mesh under real-world conditions. Larger, more diverse participant groups may reveal whether d-limonene works similarly for everyone.



There is still much to learn about how cannabis chemicals interact, especially in relation to anxiety. Though d-limonene appears promising, experts say these findings need to be replicated more widely.



People interested in experimenting with a d-limonene combination should talk to a healthcare provider. Personal tolerance matters, and controlled dosing is best done under professional guidance.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376871624001881?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drug and Alcohol Dependence</a>.



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Common essential oil proven to reduce cannabis-related anxiety and paranoia

Most people have heard that cannabis can boost mood, but...

<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a>Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich, floral aromas. But it's more than just a pleasant smell; these plant-released scents play a vital role in the lives of butterflies and moths.



A new <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> study reveals how daily changes in plant aromas influence feeding behaviors among winged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/">insects</a> that belong to the group known as Lepidoptera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-diets">Plant scent and insect diets</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, unveils the Salient Aroma Hypothesis.



This new idea proposes that the chemical cues plants release - particularly during the daytime - are instrumental in shaping how specialized, or how flexible, a butterfly or moth becomes in its diet



“This idea provides a new perspective on why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/">butterflies</a> and moths are picky eaters while others are not,” said Po-An Lin, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/">National Taiwan University</a>. “It also highlights the critical role of plant volatiles, or scents, in shaping insect-plant interactions and evolutionary adaptations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-picky-eaters-and-their-plant-choice">Picky eaters and their plant choice</h2>



Scientists already knew that many Lepidopterans are surprisingly fussy with their dietary choices.



The insects feed only on specific plant groups that cater to the nutritional or chemical needs of their offspring. Others are the polar opposite, feeding on a broad range of vegetation.



The hypothesis explains these extremes by focusing on how butterflies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/">moths</a> use their antennae to detect plant scents. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-antennae-size">Plant scent and insect antennae size</h2>



Researchers measured insect antennae on 582 specimens from 94 species and linked size to diet and activity patterns. 



Notably, they found that day-active females in particular had noticeably larger antennae than their nocturnal relatives. This adaptation allows them to detect and process the richer daytime scents in the environment.



“The relationship between antennal size and host plant breadth was very strong,” Felton said. “Larger antennal sizes have been associated with a greater number of sensilla, the sensory structures involved in the sense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/">smell</a>, thereby increasing the surface area for sensory receptors." 



"The enhanced capacity may be a key adaptation for how certain Lepidoptera have evolved to feed on a limited and specific range of plants."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-cues-and-evolution">Chemical cues and evolution</h2>



The scientists confirmed that most vegetation releases a more varied and abundant blend of volatile compounds during the day, in comparison with the night.



This disparity lines up with the greater complexity observed in the olfactory systems of day-active insects. Daytime feeders use abundant daytime chemical cues to find, identify, and eat the plants that best suit their needs.



“This finding demonstrates how the availability of chemical signals influences the evolution of sensory organs in insects,” Felton said. “It provides a fascinating example of how plants have played a direct role in shaping the evolution of the insects that rely on them.”



The study also traced the evolutionary lineages of butterflies and moths in the Lepidoptera family tree. Researchers mapped species’ daily activity and linked it to host plant preferences to reveal feeding behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-specialization-in-the-daylight">Scent specialization in the daylight</h2>



The outcome is a nuanced picture of insect-plant dynamics. Daytime pollinators, like monarch butterflies, use their large antennae to detect specific plant scents, and this guides them toward a narrow range of host plants. 



“Insect herbivores, such as butterflies and moths, must find the right plants to feed on and, in the case of females, to lay their eggs,” said Professor Lin. “This is a crucial decision because caterpillars depend entirely on the selected plant for survival. 



In contrast, unlike humans, who eat a variety of foods to stay healthy, many insect herbivores specialize in just a few plant species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-diets-in-the-nighttime-quiet">Broader diets in the nighttime quiet</h2>



Nocturnal moths like the Polyphemus, encounter fewer distinct plant aromas in the dark. Without rich scent cues to guide them, these insects are less likely to lock in on a single preferred food source. Their evolutionary solution? Broaden their diet to improve their odds of survival.



By revealing how something as subtle as the timing and volume of plant odors can direct dietary choices, this study expands our understanding of ecological networks.



The research highlights the delicate interplay between insect sensory capabilities and plant chemistry, laying the groundwork for future research into how these relationships shape biodiversity across ecosystems.



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Scents of survival: How plant aromas shape insect diets

Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich,...

An exceptionally well-preserved ant fossil encased in 16-million-year-old Dominican amber is offering scientists surprising new insights into the evolutionary journey of a rare group known as dirt ants, or Basiceros.



The fossilized ant - a previously unknown species named Basiceros enana - is the first of its kind ever uncovered in the Caribbean. The discovery suggests that these elusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> once inhabited the islands before vanishing during the Miocene epoch, which spanned from roughly 23 to 5.3 million years ago.



“Dirt ants are rare finds in the wild. Finding one today is exciting given how well they stay hidden, but captured in amber, it's like finding a diamond,” said Gianpiero Fiorentino, the study’s lead author and a PhD candidate at the <a href="https://www.njit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a> (NJIT). “This fossil is singularly distinct from all its modern relatives and reshapes the evolutionary history of Basiceros.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-a-dirt-ant-species">Discovery of a dirt ant species</h2>



Previously, all known members of this ant genus were limited to neotropical rainforests stretching from Costa Rica down to Southern Brazil. Currently, nine living Basiceros species are documented. 



The discovery of B. enana, however, raises new questions about how these ants once dispersed and colonized parts of the Caribbean.



“Often lineages will have what appear to be fairly straightforward biogeographic histories. If you find a group of animals that only live in South America up to Costa Rica today, you really have no reason to expect that their early relatives lived in the Caribbean,” said Phil Barden, senior author of the study and associate professor of biology at NJIT.&nbsp;



“A fossil like this underscores how the distribution of living species can belie the complex evolutionary history of life on our planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-dirt-ant-s-ancestry">Tracing the dirt ant's ancestry </h2>



To analyze the ancient ant, the team employed cutting-edge imaging methods, including Micro-CT scanning at NJIT and the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a>. These techniques enabled them to reconstruct the fossil in 3D and examine intricate anatomical details otherwise invisible.



“The use of Micro-CT scanning really amplified this study, enabling us to capture features that were virtually impossible to see otherwise,” Fiorentino explained.



The researchers compared these structural features to all known living dirt ant species and used molecular dating methods to trace the species' ancestry. Because amber preserves creatures in three dimensions, the team was able to collect extensive information from the small specimen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-fossil">Significance of the fossil</h2>



The fossil ant, measuring just 5.13 millimeters in length, is significantly smaller than its modern descendants, which can grow to nearly 9 millimeters. As a result, B. enana now holds the distinction of being the smallest member of its genus ever recorded.



“Our results show that the embiggening of these ants was relatively rapid,” Fiorentino said. “They almost doubled in size in the span of 20 million years." 



"Previous hypotheses suggested that these ants were ancestrally large and shrank over time, so this flips that on its head and really illustrates how important fossils can be to understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of a lineage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-camouflage-already-in-play">Ancient camouflage already in play</h2>



Yet despite its smaller size, B. enana already displayed some of the key adaptations that help modern dirt ants remain nearly invisible in their environment - a form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">camouflage</a> known as crypsis. 



These include two layers of specialized hairs designed to trap dirt and debris: long brush-like setae that lift particles and shorter, tighter hairs that hold them close to the body’s surface.



“What this shows is that playing dead and hiding pays off,” Fiorentino said. “Uncovering a unique fossil like this helps us understand how long organisms may have been employing this strategy, though the presence of these characteristics does not necessarily guarantee they behaved in this way.”



The fossil also shares other recognizable features with today’s dirt ants, such as curved propodeal spines, a distinctive trapezoidal head, and sharp mandibles lined with a dozen triangular teeth - traits suggesting a predatory lifestyle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-piece-of-a-larger-puzzle">A piece of a larger puzzle </h2>



Despite these survival advantages, Basiceros ants eventually disappeared from the Caribbean, likely due to dramatic environmental shifts during the Miocene. The team suggests that ancient land bridges might have allowed the ants to migrate from mainland South America to the islands.



“The presence of Basiceros in Dominican amber suggests ancient land bridges may have provided pathways for these ants to traverse from the mainland to the Caribbean,” Barden said. 



“This fossil is a piece of a larger puzzle that will help us understand why some groups of organisms undergo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> and others stick it out for millions of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-ants-in-the-caribbean">Loss of ants in the Caribbean</h2>



Fiorentino noted that the dirt ants' extinction could have come down to a loss of available niches or interspecific competition. 



"These ants are predators, and an overall trend that we see from the Caribbean is a loss of predator ant diversity," said Fiorentino.



“Over a third of ant genera have gone extinct on the island of modern-day Dominican Republic since the formation of Dominican amber. Understanding what has driven this pattern of local extinction is crucial to mitigating modern human-driven extinction and protecting biodiversity."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2171" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



Image Credit: Gianpiero Fiorentino (NJIT)



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Dirt ants were once masters of disguise in the Caribbean

An exceptionally well-preserved ant fossil encased in 16-million-year-old Dominican amber...

We speak to our dogs constantly - during walks, feeding, play, or even casual chatter. Most of us assume they respond only to tone or gestures, not the actual words, but new research challenges this belief.



A collaborative study from the Universities of <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincoln</a>, <a href="https://www.sussex.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sussex</a>, and <a href="https://www.univ-st-etienne.fr/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jean Monnet</a> has revealed that dogs can detect meaningful words even in monotone human speech.



The researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> are not just responding to our cheerful pet voices. They actually “listen in,” parsing out significant phrases from otherwise irrelevant sentences.



This raises fascinating questions about language perception, attention, and the impact of thousands of years of domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-don-t-need-baby-talk-speech">Dogs don’t need baby talk speech</h2>



Humans often use an exaggerated, happy tone when addressing dogs. This is called dog-directed speech (DDS), and it's designed to grab their attention - just like baby talk for infants.



Until now, it was assumed that this exaggerated tone helped dogs identify important words. But are they just reacting to pitch, or do they understand actual language?



The researchers created an experiment to test if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> could pick out meaningful content when speech lacked the familiar emotional tone. They used a stream of neutral sentences delivered in flat monotone and inserted familiar phrases like “[Dog’s name], come on then.” 



These phrases were spoken in either DDS or neutral reading prosody (NRP). The goal was to see if dogs could still identify these phrases without emotional clues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-are-really-good-listeners">Dogs are really good listeners </h2>



The findings were striking. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogs</a> consistently responded to commands spoken in monotone, ignoring the irrelevant surrounding words. In other words, they weren’t just reacting to tone they were actually parsing the speech for meaning.



"Dogs understand that we say their name to get their attention, and this is almost always paired with a happy 'baby talk' speech register because dogs prefer it," noted Dr. Holly Root-Gutteridge, one of the lead researchers.



"We wanted to see if dogs were only responding to this happy voice or if they could recognize their name, even when it was buried in a sentence and delivered in a flat voice."



"We found that dogs could absolutely find their name when presented in a monotone way and buried in stream of irrelevant speech - a prerequisite for comprehending language - and shows how good they are at listening to us."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-can-focus-on-relevant-speech">Dogs can focus on relevant speech </h2>



This capacity relates to what scientists call the “cocktail party effect” - our ability to focus on a single voice amid background noise.



Humans can pick out meaningful speech in a noisy room. This study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> may have a similar skill. Despite irrelevant noise and monotone delivery, they managed to isolate commands meant for them.



The dogs also performed better when a brief pause preceded the command, suggesting they use subtle structural cues to detect speech boundaries. This resembles how human infants learn to segment words.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-tone-boosts-attention">Emotional tone boosts attention</h2>



To better understand how tone and content influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dogs-say-goodbye-before-they-die-these-signs-will-tell-you-if-your-friend-is-leaving-soon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, the researchers ran two experiments. First, they examined responses to DDS and NRP with and without meaningful content. Then, they tested if dogs reacted differently based on the speaker’s gender.



In the prosody experiment, dogs showed the most attention to DDS with meaningful phrases. But they also responded - though less often - to meaningful words in neutral tone. Surprisingly, they reacted to DDS-control phrases (with no meaning) as much as to NRP-meaningful phrases.



"So, this means that they're listening to us all the time and can pick out their name, but they will pay more attention if you give them both cues. So, 'Sheba, come on then' gets more attention from her if you sound eager to see her," noted Dr. Root-Gutteridge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-aren-t-just-responding-to-tone">Dogs aren't just responding to tone </h2>



In a follow-up experiment, the researchers explored whether dogs responded differently to male and female owners. While women tend to use more exaggerated DDS, the dogs didn’t show a clear preference. Both male and female speakers prompted similar responses.



"We show that dogs can recognize speech information relevant to them in the absence of the usual prosody we use when we address them," noted Professor David Reby, the project’s lead.



This suggests that the ability to perceive verbal content isn't just a reaction to tone or pitch. It may be tied to something deeper, like neural architecture adapted through domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-break-speech-down">Dogs break speech down</h2>



Dogs may be using a process similar to speech segmentation, long studied in humans. This is the ability to split a continuous flow of sound into distinct, meaningful units. 



Infants learn it early on, using pitch, pauses, and patterns. Dogs seem to possess a version of this ability too.



They respond to repeated phonemes and meaningful words embedded in flat speech. Some even outperformed one-year-old human infants in earlier name-recognition tests. This points to a strong capacity for statistical learning and familiar sound identification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-understand-speech-content">Dogs understand speech content</h2>



The researchers concluded that while DDS helps grab attention, dogs can still process flat speech. This means our furry friends might understand more than we think - especially when we say something they’ve heard often.



Dogs' attention was highest when meaningful content was paired with DDS. However, they still showed notable responses when only one of these cues was present. So, if you’re giving commands without the usual cheerful tone, your dog might still catch on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-other-animals">Implications for other animals</h2>



This study has deep implications. It suggests that dogs aren't just tuned to our emotional expressions - they're truly listening for meaning. 



Future research might explore how well this applies to other species like cats or horses, or whether wild relatives like wolves show similar abilities.



The research team also hopes to study whether voice familiarity strengthens word recognition in dogs. Since human babies benefit from familiar voices, the same might be true for our pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-long-history-of-listening">A long history of listening</h2>



Dogs have evolved alongside humans for over 14,000 years. This deep bond likely shaped their ability to understand us. While we’ve long known they respond to tone, this study proves they’re paying closer attention than we assumed.



Their ability to sift through speech, identify relevant phrases, and respond - regardless of tone - marks a new chapter in human-animal communication.



And next time you think your dog isn’t paying attention because you didn’t use a cheerful voice - think again. They might be listening all along.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-025-01948-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Cognition</a>.



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Dogs can understand words even in monotone speech

We speak to our dogs constantly - during walks, feeding,...

In the rugged landscapes of Canada’s Rocky Mountains, researchers have identified a previously unknown butterfly species hiding in plain sight.&nbsp;



Long mistaken for the Half-moon Hairstreak (Satyrium semiluna), the butterflies found in the Blakiston Fan region have now been named Satyrium curiosolus, or the Curiously Isolated Hairstreak.



This discovery reveals the species’ unique evolutionary path, suggesting it has remained cut off from its closest relatives for tens of thousands of years - potentially as long as 40,000 years - slowly evolving into a distinct population both genetically and ecologically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-completely-isolated-butterfly-population">A completely isolated butterfly population</h2>



Zac MacDonald, co-first author of the study, is a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.ioes.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA’s Institute of the Environment and Sustainability</a>. 



“Our whole-genome sequencing of S. curiosolus revealed strikingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low genetic diversity</a> and exceptionally high levels of historical inbreeding compared to the geographically nearest S. semiluna populations in British Columbia and Montana, more than 400 km distant,” said MacDonald.



Despite its small size, the species appears to have persisted independently for millennia. “Like the Channel Island Fox, S. curiosolus may have purged some of its harmful recessive genetic variation through a long, gradual history of inbreeding, allowing it to persist as a small and completely isolated population today,” MacDonald added.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> is not only genetically distinct, but also occupies a unique prairie-grassland habitat, unlike its relatives, which typically reside in sagebrush steppe ecosystems. It has adapted to a different set of environmental conditions, relying exclusively on the silvery lupine (Lupinus argenteus) as its host plant - a species not used by S. semiluna populations in British Columbia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-mutualistic-partnership">A rare mutualistic partnership</h2>



In another unexpected twist, the study uncovered a mutualistic bond between S. curiosolus larvae and a specific ant species.&nbsp;



“Furthermore, we recently discovered that S. curiosolus larvae have mutualistic relationships with a particular species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> (Lasius ponderosae), which has not been observed in other S. semiluna populations,” said co-author James Glasier, an ecologist at the <a href="https://www.calgaryzoo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo</a>.



The caterpillars secrete a sugary substance known as honeydew, which the ants consume. In exchange, the ants protect the larvae from predators and parasites. 



Caterpillars even retreat into ant nests when disturbed or during extreme temperatures, while adult females strategically lay eggs near the entrances of ant colonies beneath silvery lupines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-canada-s-isolated-butterfly">Protecting Canada's isolated butterfly</h2>



Formally recognizing S. curiosolus as a distinct species has critical implications for conservation. Its long isolation has led to very low genetic variability, which can make adaptation to environmental shifts more difficult.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-foxes-montane-need-genetic-rescue-as-they-edge-near-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetic rescue</a> - introducing individuals from closely related populations to increase genetic diversity - is often proposed in such cases. But for S. curiosolus, this approach may not be feasible.



Due to the high degree of differentiation from S. semiluna, the risk of outbreeding depression - where introduced genes reduce fitness - is high. In fact, the species may not even be reproductively compatible with its closest relatives. 



Alternative conservation strategies, such as establishing new populations in safe habitats, may be necessary to preserve this butterfly’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genomic-tools-advance-biodiversity-studies">Genomic tools advance biodiversity studies</h2>



Co-first author Julian Dupuis, an assistant professor at the University of Kentucky, noted that the discovery of S. curiosolus is a powerful demonstration of how genomics is revolutionizing taxonomy and conservation.



“While traditional taxonomic methods often rely on morphology alone, our study underscores the importance of integrating genomic and ecological data to uncover hidden diversity," said Dupuis.



"With the rise of genomic tools, previously unrecognized species like S. curiosolus are being discovered, highlighting the need for conservation strategies that account for cryptic biodiversity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-complex-conservation-challenges">Tackling complex conservation challenges </h2>



This kind of research would not be possible without strong partnerships. Academic institutions, national parks, and conservation groups worked together to make the discovery possible.



“Our studies on S. curiosolus and S. semiluna highlight the importance of collaboration between academic scientists, nonprofit organizations, and conservation managers,” MacDonald said. “All of this work was made possible through partnerships between academic researchers, <a href="https://parks.canada.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parks Canada</a>, and the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo.”&nbsp;



“By combining expertise in genomics, field ecology, and conservation management, we were able to produce findings that not only reshape our understanding of biodiversity but also provide actionable insights for species protection.”&nbsp;



MacDonald noted that moving forward, these interdisciplinary collaborations will be critical for tackling complex conservation challenges and ensuring the long-term survival of species like S. curiosolus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-isolated-butterfly">Significance of the isolated butterfly </h2>



Now that the isolated butterfly Satyrium curiosolus has been officially recognized, the researchers emphasize that further study is needed. Investigating its evolutionary relationships, interactions with host plants and ant species, and responses to climate change will be essential. 



Long-term monitoring led by Parks Canada and the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo will help determine how the butterfly copes with ongoing environmental shifts.



“This is a wonderful example of how such monitoring can connect diverse approaches and impactful answers to a simple question like ‘that’s odd - why is it there?’” said senior author Felix Sperling, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alberta</a> and curator of the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/en/museums/museum-collections/eh-strickland-entomological-museum.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Strickland Museum of Entomology</a>.



For now, the Curiously Isolated Hairstreak serves as a reminder of how even the smallest, most overlooked creatures can play a vital role in our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> - and in shaping how we protect it for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/143893/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooKeys</a>.



Image Credit: MacDonald et al.



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‘Curiously isolated’ butterfly found in Canada's Rocky Mountains

In the rugged landscapes of Canada’s Rocky Mountains, researchers have...

For most of Earth’s first three billion years, oceans brimmed with single‑celled microbes that shuffled along at a slow biochemical pace -- life, but not complex. 



It lacked ample phosphorus, the nutrient every cell needs for DNA assembly, membrane stability, and ATP energy swaps. Rivers dripped only trace amounts of phosphorus into seawater, holding biology to pint‑size proportions and throttling evolutionary experiments in body size.



Evidence for that long famine sits in ancient mudstones, which contain scant phosphate minerals compared with younger rocks. 



Productivity lagged; oxygen production stayed low; food chains hid in microscopic layers. When phosphorus finally surged, life gained the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-ingredients-building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroid-bennu-dust-sample/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks</a> to try larger, more complex designs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-chaos-and-complex-life">Volcanic chaos and complex life</h2>



About 2.1 billion years ago, the Congo and São Francisco continental blocks slammed together. 



Their collision squeezed faults, stirred magma, and unleashed underwater volcanoes across a shallow inland sea now preserved as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franceville_basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Francevillian sub‑basin</a> in Gabon. 



Eruptions pumped phosphorus‑rich fluids straight into the water and walled the basin off from the wider ocean.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycling-in-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cyanobacteria</a> thrived in this enclosed lagoon, releasing oxygen and burying carbon as fast as nutrients arrived. 



The chemical bloom raised local energy budgets many times over, creating conditions that favored bigger bodies and cooperative cell assemblies rather than lone bacterial drifters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-discovery-challenges-timeline">Fossil discovery challenges timeline</h2>



Black shales from the basin hold disc‑shaped, ribbon‑shaped, and leaf‑shaped impressions up to six inches long - giants for their day. 



Their regular outlines and clustering hint at biological growth rather than odd mineral concretions. They appear in the same sedimentary layers that show the phosphorus spike, linking anatomy to chemistry.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/earth_complex-life_began-much-earlier_lobate-macrofossils_credit-UPoitiers_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/earth_complex-life_began-much-earlier_lobate-macrofossils_credit-UPoitiers_1s.webp" alt="The team’s research provides strong validation for the biological affinity of the lobate macrofossils whose validity has been widely debated in the scientific community. Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France" class="wp-image-1966454"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The team’s research provides strong validation for the biological affinity of the lobate macrofossils whose validity has been widely debated in the scientific community. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France</figcaption></figure>



If these forms truly represent multicellular life, they push the arrival of complex organisms back by roughly 1.5 billion years. 



That jump rewrites the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-life-ice-ages-gave-evolution-a-kick-start/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary timeline</a>, showing that animals were not the first to test large size; earlier prototypes surfaced when nutrients and oxygen briefly aligned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-meets-biology">Chemistry meets biology</h2>



The new work, led by <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a> geobiologist Dr. Ernest Chi Fru, pairs detailed rock chemistry with fossil mapping. 



“The availability of phosphorus in the environment is thought to be a key component in the evolution of life on Earth, especially in the transition from simple single‑celled organisms to complex organisms like animals and plants," Dr. Chi Fru explained.



“We already know that increases in marine phosphorus and seawater oxygen concentrations are linked to an episode of biological evolution around 635 million years ago. Our study adds another, much earlier episode into the record, 2.1 billion years ago.”



Digging into the basin’s history, Dr. Chi Fru explained that the volcanic activity following the collision of continental blocks likely isolated the basin from the global ocean, creating a nutrient-rich inland sea. 



This stable environment supported abundant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-once-a-green-marble-before-its-oceans-turned-blue/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyanobacterial photosynthesis</a>, which in turn oxygenated the water and generated enough energy to support larger, more complex life forms like those seen in the fossils from the period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-complex-life-experiment-stalled">Why the complex life experiment stalled</h2>



Outside the Francevillian lagoon, oceans still lacked phosphorus and carried little oxygen. Larger creatures would have struggled in those harsh surroundings. 



The basin’s shoreline barrier turned the ecosystem into a biological bubble; when volcanic vents cooled and nutrient flow faded, conditions reverted and the macro‑organisms vanished.



Their failure to spread shows that evolution tests possibilities whenever resources allow, but those trials can fizzle if the wider planet remains hostile. 



Complexity needs both innovation and the freedom to roam - something the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proterozoic world</a> could not yet provide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-steps-to-modern-animals">Two steps to modern animals</h2>



Researchers see a “two‑step” path. The Francevillian pulse marks step one, following the first known rise in atmospheric oxygen. 



Step two arrived nearly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.5 billion years later</a>, when another oxygen surge met a more sustained supply of nutrients during the Ediacaran period. 



That tandem lifted complex life beyond isolated pockets, setting the stage for the Cambrian explosion and the diverse animals that populate Earth now.



The record hints that ample phosphorus may be as critical as oxygen for forging ecosystems full of active, energy‑demanding organisms. Without both factors in play, biology tends to stay microscopic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Astrobiologists comb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-on-the-dwarf-planet-ceres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet atmospheres</a> for oxygen because it signals possible photosynthesis. The Francevillian story suggests they should also weigh a planet’s phosphorus cycle. 



A world awash in oxygen but starved of phosphate could linger in a microbial phase for eons. Conversely, tectonic quirks that sprinkle oceans with phosphate might jump‑start evolutionary leaps.



Phosphorus, then, is more than fertilizer for terrestrial crops. It is a potential cosmic throttle on complexity, deciding whether life remains small or reaches for new biological heights.



-----



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301926824001669?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Precambrian Research</a>.



Image Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France



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Is this a fossil? If so, complex life on Earth emerged 1.5 billion years earlier

For most of Earth’s first three billion years, oceans brimmed...

Dolphins in waters around the United Kingdom have faced mounting pressure from chemical pollution over the past few decades. Many short-beaked common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dolphin-day-2025-honoring-the-oceans-most-playful-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> have washed ashore, and reports show they carried worrying levels of toxins in their tissue.



Rosie Williams, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.zsl.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Society of London</a>, noted that once-banned chemicals and changing sea temperatures could be adding to these animals’ health troubles.



In particular, researchers have pointed to shifts in the water’s characteristics and high burdens of polychlorinated biphenyls (<a href="https://www.epa.gov/pcbs/learn-about-polychlorinated-biphenyls" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PCBs</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chemicals-and-heat-harm-dolphins">How chemicals and heat harm dolphins</h2>



PCBs were widely used in manufacturing for a long time. In the 1980s, officials in the U.K. decided these chemicals were too dangerous and outlawed them because of their toxic nature.



Despite that move, it seems that residues of these compounds are still entering the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-pod-of-1500-dolphins-captured-in-stunning-drone-footage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. Some experts believe that old industrial sites leak traces into waterways, and these flows eventually reach marine habitats.



In the meantime, sea surface temperatures appear to be edging higher in parts of the U.K. This warming of the water can put stress on many species, including dolphins that rely on stable conditions for feeding and other life processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-suffer-from-toxins">Dolphins suffer from toxins</h2>



Short-beaked common dolphins rank high up in food chains, which makes them prone to storing more toxins in their bodies. Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-dolphins-who-play-with-others-become-successful-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> at lower levels carry smaller amounts of these compounds, but dolphins can accumulate bigger doses by eating prey that has already absorbed contaminants.



“Their position at the top of the food web means that toxins from their prey accumulate in their blubber, providing a concentrated snapshot of chemical pollutants in the ocean – though unfortunately at the expense of their health,” said Thea Taylor, managing director of <a href="https://sussexdolphinproject.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sussex Dolphin Project</a>.



When PCBs gather in the fatty tissues of these animals, trouble can follow. According to researchers, these toxins might hurt dolphins’ immune systems, leaving them more vulnerable to various infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-damage-in-stranded-dolphins">Chemical damage in stranded dolphins </h2>



In an effort to pinpoint the causes of their deaths, experts analyzed data from short-beaked common dolphins that were found stranded on U.K. shores. The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07858-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> revealed a worrying connection between PCB levels and mortality from infectious diseases.



The researchers noted that every slight rise in PCB load carried a higher chance of fatal infections. They also found that spikes in sea temperatures often matched a jump in disease risk.



Some of these illnesses included gastritis, enteritis, bacterial complications, and pneumonia. In many cases, they turned fatal once the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-and-whales-got-new-backbones-for-life-in-the-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>’ immune defenses weakened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-water-temperatures">The role of water temperatures</h2>



Scientists suggest that warmer waters might also shift prey distributions. That could complicate the dolphins’ feeding patterns, leaving them in worse shape and more likely to get sick.



Some experts worry that higher temperatures might boost the activity of disease-causing organisms in the ocean. If pathogens grow faster, dolphins become more likely to encounter them.



Taken together, these factors seem to form a harmful cycle: weaker dolphins, more pathogens, and chemicals that make everything worse. A multi-layered plan is needed to address all these pressures at once.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-chemicals-still-pollute-waters">Old chemicals still pollute waters</h2>



Even though PCBs were banned in the U.K. more than 40 years ago, they remain a concern. They have a tendency to cling to sediment and can linger in the environment for very long periods.



Certain manufacturing processes still lead to trace amounts of PCBs that find their way into water. Regulators face a tough challenge in tightening controls and removing older sources of these chemicals.



Rosie Williams has pointed out that these persistent compounds keep surfacing in new samples. Some are found in estuaries or coastal areas where industrial runoff takes a toll.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-protective-measures">A call for protective measures</h2>



Marine biologists often describe <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/early-bloom-toxic-algae-southern-california-sickens-hundreds-sea-lions-and-dolphins" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a>, heavy metals, and chemical pollutants in ocean waters as forces that aggravate existing <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389423014863" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">threats</a>. A rise in sea temperature comes on top of everything else, stacking stress upon stress.



“The ocean is facing ‘a triple planetary crisis’ – climate change, pollution and biodiversity loss – but we often look at threats in isolation,” said Williams.



She and her fellow authors believe that better management of industrial waste and more effective water treatment will help break this cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-ocean-chemicals-to-save-dolphins">Tackling ocean chemicals to save dolphins</h2>



Environmental groups have tried to remove contaminated sediments through dredging in certain places. Others hope to enhance filtration techniques so persistent chemicals get trapped before they spread any further.



Experts also note that PCBs are not the only cause for concern. Similar substances, like perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (<a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PFAS</a>), also carry toxic <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es001834k" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> that might harm both wildlife and people if not regulated.



“While we cannot reverse the contamination that has already occurred, it is critical to prevent further chemical inputs into the environment,” said Taylor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphin-health-shows-marine-future">Dolphin health shows marine future</h2>



Many researchers agree that dolphins serve as a valuable bellwether for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-mercury-levels-discovered-in-dolphins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> health. If top predators suffer, it can reflect risks to smaller organisms and ultimately to human communities too.



Environmental scientists have stressed that these findings should guide policies for marine protection. Even though we cannot simply erase toxins already in the waters, curbing any additional discharge might limit the damage over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-chemicals-for-dolphin-survival">Reducing chemicals for dolphin survival</h2>



Going forward, experts will determine which regions have the highest levels of PCB pollution. Some areas may need urgent interventions, especially if incidents of dolphin stranding keep increasing.



Ecosystems are complicated, and climate shifts could spark changes that no one has fully predicted. Observers hope that early and decisive action will give marine life a chance to adapt without getting overwhelmed by chemical burdens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07858-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Dolphins face serious threats from chemical pollution and ocean warming

Dolphins in waters around the United Kingdom have faced mounting...

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from the age of dinosaurs sounds like pure fantasy, yet that is exactly what happened on England’s west coast. 



A stretch of shoreline below Somerset’s crumbling cliffs yielded a bone so large that it challenged everything we thought we knew about prehistoric marine reptiles. 



The fossil - a lower jaw more than 6½ feet long - promised a creature leagues beyond anything alive today. The find dated to around 202 million years ago, slotting it into the turbulent final chapter of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic Period</a>.



At that time, much of what is now Britain lay beneath a warm, shallow sea patrolled by meat‑eating giants. Their reign ended in a mass extinction, leaving only scattered bones to whisper their stories - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruby-and-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Ruby and Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



Back in late&nbsp;May&nbsp;2020, 11‑year‑old Ruby&nbsp;Reynolds and her father, Justin, headed for the mudflats of Blue&nbsp;Anchor, looking for fossils. 



Justin spotted a four‑inch scrap of bone, “bigger than any piece of bone I'd ever found before,” he recalls. 



Ruby wandered on and unearthed a second fragment twice that size. “It was just sort of lying there,” she says. “I was just happy, really.” Their excitement would soon ripple far beyond the shoreline.



Word reached paleontologist Dean&nbsp;Lomax, who holds posts at both the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>. He recognized echoes of another Somerset specimen lifted in&nbsp;2016 by local collector Paul&nbsp;de&nbsp;la&nbsp;Salle. 



That earlier jaw fragment, called a surangular, came together from several chunks that, Lomax remembers, “fit together perfectly like an ancient prehistoric jigsaw puzzle.”



Ruby's discovery was eventually named Ichthyotitan severnensis, which literally translates to “giant fish lizard from the Severn.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ichthyotitan-severnensis-was-a-true-monster">Ichthyotitan severnensis was a true monster</h2>



The first bone’s eroded edges left scientists yearning for more. “It suggests that it was from something unusual and exceedingly large,”&nbsp;Lomax says. 



He and colleagues published a cautious description, but could not pin down the creature’s identity. “What we'd hoped for - we kept our fingers crossed - we hoped that maybe more specimens would come to light in the future,” he admits.



Ruby and Justin’s beachside haul delivered exactly that. After they emailed photographs - “Hey, Dr.&nbsp;Lomax - we think we've found another one of your giant ichthyosaur jawbones”&nbsp;-&nbsp;the research team raced to Somerset. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1s.webp" alt="Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax" class="wp-image-1966376"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax</figcaption></figure>



“Of course, they were quite right,” Lomax says. “They correctly identified these sections of bone as belonging to an ichthyosaur.” 



Fresh collecting trips recovered still more pieces, leaving nearly two‑thirds of the jaw intact and in excellent shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-two-huge-jawbones">Matching two huge jawbones</h2>



Comparison of the two Somerset jaws revealed striking similarities. Because both turned up in the same rock layer and displayed uncommon internal bone textures, the team concluded they belonged to one new species. 



In a paper published in PLOS&nbsp;ONE, they proposed that the full animal stretched roughly&nbsp;82&nbsp;feet - “genuinely enormous, about the length of a blue whale,” Lomax says.



Scale alone does not grant a place in the record books; scientists also scrutinized microscopic structures inside the bone. 



These matched the odd pattern seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fiona-the-ichthyosaur-was-preserved-for-millions-of-years-after-a-landslide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super‑sized ichthyosaurs</a>, nudging researchers to suggest these reptiles grew in a way unlike most of their scaly kin.



Whether Ichthyotitan severnensis belonged to the shastasaur group - the clade that once produced Triassic leviathans across the globe - remains uncertain until a complete skeleton surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sizing-up-ichthyotitan">Sizing up Ichthyotitan</h2>



The Somerset titan likely carried a lighter, more streamlined frame suited for open‑ocean cruising. Its jawbone alone outsizes a grown person by several feet. 



If its proportions followed relatives such as Shonisaurus, the skull may have spanned over&nbsp;10&nbsp;feet, with paddle‑shaped flippers stretching wider than a living‑room couch.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1966374"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



Growth to such dimensions suggests a sea rich in food and free of bigger predators. Massive schools of squid‑like cephalopods thrived in Triassic waters, offering a banquet to long‑roaming hunters. 



Stable‑isotope evidence from other ichthyosaur bones hints at warm‑blooded metabolisms, which, paired with live birth and sleek bodies, let them fill whale‑like niches long before mammals took the plunge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-triassic-was-incredible">Life in the Triassic was incredible</h2>



The Triassic often flies under the radar next to the Jurassic’s celebrity dinosaurs, yet biomechanist Kelsey&nbsp;Stilson calls it “a really weird time.” 



Continents had only just fused into <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangaea</a>, monsoon‑driven climates swung from drought to deluge, and both early dinosaurs and mammals were fresh on the scene. 



“There were things that we can't even possibly imagine in the past,”&nbsp;Stilson adds. “But we can get little hints, and this is one little hint at this larger picture of evolution on Earth.”



That broader picture shows ichthyosaurs rising fast after the end‑Permian mass extinction, then peaking in size just before the next cataclysm. 



“No marine reptile ever reached such gigantic sizes ever again,”&nbsp;Lomax notes. Later Jurassic and Cretaceous ichthyosaurs shrank, perhaps pushed aside by changing oceans and by the emergence of other reptilian predators such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pliosaurs</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-replaced-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Whales replaced Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



The last ichthyosaurs disappeared about&nbsp;94&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, vacating the top spot in marine food webs. 



That gap lingered until hoofed mammals ventured back to sea some&nbsp;50&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, setting whales on their own path to titanic proportions. 



The repeat story - big fish‑shaped predators evolving from land‑going ancestors - highlights how evolutionary solutions recur when similar ecological opportunities arise.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1s.webp" alt="A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy." class="wp-image-1966372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy.</figcaption></figure>



Modern blue whales now stretch beyond&nbsp;100&nbsp;feet and can weigh&nbsp;180&nbsp;tons, yet, length for length, they share the open ocean’s realm with Ichthyotitan in the fossil archives. 



Their stories highlight the ocean’s capacity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trachelosaurus-fischeri-worlds-oldest-long-necked-marine-reptile-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurture behemoths</a> when food is ample and competition sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Somerset’s cliffs erode a little more each winter. Storms tear at ancient mudstones, exposing new fossils overnight. 



“This research has been ongoing for almost eight years. It is quite remarkable to think that gigantic, blue whale‑sized ichthyosaurs were swimming in the oceans around what was the UK during the Triassic Period," Lomax concluded.



"These jawbones provide tantalizing evidence that perhaps one day a complete skull or skeleton of one of these giants might be found. You never know.”



Beachcombers like Ruby and Justin now scan those shores with renewed purpose. Their lucky strike reminds us that scientific breakthroughs sometimes hide in plain sight, waiting for curious eyes and a little persistence. 



The sea claimed Ichthyotitan severnensis long before humans walked Europe, yet its story shows that even after millions of years, a coast‑side ramble can rewrite natural history.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0300289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Largest marine reptile ever known to exist was discovered by an 11-year-old girl

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from...

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum spell out existence with the same four DNA letters. Ribosomes read that code, snap together twenty familiar amino acids, and pay each cellular bill with the energy token ATP.



That sameness keeps biologists chasing one big puzzle: if the instructions are nearly identical everywhere, who wrote the first edition? 



The answer points to LUCA - the Last Universal Common Ancestor - an organism that sat at the split between Bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-the-pressure-builds-archaea-go-multicellular/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaea</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-genetic-code-one-single-ancestor">One genetic code, one single ancestor</h2>



Living systems are not fond of coincidence. A single genetic alphabet, the same protein‑making machinery, and a universal energy currency add up to more than luck. 



“The evolutionary history of genes is complicated by their exchange between lineages," explained Dr. Edmund Moody, lead author from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. His team sifted thousands of genomes to see how far back the shared toolkit stretches.



"We have to use complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary models</a> to reconcile the evolutionary history of genes with the genealogy of species.” 



By letting the data, rather than strict cutoffs, decide which features belonged to LUCA, the researchers landed on roughly 2,600 genes - about as many as a run‑of‑the‑mill modern bacterium carries. 



Co-author Dr. Tom Williams noted, “One of the real advantages here is applying the gene‑tree species‑tree reconciliation approach to such a diverse dataset representing the primary domains of life, Archaea and Bacteria. This allows us to say with some confidence - and assess that level of confidence - in how LUCA lived.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-developmental-toolkit">LUCA's developmental toolkit</h2>



Previous estimates swung from a lean 80‑gene outline to libraries topping 1,500 families. The updated theory paints LUCA as anything but a genetic ghost. 



Inside those 2,600 blueprints are membrane pumps, DNA‑repair crews, and all the ingredients for simple lipids. Better still, the cache includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood%E2%80%93Ljungdahl_pathway" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wood–Ljungdahl pathway</a>, a tidy chemical loop that welds carbon dioxide to hydrogen, spits out acetate, and releases usable energy in the process.



Such provisions point to a self‑reliant cell thriving without outside help. That picture challenges older ideas that early life was a stripped‑down passenger riding geology’s coattails toward complexity. 



Instead, LUCA seems to have been capable, adaptable, and ready to try new tricks the moment the planet cooled enough to keep liquid water in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-hydrothermal-vents">Chemistry of hydrothermal vents</h2>



Tracking gene changes throughout Earth's history, the study dates LUCA to about 4.2 billion years ago, only a few hundred million years after Earth itself pulled together. 



“We did not expect LUCA to be so old, within just hundreds of millions of years of Earth formation. However, our results fit with modern views on the habitability of early Earth,” said <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/persons/sandra-alvarez-carretero?_gl=1*1vhoh1m*_ga*NzU0MjM5MjI2LjE3NDQ5Mjc5MDk.*_ga_6R8SPL3HLT*MTc0NDkzMTg1Ni4yLjEuMTc0NDkzMTk2Mi42MC4wLjA." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Sandra Álvarez‑Carretero</a>.



Back then, asteroid impacts and belching volcanoes regularly upended the crust. Yet seafloor hydrothermal vents likely offered warm, metal‑rich oases. 



Iron, nickel, and sulfur minerals could have driven the very reactions scripted in LUCA’s genome. 



The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, still used by some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">present‑day microbes</a>, fits neatly into that setting, turning vent chemistry into food and fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-peace-was-short-lived">LUCA's peace was short-lived</h2>



“Our study showed that LUCA was a complex organism, not too different from modern prokaryotes. What is really interesting is that it clearly possessed an early immune system, showing that even by 4.2 billion years ago, our ancestor was already engaged in an arms race with viruses,” said <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Davide-Pisani-27ef6f2a-19b3-4474-b71c-e61f2c8585a4/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Davide Pisani</a>. 



Genes resembling today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> defenses suggest viral predators appeared almost as soon as cells did.



This constant sparring matters. Viral raids can shuffle genes between hosts faster than random mutation alone. 



The pressure to dodge infection forces microbes to innovate, potentially speeding up the invention of new enzymes, pathways, and even entire metabolic lifestyles that later lineages would inherit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-sharing-space-with-luca">Microbes sharing space with LUCA</h2>



It’s clear that LUCA was exploiting and changing its environment, but it is unlikely to have lived alone. 



"Its waste would have been food for other microbes, like methanogens, that would have helped to create a recycling ecosystem,” observed Tim Lenton from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>. 



In modern hydrothermal vents, acetate‑producers and methane‑makers trade leftovers, smoothing local chemistry and stabilizing energy flows.



Similar give‑and‑take could explain how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-early-earth-a-purple-planet-scientists-say-its-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Earth</a> cycled carbon and hydrogen long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> took the stage. 



By knitting together waste and resource, hydrothermal vent communities may have tempered extreme swings in temperature and acidity, opening fresh niches for the next wave of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary experiments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-luca-matter">Why does LUCA matter?</h2>



“The findings and methods employed in this work will also inform future studies that look in more detail into the subsequent evolution of prokaryotes in light of Earth history, including the lesser‑studied Archaea with their methanogenic representatives,” said Professor Anja Spang, co-author from the Royal Netherlands <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Sea Research</a>.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Philip-Donoghue-4fd2d6ef-3986-4566-97e4-7ae7db296525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Philip Donoghue</a> highlighted the interdisciplinary nature of the work, saying it brought together data and techniques from across multiple fields. 



This collaborative approach, he explained, made it possible to uncover insights into early Earth and the origins of life that no single discipline could have revealed on its own. 



He also pointed out how swiftly ecosystems seem to have taken root on the early planet - an observation that opens the door to the possibility that life might be thriving on other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-k2-18b-strongest-evidence-yet-of-extraterrestrial-life-discovered-webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-like worlds</a> in the universe.



"This suggests that life may be flourishing on Earth‑like biospheres elsewhere in the universe," Donoghue concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



To sum it all up, each genome pulled from ocean mud or desert crust adds a puzzle piece to LUCA’s portrait. 



As sequencing tech grows faster and cheaper, scientists will keep hunting for ancient gene families, refining the ancestral blueprint, and scoping out early viral fossils hidden in microbial DNA. 



New drilling missions aimed at untouched seafloor vents could reveal communities whose lifestyles echo those first biochemical gambles, tightening links between geology and genetics.



The storyline is still unfolding, but one takeaway already stands firm: life did not tiptoe onto the stage. It sprinted, armed with a full toolkit, ready to spar with viruses, and eager to reshape its surroundings - leaving every organism alive today carrying a hint of that four‑billion‑year‑old spark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02461-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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All life on Earth comes from one single ancestor, now we know what it was

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum...

In cities around the world, empty lots and old industrial sites are being transformed into patches of color and life through the planting of wildflowers. These green spaces are meant to help pollinators such as bees and butterflies, providing much-needed food sources from urban wildflowers.



But new research suggests that the soil in which these flowers are planted might be doing more harm than good for the plants and their pollinators.



A team of scientists discovered that wildflowers growing on previously developed land - including sites where buildings and factories once stood - can take up harmful metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, and chromium.



These metals don’t just stay in the plants. They end up in the nectar that pollinators feed on, introducing toxic substances directly into their diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polluted-roots-of-urban-wildflowers">Polluted roots of urban wildflowers</h2>



Many cities, particularly older ones, have soil that’s been exposed to decades of industrial activity. Sources including cement dust, mining runoff, and vehicle emissions leave behind long-lasting contaminants which can affect urban wildflowers.



In the post-industrial city of Cleveland, Ohio - where the study took place - over 33,000 vacant lots remain from years of population decline and industrial use. Researchers tested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sipping-on-nectar-hummingbirds-consume-a-surprising-amount-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectar</a> from common self-seeding wildflowers growing in these urban spaces.



The wildflowers included white clover, wild carrot, bindweed, and chicory - plants known to attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-bees-choose-the-same-flowers-again-and-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> and provide nectar throughout the growing season. Every plant tested contained at least one toxic metal.



Lead was the most common and found in the highest concentrations. The amount and type of metal varied by plant species. 



Chicory had the highest total metal levels, followed by white clover, wild carrot, and bindweed. These are not rare or exotic flowers - they grow widely across cities in both the U.S. and the UK, often planted intentionally as part of pollinator-friendly initiatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-wildflowers-affect-bee-health">Urban wildflowers affect bee health</h2>



Even small amounts of metal in nectar can affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-quality-and-biodiversity-impact-bee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee health</a>. Previous studies have shown that these contaminants damage pollinators’ ability to learn and remember, which directly affects how well they can forage for food. 



In extreme cases, the toxins can lead to population decline and even death. Reducing the risk of metal exposure is critical for the success of urban pollinator conservation schemes, according to the researchers.



They also noted that certain plants are more likely to absorb these contaminants than others - a fact that should inform future planting strategies. 



One solution is to test soil quality before sowing wildflowers. Polluted areas might need to be cleaned up first.



In places where harmful metals are already present, managing wildflowers through regular mowing may help. Limiting their bloom time can reduce the amount of contaminated nectar available to bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-can-benefit-from-wildflower-soil">Bees can benefit from wildflower soil</h2>



Dr. Sarah Scott is an expert in the University of Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Zoology</a> and the study’s lead author.



“It’s really important to have wildflowers as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-bees-reveal-that-urban-gardens-are-a-good-source-of-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food source for the bees</a>, and our results should not discourage people from planting wildflowers in towns and cities,” Dr. Scott explained.



“We hope this study will raise awareness that soil health is also important for bee health. Before planting wildflowers in urban areas to attract bees and other pollinators, it’s important to consider the history of the land and what might be in the soil - and if necessary - find out whether there’s a local soil testing and cleanup service available first.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-practical-way-to-support-pollinators">A practical way to support pollinators</h2>



Pollinators are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vital</a> to the world’s food supply. They help plants - including fruits and vegetables such as apples and tomatoes - develop and reproduce.



Natural pollination is estimated to contribute billions of dollars to global crop production each year. But wild pollinator populations have plummeted by over 50% in the past 50 years, largely due to habitat loss, land use changes, pesticides, and climate change.



“Climate change feels so overwhelming, but simply planting flowers in certain areas can help towards conserving pollinators, which is a realistic way for people to make a positive impact on the environment,” said Dr. Scott.



This new research serves as a reminder that while planting wildflowers is a step in the right direction, the quality of the land they’re planted on matters just as much. 



A colorful patch of blooms may look like a haven for bees - but if the soil beneath holds a toxic past, it could turn into a hidden hazard.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.71238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Urban wildflowers may be harming bees

In cities around the world, empty lots and old industrial...

In the dense rainforests of the Republic of Congo, western lowland gorillas are often seen foraging through the soil. They were long assumed to be foraging for insects, but recent research has turned this assumption on its head. 



The real prize hidden in the dirt is not insects at all, but deer truffles - specifically, a species known as Elaphomyces labyrinthinus.



This revelation not only reshapes our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorilla</a> behavior, but also highlights the deep value of traditional ecological knowledge. The research, from the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, reveals how primates are deeply connected to their forest environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-truffle-eating-gorillas">Discovery of truffle-eating gorillas</h2>



The study was led by Gaston Abea, a member of the semi-nomadic Bangombe people and the first Indigenous person in Ndoki to become the lead author of a peer-reviewed scientific paper. 



Born in the village of Bomassa, Abea brought together deep cultural understanding, sharp observational skills, and modern scientific methods to uncover the truth behind soil-scratching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-gorillas-self-aware-new-research-challenges-old-assumptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorillas</a>.



Abea spent over a decade working at the Mondika and Goualougo field stations, tracking gorilla behavior. His local tracker background gave him a unique perspective, helping him spot patterns others might miss.



"My people's traditional knowledge of these forests is endangered by modern lifestyles but is proving invaluable in continuing to study and preserve these ecosystems," said Abea.



His work strengthens the growing recognition of Indigenous perspectives in conservation, though academic research still often overlooks them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truffle-digging-is-a-regular-behavior">Truffle digging is a regular behavior </h2>



To understand this behavior, the researchers conducted daily observations of four different gorilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> across two sites: the Goualougo Triangle and the Djéké Triangle. They observed these groups nearly every day for almost ten years, documenting each instance of soil scratching.



The team also used molecular classification tools to identify the truffles being foraged. They conducted group scans to determine how much time gorillas spent searching for truffles. 



Then, the researchers used video observations to measure how efficient the animals were during these foraging bouts. Over time, the pattern became clear: soil scratching was a consistent strategy to find deer truffles, not an aimless search or an insect hunt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-gorillas-dig-more-than-others">Some gorillas dig more than others</h2>



Interestingly, not all gorilla groups embraced this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> equally. Soil scratching was most frequent in Buka’s group, followed by Kingo’s and Mététélé’s groups. 



In contrast, the Loya-Makassa group rarely engaged in truffle foraging. The behavior’s distribution seems tied partly to the availability of truffles, but not entirely.



Social factors appear to influence the practice as well. In one striking example, an adult female gorilla moved from a group that rarely scratched soil to one that did so almost daily. She soon began to mirror the habits of her new group, suggesting that cultural transmission may shape how gorillas forage.



"This is an exciting finding for our understanding of gorilla foraging behavior," said David Morgan of the <a href="https://www.lpzoo.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincoln Park Zoo</a>, who worked on the study and has spent years researching in Ndoki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-carefully-select-truffles">Gorillas carefully select truffles</h2>



One of the most vivid pieces of evidence came from a gorilla named Jeanne. Photographed in the Goualougo Triangle, Jeanne was seen scraping away forest leaf litter with her hands. 



Once the gorilla exposed the soil, she pinched her fingers together and brought a small round object - presumably a truffle - to her mouth. This precise motion defined a successful foraging attempt and offered a glimpse into just how deliberate the behavior is.



The study's inclusion in a special issue of the journal Primates marked a milestone. The issue celebrated 25 years of research in the Ndoki forest and brought attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-early-primates-lived-in-pairs-and-were-not-solitary-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> that may have otherwise gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-truffle-foraging-traditions">Protecting truffle-foraging traditions</h2>



Abea’s findings were incorporated into an ecological impact assessment for the Djéké Triangle.



As a result, conservation managers decided to adjust planned locations for tourism-related infrastructure. The aim was to protect areas where truffle foraging occurs regularly, ensuring this unique behavior could continue undisturbed.



"This is Gaston's first article as lead author - a milestone for his career and for our capacity-building efforts," said Morgan. "He is the first research assistant of Indigenous People's origin to become first author, in the Ndoki landscape." 



The decision to shift construction plans also highlights a growing understanding of cultural behavior in wildlife. These are not just instinctive acts but socially-influenced practices that may vary by group and change with experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-gorilla-hunters-to-guardians">From gorilla hunters to guardians</h2>



Abea’s story represents more than scientific achievement. It also reflects a cultural shift within his own community. He is one of over 100 Congolese research assistants trained since 2005 at Ndoki, many of whom come from nearby villages and Indigenous Ba’Aka communities.



"Our ancestors used to hunt gorillas, now we protect them, and I hope to inspire other Ba'Akas to do the same," said Abea.



His journey, from a boy in Bomassa to lead author of a major scientific article, mirrors the broader transformation in conservation thinking - one that values the voices and wisdom of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-insights-shape-global-research">Local insights shape global research</h2>



While the knowledge about gorillas and foraging for truffles is slowly gaining recognition in the sciences, it still appears too rarely in published research. This study shows how blending local knowledge with science can reveal key insights into animal behavior and ecosystem health.



"This paper shows how much traditional ecological knowledge, scientific research, and conservation can benefit from each other," said Dr. Sydney Ndolo, second author of the paper and now professor of Botany at Université Marien Ngouabi in Brazzaville.



"Local cultures will only survive if they are properly valued, and research is an important means of achieving this."



Through Abea’s work and this study, a hidden part of gorilla life now comes into view - one shaped by truffles, food, forest, and social bonds. And alongside it, the role of Indigenous knowledge in science gains new ground.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10329-024-01151-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Primates</a>.



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Gorillas are digging for a surprising food in the jungle soil

In the dense rainforests of the Republic of Congo, western...

A honeybee colony seems like a perfect model of unity. Inside the hive, thousands of individuals work in rhythm. Foragers seek nectar. Water collectors hydrate the group. Ventilators fan their wings to cool the brood. Guard bees monitor the entrance. 



In this coordinated dance, defense is critical - but personality plays a role, and not all bees choose to sting.



What triggers a bee to sting? Why do some launch themselves into action while others hold back? A new study from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> has explored these questions.



Researchers discovered that not only do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-bees-choose-the-same-flowers-again-and-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> differ in their readiness to sting, but their personalities remain consistent across time and context. The hive may move as one, but decisions start within the individual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-choose-to-sting-or-abstain">Bees choose to sting or abstain</h2>



Doctoral student Kavitha Kannan and neurobiologist Morgane Nouvian led the research at the University of Konstanz. To examine stinging behavior, they needed a reliable group. They selected guard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-wildflowers-may-be-harming-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> - those that are naturally closer to the frontlines.



"Basically, you can expect that, simply by the distribution of tasks, a collector will have a different stinging behaviour than a guard. As we wanted to exclude as many influencing factors as possible, this selection was the first logical step. We were then able to gradually test other influencing factors," explained Kannan.



The bees were exposed to a rotating dummy that simulated a predator. The setup allowed repeated trials without harming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. When a bee stings in natural conditions, its stinger is lost and it dies. Here, the bees could engage or abstain multiple times without being harmed. Each action or lack of action was logged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarm-scents-don-t-trigger-all-bees">Alarm scents don’t trigger all bees</h2>



In honeybees, a sting is more than a weapon. It is a call to arms. When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee</a> stings, it releases a complex scent signal known as the sting alarm pheromone (SAP), which is primarily composed of iso-amyl acetate (IAA).



This alerts others and encourages them to join in the group defense. As more bees respond, the concentration of IAA increases. Eventually, the response declines - a strategy that may ensure not too many casualties occur. 



The study found that SAP does influence bees, but not equally. When exposed to synthetic IAA, bees showed varied reactions. The presence of this signal raised the odds of stinging - but some bees still held back.



"Ultimately, it turned out that although these factors had an influence, they did not impact the predictability of individual stinging behavior," said Nouvian. The bees that chose to sting in one trial often did so again. Others remained passive, regardless of the alarm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-personality-and-stinging-behavior">Bee personality and stinging behavior </h2>



To probe deeper, the researchers tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee</a> responses over four repeated trials. The results were striking. Stinging behavior stayed consistent in most individuals. Some stung every time, others never stung, and very few wavered between the two choices.



Even more interestingly, the bees showed greater consistency in behavior when the time between trials was less. This suggests that internal states - perhaps neurological or hormonal - affect decisions. A bee wasn’t flipping a coin each time. It was acting from a semi-stable inner condition.



This state dependence was especially clear when patterns like 1−0−1−0 (stinging, not stinging, stinging, not stinging) were rare. Instead, most bees either kept attacking or kept abstaining. These temporal patterns implied that bees make evaluations based on more than stimulus alone - they carry a mood-like persistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peers-aren-t-always-influential">Peers aren't always influential</h2>



Bees are famously social. Still, the presence of another bee had a surprising effect. Rather than encouraging aggression, it reduced it. Pairs of bees were less likely to sting than solo bees, even when faced with the same threat.



This finding challenges currently-held assumptions. Larger groups don’t necessarily mean higher per-bee aggression. In fact, the data aligns with older studies suggesting that larger colonies can show less per-capita defense.



When tested in pairs, real bees stung less than would be predicted by combining data from singles. The effect appeared again, even when both bees could detect IAA. "Pairs as entities did [respond to IAA] (z = −4.327, p &lt; 0.001) … individual bees within pairs (z = −3.68, p &lt; 0.001)," the research paper noted.



Yet, the experts also found that SAP, when released naturally by one bee, could recruit another. The first bee’s sting raised the odds that its partner would follow. But over multiple exposures, this recruitment faded. Responsiveness to IAA dropped, trial by trial. Even social signals have an expiry date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-with-gentle-personalities-sting-less">Bees with gentle personalities sting less</h2>



Another part of the study tested whether bees adjust based on their companions' personalities. After identifying aggressive and gentle bees, the team mixed them in various combinations. Would gentle bees become bolder when placed among aggressive peers?



The answer was no. Bees classified as gentle stayed that way, even in groups full of stingers. Aggressive bees also stayed true to type. The only thing that influenced changes was the SAP level in the arena. More SAP raised the chance of stinging, less reduced it.



These results reveal that honeybees don’t mirror the behavior of those around them. They react to chemical signals, not peer pressure. 



“We propose that [Lecomte’s] results were rather the consequence of the reduced group size,” noted the researchers, questioning earlier claims about social inhibition among bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-resist-group-influence">Bees resist group influence</h2>



What does this mean for our understanding of bee society? This study breaks the idea of a hive acting as one. Each bee carries an internal threshold. That threshold can be nudged by alarm pheromones or dulled by time. It can be lowered by a sense of threat or raised by the presence of others.



Still, the final decision lies with the bee. Stinging isn’t a hive decision. It’s an individual one, shaped by subtle internal states and stable personality.



"That bees stop responding to the SAP but not to the threat itself might be another example of social information being less valued than personal information," the researchers suggested.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-honeybee-behavior">Future research on honeybee behavior </h2>



This study paves the way for deeper research into honeybee behavior. By proving the stability of individual responses, it opens doors for exploring the biological roots of personality. Future work could look into the neurobiology of aggression or the hormonal triggers behind it.



The hive may appear unified, but it is made of diverse minds. Some are ready to die for the colony. Others prefer to wait, even when the alarm is raised. Both types are part of nature’s plan - and together, they balance risk and survival.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241295" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Bees have unique personalities that determine whether they sting

A honeybee colony seems like a perfect model of unity....

California’s Sierra Nevada range is known for its rugged peaks, vast wilderness, and iconic trees. For centuries, botanists and hikers alike have climbed these mountains, encountering the same types of conifers as they ascend in elevation - lodgepole, foxtail, and limber pines staking their claim in the uppermost zones of tree life.



But sometimes, nature throws a curveball. In the fall of last year, a routine hike in Sequoia National Park turned into a rare discovery. Professor Hugh Safford of <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> was not searching for scientific revelations. 



He was simply out for a walk in the mountains. Yet what Professor Safford found has rewritten the elevation record books and raised urgent questions about how trees are responding to climate change.



His discovery, now published in Madroño, a journal of the California Botanical Society, is a glimpse into the High Sierra’s changing face - and a reminder of the power of simply being present in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tree-where-it-should-not-exist">A tree where it should not exist</h2>



Safford, a forest ecologist in the UC Davis Department of Environmental Science and Policy, had paused during his hike along the timberline on the south slopes of Mount Kaweah. 



He admired a foxtail pine, then a lodgepole pine - both expected residents of the subalpine zone. But then, something unexpected caught his eye.



“Then I thought, ‘What’s that?’” said Safford. “I walk over, and it’s a Jeffrey pine! It made no sense. What is a Jeffrey pine doing above 11,500 feet?”



Jeffrey pines typically dominate the upper montane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-and-steady-tree-growth-wins-the-race-for-carbon-capture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> of the Sierra Nevada. They’re the common backdrop around Lake Tahoe and Mammoth Lakes. 



But they are not known for living among the rugged, wind-battered zones of traditional subalpine species. What Safford found was extraordinary: a healthy Jeffrey pine growing far above its expected range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jeffrey-trees-break-mountain-height-records">Jeffrey trees break mountain height records</h2>



After that first encounter, Professor Safford began looking more closely. Over the course of his hike, he identified 14 Jeffrey pine trees thriving above 11,800 feet. Some were over 20 years old. The highest of them stood at 12,657 feet. That shattered the previous known elevation record for the species by 1,860 feet.



Even more surprising, these pines were growing higher than any of California’s traditional subalpine species, including the foxtail, limber, and lodgepole pines. Until now, none of those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-trees-might-be-misleading-us-about-climate-change-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> had been documented above 12,034 feet.



Safford’s field observations suggest that our existing databases, satellite data, and models may be significantly underestimating where certain tree species are managing to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-grow-higher-up-mountain-slopes">Trees grow higher up mountain slopes</h2>



Why are Jeffrey pines now taking root at elevations once deemed too extreme for their survival? 



The answer, Safford suspects, lies in the warming climate. Rising air temperatures and earlier snowmelts are reshaping the ecological dynamics of the High Sierra.



The high mountain soils, once locked under snow for months, are thawing earlier. This opens short windows of opportunity for seeds to germinate and grow. In this altered climate rhythm, some species are seizing the chance to move upward.



The Jeffrey pine’s tolerance to both cold and drought may be key to its success in these harsh new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>. But trees don’t move on their own. Something - or someone - has helped them get there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-trees-and-mountain-heights">Birds, trees, and mountain heights</h2>



Safford suspects that the Clark’s nutcracker, a high alpine bird with an excellent memory, may be playing an unexpected role in this ecological shift. 



Known for its relationship with the whitebark pine, the bird collects seeds and stores them in high mountain “caches” for future meals. For Jeffrey pines, the bird might be acting as an unintentional gardener.



“Much as this nutcracker does for whitebark pine trees, preliminary evidence suggests the bird carries fleshy Jeffrey pine seeds up the mountain from thousands of feet below, storing them in the High Sierra’s ‘refrigerator’ for an early summer snack.”



Some of those snacks never get eaten. And when the conditions are right - less snow, warmer soil - those seeds take root and start a new population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-aren-t-migrating-slowly">Trees aren’t migrating slowly</h2>



Trees generally move slowly in response to climate change. Their range shifts inch upward over decades. But Safford’s discovery hints at a more chaotic process, influenced by outside forces like birds and sudden environmental windows.



“I’m looking at trees surviving in habitats where they couldn’t before, but they’re also dying in places they used to live before,” Safford said. 



“They’re not just holding hands and walking uphill. This crazy leapfrogging of species challenges what we think we know about these systems reacting as the climate warms.”



This leapfrogging defies the gentle, predictable march that many models assume. It reveals a more fragmented and opportunistic reality, where chance encounters between birds and seeds create new ecological frontiers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-trees-reaching-new-heights">Mountain trees reaching new heights</h2>



Perhaps one of the most telling aspects of Safford’s discovery is how it happened. Not through satellite imagery. Not through remote sensors or AI-driven models. But by someone walking in the mountains and paying attention.



“People aren’t marching to the tops of the mountains to see where the trees really are,” Safford said. "Instead, they are relying on satellite imagery, which can’t see most small trees. What science does is help us understand how the world functions."



”In this case, where you see the impacts of climate change most dramatically are at high elevations and high latitudes. If we want our finger on the pulse of how the climate is warming and what the impacts are, that’s where it will be happening first. We just need to get people out there.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-story-of-resilience">A story of resilience </h2>



Safford and his team of students will return this summer to the southern Sierra Nevada. They’ll hike Mount Kaweah, Mount Whitney, and nearby parks, searching for more of these high-altitude outliers. 



Their work will include identifying seedlings, measuring mountain tree heights, and refining elevation models based on actual ground conditions.



The mission is simple: understand what’s happening before more changes go unnoticed. The Jeffrey pine may not remain the state’s highest tree forever, but for now, it tells a story of change, resilience, and the surprising ways life finds new ground.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/madro%c3%b1o/volume-72/issue-1/0024-9637-72.1.a7/NEW-ELEVATION-RECORDS-FOR-JEFFREY-PINE-PINUS-JEFFREYI-AMURRAY-BIS/10.3120/0024-9637-72.1.a7.short" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madroño</a>.



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Why trees are reaching new heights in the mountains

California’s Sierra Nevada range is known for its rugged peaks,...

Cancer can turn life upside down for many people. The physical struggle is often matched by emotional burdens that seem to show up when least expected. 



A recent study led by Ryan Castle from the <a href="https://wholehealthoncology.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whole Health Oncology Institute</a> is shedding new light on the role of cannabis to treat cancer symptoms. 



Castle's team joined forces with <a href="https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20250416912635/en/Cancer-Playbook-Powered-by-Whole-Health-Oncology-Institute-Launches-the-Largest-Meta-Analysis-to-Date-on-Medical-Cannabis-and-Cancer-Symptoms">Cancer Playbook</a> to explore whether cannabis can help with typical cancer complaints like pain, appetite loss, and sleeplessness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-may-ease-cancer-symptoms">Cannabis may ease cancer symptoms</h2>



Cancer Playbook is known for bridging research with the experiences of real people. The platform gathers observations from individuals going through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-cancer-cell-death-may-transform-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatment</a>, then combines that data with findings from peer-reviewed publications.



This provides a more complete view of how cannabis interacts with the body, while also revealing what has worked for others.



“We expected controversy. What we found was overwhelming scientific consensus,” said Castle. 



Many studies now suggest that, when properly used, cannabis can be of significant help in addressing cancer symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-stories-shape-cannabis-research">Real stories shape cannabis research</h2>



Technology in healthcare is moving fast, but personal stories can be just as powerful. Cancer Playbook uses <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/patient-reported-outcome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Patient Reported Outcomes</a> to shift the spotlight onto people’s actual experiences. 



Those outcomes transform observations about fatigue and aches into reliable data that clinicians can apply.



Healthcare professionals have started to give these accounts more attention, since large <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/hp/cannabis-pdq" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trials</a> don't always capture the day-to-day hurdles that real individuals face. 



Focusing on each person’s comfort level, mood, and energy can create a more complete cancer care plan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-may-reduce-cancer-related-pain">Cannabis may reduce cancer-related pain</h2>



Pain can influence every aspect of life for cancer patients. Opioids have been a traditional go-to, but some find limited relief or tough side effects. 



Data from various research efforts suggest that cannabis may ease <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7140/5/1/7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lingering pain</a> for some patients while posing fewer complications.



Users who turn to cannabis for treating cancer symptoms often report fewer problems than they had feared. 



A handful of these studies show promise in helping with neuropathic pain, which is a tricky discomfort that standard drugs can’t always contain.



Not everyone responds in the same way, but many see cannabis as a welcome option for exploring additional approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-appetite-and-nausea">Cannabis, appetite, and nausea</h2>



Nausea is a serious drain on quality of life for people undergoing harsh treatments. Traditional anti-nausea medications help but might not cover the full scope of how patients feel. That’s where medical cannabis steps in, offering another strategy for those dealing with this challenge.



Some <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11409765/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> indicates that cannabis may support better eating patterns by triggering chemical receptors tied to hunger. 



Even modest success can make a difference by preserving energy and mood. It’s not a magic fix, but it could be an added tool in an often-complicated toolbox.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-may-help-reduce-inflammation">Cannabis may help reduce inflammation</h2>



Inflammation can worsen cancer’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-cancer-cell-death-may-transform-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> and lead to other serious problems. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666915323000021" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> studying <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a> and immune triggers have noticed that cannabinoids might reduce harmful responses at the cellular level. This suggests a targeted benefit that goes beyond just pain or nausea management.



Experts caution that these biological processes are not fully understood, and it’s unclear how inflammation shifts from minor to long-term danger. 



Early patterns, though, point to cannabis as having a role in controlling swelling in tissues, which might be helpful if standard therapies fall short.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patients-need-informed-choices">Patients need informed choices</h2>



“Too often, people turn to cannabis as a last resort. We believe it should be part of the conversation from day one,” said Jim Gerencser, the founder of Cancer Playbook.



By logging real-life feedback and comparing it with existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspirin-may-prevent-cancer-from-moving-to-other-parts-of-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a>, Cancer Playbook informs patients on treatment approaches that doctors might not always have time to discuss in detail. 



This helps remove guesswork and promotes shared decision-making, which can reduce anxiety when facing critical choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-studies-support-cannabis-use">Large studies support cannabis use</h2>



Interest in cannabis has been sparked by large reviews that merge thousands of peer-reviewed articles. 



Researchers pool results to look for patterns that might be overlooked if only a handful of academic papers is scanned. This approach shapes a big-picture view of what may help many people who are facing cancer diagnoses.



Recent findings suggest that several cannabinoids appear safer and more effective than older assumptions indicated. 



However, some questions remain about recommended doses and timing. Clinical trials still need to define the exact parameters for optimal results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medical-advice-and-safe-cannabis-use">Medical advice and safe cannabis use</h2>



Although the enthusiasm for cannabis is growing, it’s wise to proceed with medical advice. Certain interactions with prescription drugs haven’t been fully studied. There's also the complexity of the plant itself - hemp, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/endocannabinoid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endocannabinoids</a>, and oils vary in chemical content.



Some oncologists suggest choosing formulations that have been tested for purity, which can reduce the risk of additives or inconsistent potency. Safety checks matter. 



Cancer treatment demands careful collaboration between patients and healthcare teams, so speaking openly about cannabis use is key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-research-across-cancer-fields">Cannabis research across cancer fields </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-games-could-accelerate-discoveries-in-cancer-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research</a> on cannabis continues to shift. Some of it focuses on how different strains interact with radiation or immunotherapy. Other work tracks its <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/anticarcinogenic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anticarcinogenic</a> capabilities, although that part is still being investigated in labs and patient trials.



Discussions about cannabis today look different from earlier times, when legal barriers limited the scope of studies. The current environment encourages deeper investigations. That leads to a broader acceptance of cannabis as a therapy that is worth exploring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-cancer-care">The future of cancer care</h2>



Many updates in oncology come from labs, but the patient perspective is equally valuable. When data from countless personal experiences gets analyzed, fresh patterns can emerge. 



Information about how people handle their side effects or combine treatments can shed new light on possible ways to get results.



Well-designed platforms like Cancer Playbook aim to make sense of these experiences without trivializing the science behind it all. It’s a blend of real-world accounts and measured research, which gives patients a more active role in shaping their own care path.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/oncology/articles/10.3389/fonc.2025.1490621/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Oncology</a>.



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Overwhelming evidence that cannabis significantly helps cancer patients

Cancer can turn life upside down for many people. The...

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