Let’s cut it the chase: yes, a walrus is a mammal. 

For those of us without biology degrees or much experience near arctic oceanic ecozones, it can be tricky to distinguish the differences between groups of animals. 

In addition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ontocetus-posti-extinct-walrus-like-mammal-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">being mammals</a>, these are massively cool creatures on planet earth. Let’s swim a little deeper into the details of their life cycle, habitat, and other facts.

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887020" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1504064579-1.jpg" alt="walrus on ice" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>The Blubbery Basics</h2>
So, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">walrus are mammals</a>. We’ve covered that. The scientific name for them is Odobenus rosmarus and another common name for them is “morse”. They are huge animals living in the arctic sea.

There are two subspecies of walrus: the Atlantic walrus and the Pacific walrus, their names in reference to where they are endemic. The male Pacific walrus is the biggest of the species weighing up to 3,700 pounds and stretching 12 feet long. 

Walruses have grey skin that is 1-2 inches thick. They are covered in reddish hairs, making them look cinnamon-colored from far away. 

Both sexes have tusks and whiskers but there is some sexual dimorphism and the males are generally about a third bigger than the females. 

For food, walrus mostly consume clams and mussels but will also indulge in fish and occasionally seals. They use their whiskers to identify prey along the seafloor. 

Walrus are really social animals -- sometimes living in communities of 100 or more individuals. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887021" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1279466188-1.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Where To See A Walrus</h2>
Walruses aren’t deep water creatures, and they can be found on coastal regions and inhabiting margins of ice shelves. These mammals will haul themselves out of the water to rest on land and bask in the sun. They will use their flippers to crawl around as necessary. 

Some places known for their walrus populations are Svalbard, Norway, Alaska, parts of Russia and Canada. And while international travel is off the table during a global pandemic, the internet is a great option for watching footage of these giant blubbery animals as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rH77gte9lVI&amp;ab_channel=USGS" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">they “haul out” </a>and for getting a sense of just how dense these communities can be. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887023" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1750677527.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Symbolism and Significance To Humans</h2>
Walruses have contributed significantly to the socio-economic conditions of humans. As a source of food and ritual importance, walruses have driven <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5963561/#:~:text=The%20walrus%20has%20contributed%20significantly,and%20imaginations%20through%20the%20ages." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hunting practices and trading exchanges</a>, particularly in regard to the blubber of the animal’s bodies and the ivory of their tusks. 

With this significance comes conflict. Some hunters insist on the unlimited rights of traditional hunting practices, but this is in contrast to some marine biologists and conservationists who seek protection for the walruses in order to ensure the long-term <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5963561/#:~:text=The%20walrus%20has%20contributed%20significantly,and%20imaginations%20through%20the%20ages." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">viability of the species</a>. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887024" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_92818954.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="669" />
<h2>Walrus And Climate Change</h2>
The conflict between indigenous hunters and conservationist is not unique: like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-refuses-list-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">many other species</a> on planet earth, walruses habitats and viability is deeply affected by climate change. Many populations of walruses have had to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5963561/#:~:text=The%20walrus%20has%20contributed%20significantly,and%20imaginations%20through%20the%20ages." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">seek out new, southern coastlines</a> as ice shelves melt. 

As the environment of the arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-crisis-solutions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">changes rapidly</a>, it puts pressure on the creatures who live in those areas. Scientists have declared that we are living through the 6th great extinction in the history of Earth. 

“Haul outs” are a new phenomenon - walruses are collecting in mass on land when they used to do so on the ice. This is dangerous for the walruses as the animals are easily spooked. Tourist helicopters disturb them and cause stampedes - killing otherwise healthy individuals. 

Plus, when walruses spend their time on land instead of ice, their <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/climate-change-puts-the-pacific-walrus-population-on-thin-ice" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">access to prey</a> decreases to alarming levels. Many will starve to death as a result. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1887025" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_315960593.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="667" />
<h2>Activism In The Face Of Crisis</h2>
For walruses, and for all of us, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/climate-change-in-the-21st-century/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">climate crisis</a> is a horrifying reality that grows in urgency with each passing day. 

We must advocate for our planet and hold governments and corporations responsible for the damage that has already been caused while simultaneously reimagining our cityscapes and personal habits to become sustainable. 

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Is A Walrus A Mammal?

Let’s cut it the chase: yes, a walrus is a...

A,Beautiful,Majestic,Lion,Sits,In,A,Regal,Pose,With

A hundred years ago over 200,000 lions roamed Africa and Asia. Today, that number is about 20,000. That's a 90% reduction in the population of one of the most charismatic creatures in the world. So, is the lion endangered?

It seems like it should be easy to say whether a species is endangered or not. The poor vaquita in the Sea of Cortez is an unarguably, critically endangered animal. At last count, scientists think there are fewer than 19 individuals.

Lions, however, are more complicated. They span dozens of countries on two continents. In fact, some populations are of 'least concern,' whereas others are 'critically endangered.' How could the same species have all these designations?
<h2>Let's Think About Populations Instead of the Entire Species</h2>
The field of Conservation Science is a lot more than simply preventing the disappearance of entire species from the planet. Extinction is the worst-case scenario, but there are plenty of undesirable options between an unthreatened species and an extinct one.

The lion, for example, is currently extinct in 26 countries (possibly 33). Some of these countries include Morocco, Iran, Egypt, Turkey, and Congo. These regional extinctions are significant. Each population of now-extinct lions had unique genes to thrive in a particular environment.

When all lions from North Africa disappeared, all lions suited to live in that harsh, desert climate also disappeared. Lions no longer roam anywhere in the Middle East, either.

If humans decide to reintroduce lions to these desert areas, where will we choose the lions from?

If, for example, a population of lions still lived in Egypt, then those would be the obvious candidates for reintroduction to the Middle East. However, none of the currently extant (meaning existing, or alive) populations of lions know these kinds of landscapes. Compared to the now-extinct North African lions, reintroduction with other African lions could be difficult.

I will focus on the conservation status of four regions of lions that are currently alive.

[caption id="attachment_1877494" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1877494 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/800px-Lion_distribution.png" alt="lion distribution" width="800" height="698" /> This map was made in 2009. The present distribution is much smaller in West Africa now than it was in 2009. Map courtesy of<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion#/media/File:Lion_distribution.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Tommy Knocker</a>[/caption]
<h2>Western and Central Africa Endangered Lions</h2>
These lions are the most threatened on the planet. I mentioned above that lions are possibly extinct in 7 additional countries. All of these countries are in Western and Central Africa. This is because lion populations in this region have declined two-thirds in the last 20 years.

Only one substantial population remains in all of Western and Central Africa, which is on the border of Burkina Faso and Benin (it's okay if you have to look at an atlas). This population might have as many as 200 lions, but all other West and Central African populations have fewer than 20 individual lions.

The conservation community largely ignored this region in lion conservation efforts. Plenty of sufficient habitats exists for lions throughout this region. However, the prey is naturally less dense here compared to the rest of Africa.

This landscape has more forests and deserts, which don't have the same <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">carrying capacity</a> for large animals as places like the Serengeti National Park. This lack of prey made these lions evolve to be smaller and hunt in smaller prides than their Eastern and Southern African counterparts.

The human population of West African countries has increased rapidly over the last few decades. Unfortunately, the presence of more humans is almost always bad for wildlife.

Food shortages from overfishing increased the demand for bushmeat. This bushmeat is the prey for lions. Since the natural abundance of bushmeat was already low in this region, any human hunting of this prey is particularly bad for lion populations.

As is stands, this region's lions are considered critically endangered. It is very possible that the West African lion will become extinct in the very near future unless successful conservation programs are quickly put into place.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1877497" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/lion-565820_1280.jpg" alt="lion cub" width="1280" height="853" /></h2>
<h2>Endangered Lions in India</h2>
The story of the Asiatic lion is tragic, but at the same time hopeful.

The Asiatic lion used to roam all of the Middle-East through the very southern tip of India. Like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-tigers-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Caspian tiger</a>, hunters systematically persecuted Asiatic lions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Unlike the Caspian tiger, which went extinct, the Asiatic lion eked out a home in one small area of southeastern India, in the province of Gujarat.

Only 18 lions existed in 1893. (How people estimated lion populations in 1893 is beyond me.) An Indian ruler used this area as his private hunting grounds, which saved the lions from persecution.

The Indian government established the Gir Forest to protect these lions in 1965. Since then, areas around the Gir Forest have been protected as well. In 1994, the lion population was up to 284 lions. In 2010 it was 411 lions. The last census, in 2017, counted 650 lions.

These lions have reached their carrying capacity within their protected habitat. This means that new lions need to move outside of protected areas, into areas more densely populated and used by humans. About a third of the lions now live in areas among villages and people. The lions live in and around 1000 villages in India.

This crowding increases the potential for human-lion conflict. However, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">IUCN</a>), the most established group for conservation ratings, uplisted the Asiatic lion from 'Critically Endangered' to 'Endangered' in 2008.
<h3>What About the Future of the Indian Lion?</h3>
While this population is currently healthy, it is still vulnerable to many risks. Canine distemper virus, which lions can contract from encounters with dogs, has begun to affect this lion population. Last year, it killed 34 lions. This virus is very contagious and could wreak havoc on the lion population in a matter of weeks under the wrong circumstances.

Also, if the Gir Forest burns or gets affected by some natural disaster, the population would be at risk because they have nowhere else to go. The next step for Indian lion conservation is to establish a second population somewhere else in the country. This way, if one population faces a large setback, it can be helped by the second population.

Asiatic lions are currently listed as endangered.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1877499" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/africa-21787_1280.jpg" alt="endangered lion" width="1280" height="853" /></h2>
<h2>Eastern Africa Endangered Lions</h2>
Eastern Africa is home to the majestic Serengeti plains. This landscape is the quintessential lion habitat. Unfortunately, lions are faring poorly in this region.

A 2015 census showed that the lion population decreased by 60% in three lion generations (about 20 years). A species is considered endangered if it's population shrinks by more than 50% in three generations.

Human-caused habitat loss drives much of the lion population decrease in this area. Lions also occasionally kill cattle. Cattle ranchers become irritated by wildlife threatening their livelihood and resort to dealing with the problem themselves. More often than not, this means killing the lions that killed their cattle.

Some governments try to reimburse cattle ranchers for their loses, but practices like this are difficult to successfully implement. As mentioned, canine distemper virus also threatens these lions.

Fortunately, Eastern Africa has large protected areas. Lions inside these areas seem to be faring okay, with populations only slightly declining. The real loses occurred in populations outside these protected areas, where human-lion conflict is more likely.

While it's difficult to give this large area one conservation rating, the IUCN deems these populations as endangered.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1877495" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/lion-515029_1280.jpg" alt="hungry lion" width="1280" height="853" /></h2>
<h2>Southern Africa</h2>
Southern Africa has a little bit of good news for conservationists. This region has more money and tourism than other parts of Africa. As a result, parks have more resources to put towards conservation. These parks have installed fences to help keep lions inside and reduce human-lion conflict.

The result?

In the same time frame that Western, Central, and Eastern Africa have lost two-thirds of their lion population, Southern African populations have increased by 12%. In fenced areas across this region, populations increased by 30%, whereas populations in unfenced areas decreased by 10%.

The density of people in Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Botswana are 26, 2.5, and 3.4 people per square kilometer, respectively. Compared to Nigeria and Ghana, with a density of 189 and 102 people per square kilometer, it's easy to imagine why lion populations have done better in Southern Africa.

Southern African countries have had more success in lion conservation than other countries, but simply fencing in parks won't save lions in other parts of Africa.

True, sustainable conservation must happen through lifting front-line communities out of poverty and giving them an incentive to conserve, rather than threaten lions. The conservation community has failed in the past and currently by trying to exclude locals from their ancestral homelands to conserve wildlife. This led to general resentment towards wildlife, causing poaching and other undesirable actions.

Conservation ethics aside, the positive population trend in southern Africa, combined with strong local buy-in to conservation, led the IUCN to give Southern African lions a 'least concern' rating. This is the best rating available.
<h2>Will the Lion Disappear?</h2>
It's worth noting that the IUCN Redlist <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15951/115130419" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">lists the lion as threatened</a>. While it's likely we will see populations go extinct in the near future, the complete disappearance of lions from the planet is unlikely. This is both a hopeful and anxiety-provoking situation with no easy answers.

If you want to practice conservation yourself, start closer to home rather than trying to save the lions. They aren't in our backyard, and other people, such as locals and African biologists, understand them much better than we do.

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Are Lions Endangered? It's Complicated.

A hundred years ago over 200,000 lions roamed Africa and...

Archibald Menzies, one of the great British naturalists, brought this other-worldly tree to the U.K. in 1795. Shortly after its arrival in the U.K., British lawyer, Charles Austin, remarked that "It would be a puzzle for a monkey to climb that tree."

Because the British hadn't given the tree a name yet, apparently Mr. Austin's remark took hold. Thus the namesake of this prehistoric conifer was born.

[caption id="attachment_1878631" align="alignnone" width="1281"]<img class="wp-image-1878631 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/monkey-puzzle-tree-4392008_1920-e1573149790441.jpg" alt="Monkey Puzzle Tree spikes" width="1281" height="1440" /> Imagine a monkey trying to walk on those spikes![/caption]

During the 1800s, this unique tree had become a garden novelty signifying wealth and status across Great Britain. Currently, it is a common garden tree in New Zealand, Western North America, and Europe. Since it's such a strange being to us, it's sometimes hard to imagine what this tree's native habitat looks like. Where does this mysterious monkey puzzle tree come from?
<h2>The History of the Monkey Puzzle Tree</h2>
The other common name for this tree – the Chilean pine – reveals its origins. This tree grows in the central part of Chile and is also the Chilean national tree. However, some of these trees also grow on the Argentinian side of the Andes. One puzzling thing about the monkey puzzle tree is its evolution.

Botanists believe that this tree evolved over 200 million years ago when dinosaurs still walked the Earth. They think the tough, spiny leaves worked to deter hungry dinosaurs from munching on branches.

Whatever their purpose, the pokey leaves seem to have greatly helped with the survival of the tree. The tree has endured mass extinction, multiple ice ages, and centuries of human use.

The Chilean pine grows in two distinct populations. The majority of the trees thrive in the Andes between 2,000 and 6,000 feet in elevation. An attestation to their resilience, these trees can live for up to 2,000 years. During these years, they can reach upwards of 150 feet tall and 8 feet wide, putting them comfortably within the realm of giants.

Even the leaves of these ancients are old; a study found that the average age of a leaf on a monkey puzzle tree is 24 years old. For comparison, most pine needles only last two or three years!

[caption id="attachment_1878630" align="alignnone" width="1023"]<img class="wp-image-1878630 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Monkey-Tree-Distribution-e1573149466970.jpg" alt="Monkey Puzzle Tree Distribution in Chile" width="1023" height="1253" /> The range of the monkey puzzle tree. Note the small, coastal populations. Photo courtesy of <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Araucana_ubicacion.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Stephen Hayden</a>[/caption]
<h2>Humans Love the Chilean Pine</h2>
In fact, we're kind of loving it to death. One look at an old monkey puzzle tree highlights its supremely straight trunk. The tree's knot-free, straight-grained wood is excellent for construction.

Because of this, the tree was critical to the large logging industry in central Chile until 1976 when the government declared the tree a national monument. This slowed commercial logging of the tree until 1990, at which point it was fully banned.

[caption id="attachment_1877822" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1877822 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/monkey-puzzle-tree-1007125_1280.jpg" alt="chilean pinecones" width="1280" height="960" /> The tasty pine nuts live inside those large, funky pinecones[/caption]

Aside from timber, this tree offers an excellent food source. The cones of this tree are massive pods, which contain about 200 seeds. They are said to taste like pine nuts. However, they are much, much larger.

Some people are looking into growing this as a nut tree in Scotland, where other nut crops can't survive. Unfortunately, it takes 30-40 years for the tree to begin making nuts, which deters interest. Just think of 1,000 years of food afterward, though!
<h2>Conservation Status</h2>
Both logging and seed collecting by Chileans have had a negative impact on the Chilean pine.

Logging reduced the range of this tree and fragmented populations into smaller groups. While the seed makes great food, over-collection of it has caused a decrease in pine seedlings.

This species is slow to regenerate, and seed collection makes it more difficult for young trees to get established.

In 2013 the IUCN declared the plant endangered. This followed the 2001-2002 wildfires that burnt large swaths of old-growth monkey puzzle tree. Scientists project that climate change will continue to make fires more intense in central Chile, posing a threat to the remaining trees.

Over-grazing by cattle in monkey puzzle tree habitats has degraded the landscape, making it more difficult for trees to survive.

The logging industry in Chile and Argentina has turned towards creating plantations of exotic tree species, often to the detriment of monkey puzzle trees. The practice stresses out the trees and reduces their ability to increase their population.

The Chilean pine seems to respond well to planting. The Global Trees Campaign planted 2,000 trees in the early 2,000s and had a 90% survival rate ten years later.

This high survival rate is uncommon for endangered plant species, which provides some hope for the future of the monkey puzzle tree in its native habitat.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chile-volcano-overdue-eruption/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Volcanoes</a> add an additional explosive challenge for these trees. Even though they have lived with volcanoes for millions of years, they are more prone to volcano impacts now. Lava flows can destroy an entire, isolated population, whereas historically, interconnected populations were more resilient.

[caption id="attachment_1877824" align="alignnone" width="799"]<img class="wp-image-1877824 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/799px-Araucaria_in_Conguillio.jpeg" alt="Monkey puzzle trees in a winter storm" width="799" height="599" /> These monkey puzzle trees would argue that they do just fine in snowstorms. Photo courtesy of <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Araucaria_in_Conguillio.JPG" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Grm.gustavo</a>[/caption]
<h2>What About Outside of Chile?</h2>
While the monkey puzzle tree faces some major threats in its native habitat, it is having great success seducing gardeners around the world. The tree has weaseled its way into almost every neighborhood along the west coast of the U.S.

The tree does great in any well-draining soil. It prefers slightly acidic soil but should grow well in just about anything with the right climate.

In gardens, the tree will max out at about 80 feet tall, rather than 150 feet in its native habitat. It will, however, continue to produce tasty seeds, as long as another tree of the opposite sex is around to pollinate the cones. Be sure to get a female tree! Males won't ever produce those tasty nuts.

People argue over the minimum temperature at which these trees can grow. While they grow reliably at temperatures as cold as 20°F, some people have succeeded in growing them in much colder places, such as Logan, Utah.

While the tree does well in cool weather, it does very poorly in heat. For this reason, it grows much better in places like the West Coast rather than the East Coast or the American South. The tree will get very stressed out in prolonged temperatures above 80°F.

Many nurseries stock these funky relicts. If you decide to plant one, be sure to baby it for a good three or four years. After that, the tree will be well established and need little care.

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Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique creatures. These birds cannot fly and don’t have a tail, but they have long, loose feathers and powerful legs.



Hundreds of years ago, these birds thrived abundantly in their home country. Now, their populations have become dispersed and fragmented, as well as vulnerable.&nbsp;



Why are kiwi birds endangered? Let’s take a look at all of the factors that are threatening their long-term survival and driving this species toward extinction.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Habitat-loss-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911708"/><figcaption>Deforestation has reduced New Zealand's landscape dramatically. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/nazar_ab?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">nazar_ab</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat Loss</h2>



In an effort to make room for new farmlands and urban development, a majority of New Zealand’s natural forests have been cleared. As a result, the landscape has changed dramatically.&nbsp;



Around 750 years ago, natural forests covered about 85% of the country’s landscape, or about 23 million hectares. Deforestation efforts have reduced this to around 23%, which equals just 6.2 million hectares.&nbsp;



Many lowland forests, estuaries, and dunes have been converted into grasslands and pastures, while others are transformed into towns. Both measures are designed to boost local economies, though they have devastating effects on certain species, like the kiwi birds, that depend on the forest for survival.&nbsp;



Flat pastures do not provide kiwi birds with the natural protection and barriers they need to survive. Yet, their scope is rapidly increasing. Before New Zealand was populated, only 5% of the country was grassland. Now, more than 38% of the country’s total land area is covered in grass.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-damaging-effects-of-clearing-land">The Damaging Effects of Clearing Land</h3>



What happens to the kiwi birds when forest land is cleared and converted into grasslands and pastures? There are three main ways these actions harm the species.&nbsp;



Population Movement



When land is cleared, kiwis and their predators are forced to move out of their widespread natural habitats. Instead, they migrate into smaller and more concentrated areas, where there are fewer resources and the likelihood of an encounter is greater. If the kiwi birds remain in the farmland, they are often attacked by predators, such as dogs.&nbsp;



Physical Threats



Developers use various means to clear land, including burning and crushing vegetation. Both approaches pose a direct threat to kiwis and other species that call the area home. The large rollers used to crush plants and trees can harm or kill the birds, who cannot fly to higher altitudes for safety. Likewise, the fire and smoke from the burning process are also significant dangers.&nbsp;



Increased Competition



With a smaller habitat to live in, kiwis are affected both physically and socially. Deforestation creates more competition for free space, which leads to boundary wars between kiwi birds and other local inhabitants. Not only can these encounters turn deadly, but they also make breeding less frequent.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-rise-of-the-dairy-farming-industry">The Rise of the Dairy Farming Industry</h3>



In an effort to offset the negative effect of pastureland development, country leaders have led programs to establish plantation forests where the kiwi birds can live. The movement hit its apex in 2006, when planted forests covered around 1.8 million hectares in New Zealand.&nbsp;



However, there’s another movement changing the landscape and diverting attention elsewhere: the growth of the dairy farming industry. Over the past 30 years, dairy exports in New Zealand have increased from around NZ $2 billion per year to nearly $20 billion per year.&nbsp;



Dairy farmers need pastures to support their livelihoods, which means fewer exotic forests are being replanted. In fact, some immature forests have even been converted into dairy farms to support this sector.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/stoat-1024x487.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911710"/><figcaption>Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/Andyworks?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">Andyworks</a> <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/ahmettgiden?mediatype=photography"><img alt=""></a>on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-predatory-activity">Predatory Activity</h2>



While habitat loss contributes to the dwindling numbers of kiwi birds, it isn’t the primary factor affecting their survival.



In fact, kiwi birds are surprisingly adaptable and can conform to a variety of environments. While flat grasslands aren’t ideal, these soil feeders can survive in other areas, from native forests and rougher farmland to sand dunes and mangroves.&nbsp;



The only problem? When they migrate to these different habitats, kiwis aren’t alone. Instead, they meet a variety of predators, including dogs, stoats, and ferrets. Faced with these constant threats, it’s estimated that only 5% of kiwi bird chicks survive into adulthood.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-stoats-and-baby-kiwi-birds">Stoats and Baby Kiwi Birds</h3>



Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. In the same family as ferrets and weasels, these short-tailed mammals are extremely smart, fast, and mobile. They were introduced into New Zealand back in the 1800s in an attempt to control the overpopulation of introduced rabbits.&nbsp;



However, once they arrived in the country, the stoats quickly found that it was easier to attack and kill flightless ground-nesting birds (like the kiwi) than rabbits. Thus, newly-hatched kiwi birds became their primary prey -- a relationship that continues to this day. It’s especially difficult for kiwis to outwit or outrun stoats due to the fact that kiwis are mostly nocturnal, while stoats hunt during the day.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-dogs-and-adult-kiwi-birds">Dogs and Adult Kiwi Birds</h3>



While baby kiwis often fall victim to stoats, dogs are the biggest predator of adult kiwi birds. Even the smallest and most delicate dog can crush a kiwi due to its size and weight. While there has been some legislation to control dog populations in New Zealand, including the Dog Control Act of 1996, some dog owners are not aware of (or choose to openly ignore) the rules required to keep their pets under control in areas where wild kiwi birds live.



<h3 id="h-other-predators">Other Predators</h3>



In addition to dogs, adult kiwi birds also have to be on the lookout for ferrets, which are increasing in number across New Zealand. Ferrets also prey on rabbits and have had plenty of hunting activity lately. As summers become longer, hotter, and dryer, rabbit populations are on the upswing.&nbsp;



Thus, ferrets are thriving as well. It’s not uncommon for them to migrate from farmlands into deep forests, where they can find kiwi among other forms of natural wildlife. Other animals that can kill kiwi birds include possums, cats, and pigs.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-predator-control-efforts">Predator Control Efforts</h3>



As conservation leaders learn more about the types of animals that commonly prey on kiwi birds, they are taking measures to keep them safe. Research shows that when predatory activity is intensively controlled, kiwi hatching rates increase to up to 60%. For population levels to grow, a rate above 20% is necessary, so this is promising progress.&nbsp;



The specific techniques and tools used to control predators will vary depending on the target species, area size, terrain, and personnel responsible. However, there is always a focus on using humane measures (including traps and poisons) to protect the kiwi birds and preserve other native species.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Future-kiwi-1024x550.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911711"/><figcaption>Education and advocacy are key for the future of the kiwi bird population. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/tobiasjo?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">tobiasjo</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-the-kiwi-bird-population">The Future of the Kiwi Bird Population</h2>



As a result of habitat loss and predatory activity, kiwi bird populations across New Zealand are becoming increasingly sparse and fragmented. When this occurs, it becomes more difficult for the species to breed, which further inhibits population growth.&nbsp;



As long as safe and effective pest control measures are in place, kiwi can thrive in various habitats. The key is understanding how to protect the birds that live in your homeland, whether that’s a town, pasture, forest, or farm.&nbsp;



As community leaders continue to look for ways to drive out predators and keep these birds safe, education and advocacy are key. Continue to educate yourself on the measures taken to safeguard this species, and check back here often for all of the eco-central news and updates you need. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Why Are Kiwi Birds Endangered?

Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique...

Deep-sea,Stingray

70% of the world's surface is the ocean - and much to the horror of humans through the millennia, scary sea monsters are actually a real thing. They prowl the vast waters of our globe and emerge with terrifying results in stories - and real life.&nbsp;



From the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, from the North to the coast of New Zealand, there are fascinating sea creatures that strike fear into the hearts of the bravest explorers and threaten the most unsuspecting coastal tourist. At the same time, these scariest sea animals are wonderful, enchanting, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-vents-are-favorable-to-the-formation-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living examples of evolution</a>, adaptive behaviors, and thrilling possibilities within nature.&nbsp;



Perhaps that's why they play such a massive role in our collective imaginations as well: the Kraken of Nordic sea lore, the loch ness monster of Scotland, the Lukwata sea monster of Uganda. The list of fables, legends, and sea shanties is as deep as the deep-sea waters where some monstrous animals swim. Science is just beginning to catch up and we can look to organizations like NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and MBARI (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute) and others for emerging information on the truth behind the scary stories.&nbsp;



So let's dive in: today we'll look at the ecosystem of the ocean - the playground and habitat of an estimated one million animal species - and rip through some flash-points of the scariest swimming creatures among the masses. We'll also look at the ways in which the changing, warming oceans make even the most fearsome creatures vulnerable to disturbance and possible extinction. Scary stories abound!&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-an-ecosystem-of-monstrous-proportions">An Ecosystem Of Monstrous Proportions</h2>



When you think about it, the ocean itself is a bit of a monster - a living, breathing system of giant proportions.&nbsp;



For example, most life on earth is aquatic. Less than 5% of the oceans have been explored. The longest Mountain range is underwater. <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://kealakai.byuh.edu/twenty-fun-facts-about-the-ocean" target="_blank">70% of the world's oxygen</a> - a fiendish amount - is produced by the ocean. The pressure on the seafloor will crush you. 90% of the Earth's volcanic activity happens in the ocean and the <a href="https://earth.google.com/web/@-18.57813014,147.57013641,-41.94434357a,0d,60y,201.23400896h,83.69613794t,0r/data=ClUaUxJNCiUweDZiZGYxNDQ2ODIyYzcxM2I6MHgxOTJhNTc0MTM2ODMzY2RhGXLEtTV9STLAITRUe8dfdmJAKhJHcmVhdCBCYXJyaWVyIFJlZWYYASABIjAKLEFGMVFpcE5ZdE5CTzd6bi01bGxXVzNEbGxTbGtxRHAxS0FTaGM4Q1JvZWR2EAU">great barrier reef</a> of Australia is so massive it can be seen from the moon.&nbsp;



The stats continue on in epic, sublime ways: the largest blue whale on record is as long as an 11-story building. The rounded sound ever recorded was of an iceberg falling into the ocean - and could be <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://kealakai.byuh.edu/twenty-fun-facts-about-the-ocean" target="_blank">heard 3,000 miles away.</a> The ocean exists as a living fossil of itself, providing important clues and records of sea animals what has occurred on planet earth. It contains limitless secrets for us to slowly piece together, like a salty sea foam puzzle.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1137771782.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900841"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/posteriori">posteriori</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-some-specific-scary-sea-monsters">Some Specific Scary Sea Monsters</h2>



There are plenty of secrets of the monstrous seven seas that we have yet to understand. But there are plenty of real-life sightings to send a shiver-of-a-jellyfish sting up your spine.&nbsp; The depths of the ocean are where mysticism meets horror movies - and the surface is by no means safe, either.&nbsp; Read on for a thoroughly-inconclusive list.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-box-jellyfish">Box Jellyfish&nbsp;</h3>



Box Jelly is especially scary because to encounter a box tentacle is usually a death sentence for a human being. Named for their shape, they are considered the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/box-jellyfish.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most venomous animal</a> in the ocean according to NOAA.&nbsp;



Their tentacles are loaded with poison darts known as nematocysts. People and animals that encounter these booby-trap-laden strings can become paralyzed, have heart failure, and die within minutes. There are 50 or so species of box jellyfish, and only a couple have the venom count to kill people. Those species are found in the Ind-Pacific region and Australia. Terrifyingly, they do not live in deep water but are a coastal species.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_68332459.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900842"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/lienkie">Daleen Loest</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Yes - box jellyfish live up to the hype. We often do not live up to their tentacles. Avoid these sea creatures at all costs.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-frilled-shark">Frilled Shark</h3>



The frilled shark is what many scientists consider a "living fossil" with its strange lizard-like head, ruffled throat, <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/ecology/deepsea-frilled_shark.htm" target="_blank">long body, and tiny fins.</a> It definitely looks a lot like how a "sea serpent" of folklore is described. While it doesn't exactly add validity to stories like the Loch Ness monster or the Midgard serpent, it does have an "enchanting beast" quality to its appearance.&nbsp;



Frilled sharks rarely swim up to surface waters. Instead, they are a species of shark that moves through various life cycles in the area of the ocean known <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/ecology/deepsea-frilled_shark.htm" target="_blank">as the "twilight zone". </a>Want to take a look at another "living fossil" of the <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/everything-youve-wanted-to-know-about-deep-sea-fishing/" target="_blank">deep sea</a> with an unnerving smile? Check out the <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3877998" target="_blank">Goblin Shark.</a>&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-1">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



No - these sea monsters just look scary. They are active predators but pose no threat to humans.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_134776526.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900858"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/demarfa">Natursports</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-fangtooth-fish">Fangtooth Fish</h3>



Fangtooths have a look that will haunt your dreams - and will continue to inspire the art-imitates-life-forms of various installations and horror films. It has <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/5-strangest-deep-sea-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">razor-sharp teeth of terrifying lengths</a> - perfect for catching prey such as fish and crustaceans.&nbsp;



They are deep-sea swimmers along with Anglerfish. Their habitat ranges in tropical and temperate seas <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animals/animals-a-to-z/fangtooth" target="_blank">at 1,640 to 6,561 feet deep.</a>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-2">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



No - these fangtooths live so deep, they pose no threat to us - just the other animals that they feast and hunt for.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-viperfish">Viperfish&nbsp;</h3>



Another fish with an appearance that can absolutely give you nightmares is the viperfish. It's a broad title for any species of marine fish in the genus Chauliodus. These species are characterized by needle-like teeth and hinged jaws that will remind you of an underbite.&nbsp;



These are also deep-sea swimmers. Similar to other species living in the dark depths of the ocean, they lure in their prey with <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article-abstract/1/3/113/1696037" target="_blank">light-producing organs called photophores.</a>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-3">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Nope - again, these fish swim so deep that they pose no risk to us.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Giant_squid-1-1024x921.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900860"/><figcaption>Specimen of giant squid nicknamed&nbsp;Wheke&nbsp;plastinated&nbsp;from 2005 and displayed on 26&nbsp;March 2008 in the&nbsp;Grande galerie de l'Évolution&nbsp;of the&nbsp;muséum national d'histoire naturelle&nbsp;in Paris. Photo via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_France#/media/File:Giant_squid.jpg">Wikipedia.org</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-giant-squid">Giant Squid</h3>



Indeed, the giant squid is much more than a fictionalized creature in the lake on the Hogwarts School Of Witchcraft And Wizardry grounds. The giant squid is a real-life animal and the second-largest mollusc we know of in Earth's history. It is an excellent example of deep-sea gigantism, <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://daily.jstor.org/why-deep-sea-creatures-get-weirdly-giant/" target="_blank">a phenomenon and zoology term</a> that describes species of animals that are significantly larger than their shallow-water cousins.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Why is this? <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3838549?mag=why-deep-sea-creatures-get-weirdly-giant&amp;seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McLain et al.</a> propose that "limited resources [in deep water] select for larger body sizes that can better withstand periods of famine or ability to cover larger distances in search of scarce prey."&nbsp;



In 2019, a giant squid sighting was documented <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/21/science/giant-squid-cephalopod-video.html" target="_blank">on video near the Gulf of Mexico</a>, reigniting the public's fear and fascination. In this instance, the squid was only a juvenile but was still an estimated 10 feet long.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-4">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



<a href="https://www.tepapa.govt.nz/discover-collections/read-watch-play/science/colossal-squid/difference-colossal-squid-giant-squid-octopus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Squid and octopus</a> (giant, or otherwise) are formidable fighters. While they do not typically attack humans, they are well equipped to defend themselves if they feel threatened.



<h3 id="h-vampire-squid">Vampire Squid</h3>



A name worthy of a horror movie in and of itself, the vampire squid is indeed a real-life thing - - a sea creature that is actually quite small with an intriguing appearance. It's scientific name&nbsp; is Vampyroteuthis infernalis. It lives in tropical and temperate waters in areas identified by "extreme deep-sea conditions". It is the only known survivor of the order Vampyromorphida and is a species that produces bioluminescence.&nbsp;



The arms of this squid will <a href="http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/vsfh.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regenerate if bitten or ripped off.</a> Often, the discarded limbs then act as a diversion for the vampire squid to escape. It's a defense mechanism that is equal parts scary and amazing.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-5">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



According to NOAA, vampire squids are not even slightly dangerous to humans - they simply live too deep for us to encounter them.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_390021130.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900862"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Martin+P">Martin Prochazkacz</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-great-white-shark">Great White Shark&nbsp;</h3>



One of Finding Nemo's charming villains with a soft side, the Great white shark is no stranger to our psyches. Horror stories, films, and encounters abound.&nbsp;



These monsters are a species of large mackerel shark found in the coastal waters of all major oceans. It's only predator in the wild is, occasionally, the killer whale.&nbsp;



While scientists explain that humans are not the "<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090426174140/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0123_040123_tvgreatwhiteshark.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preferred prey</a>" of the great white shark - it's just that these creatures are curious, and are willing to take a taste test. Not a comforting thought for surfers and swimmers, to say the least.&nbsp;



Similar to the drama around bears, lions, and tigers on land, the idea of a shark attack ends up being much bigger, culturally, than the actual risk. For example, there were <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/yearly-worldwide-summary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">8 reported shark attacks in 2021</a>. For some context, over 40% of the world's human population lives in coastal areas. These attacks are exceedingly rare.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-6">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Even if these attacks are more rare than we might realize, there's no doubt about it. Great white sharks are dangerous animals.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-protecting-our-sea-monsters">Protecting Our Sea Monsters&nbsp;</h2>



Of course, the scariest story of all the scariest sea monster stories are the monstrous implications of human impact on our oceans, coastlines, and fragile marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



In addition to warming water and unknown impacts on deep sea migration and global currents impacting weather, there are the immediate crises that our societies must address.&nbsp;



<a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/beach-dangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Contaminated water</a> from oil rigs, untreated sewage, boats, pets, broken septic systems, and fertilizers accumulate in the ocean. People become outraged when their favorite swimming beach is closed due to dangerous contamination - and yet, the companies and public industry responsibility is rarely held accountable or reformed in a sustainable way.&nbsp;



The same goes for the terrifying amounts of plastic in our oceans, in the bodies of the animals that live there, and of course, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/beach-dangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in our own systems.&nbsp;</a>



And of course, there is a lot of conversation about the fishing industry - much overdue - and the ways in which extractive and exploitative fishing methods ravage the populations of tasty fish, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-overfishing.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">and demolish additional species</a> habitats and behaviors in the process.&nbsp;



Scary sea creatures are impacted by all of this of course - along with the more beloved marine-dependent creatures that whole throngs of people identify with - like sea turtles, dolphins, lobsters and other crustaceans, Giant Isopods, crocodiles, and oh so many species of birds. There is an endlessly nuanced web of life that depends on healthy oceans. All of it, ourselves included, depends on our ability to shift our own species' behavior. Either we do so or we are the true monsters.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Scary Sea Monsters That Are Actually Real

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The Endangered Species Act is a foundational environmental law in the US. Known as a federal register of animals on the brink of extinction, it is a law that goes deeper than that. It has supported federal agents, activists, and everyday people in saving endangered species. From iconic Bald Eagles and lesser-known critters like the Island Night Lizard, the act has facilitated these species to temporary recovery. 



Millions of people will flock to natural areas like Yellowstone this summer. The Endangered Species Act is connected to these national park areas and conservation.&nbsp; So it's a good time to take a look at the history of this law.



<h2 id="h-chronological-timeline">Chronological Timeline</h2>



Protecting threatened animals and habitats seems like a no-brainer. However, the endangered species act is actually a relatively recent piece of legislation. It continues to change as time goes on. These policies have been mired in politics and conflicting motives from the very beginning. Understanding history can help you understand what's going on today. In the following section, there is a timeline and brief history of the act:&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/cranes-726456_1920-1024x679.jpg" alt="cranes" class="wp-image-1892187"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/ltollefson810-921628/">ltollefson810</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-1966-the-endangered-species-preservation-act">1966: The Endangered Species Preservation Act</h3>



Firstly, according to the U.S. Fish And Wildlife Service (<a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-history.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">fws.gov</a>), this 1966 act was the first means of listing native animals as at-risk species. The act allowed the federal government to provide "limited protection" to these animals. Agencies could act to reserve critical habitats. The law authorized the Services to acquire land to this end.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-1969-the-endangered-species-conservation-act">1969: The Endangered Species Conservation Act&nbsp;</h3>



Secondly, in 1969, congress amended the Preservation Act. It would now include additional protection for animals at risk of "worldwide extinction". The USFWS explains that the additional protections included prohibiting people from importing or selling certain animal species in the United States. The legislation called for an international meeting to determine conservation plans for endangered animals on a global level.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-1973-cites-or-the-convention-on-international-of-endangered-species">1973: CITES or The Convention On International Of Endangered Species</h3>



Thirdly, in 1973 a conference was held in Washington D.C. 80 different nations signed the convention. The agreement centered on monitoring and restricting the international sale of threatened species.



<h3 id="h-1973-the-endangered-species-act-of-1973-esa">1973: The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)</h3>



Later in the same year as the convention, Congress unanimously passed the Endangered Species Act. President Nixon signed it into law. This was groundbreaking legislation because it defined "endangered" and "threatened" on a federal level. It stretched to include plants and invertebrates as eligible for protection. It prohibited federal agencies from funding or carrying out any action that would threaten or jeopardize listed species or their critical habitats. The act requires that federal agencies conserve endangered species and it also made matching funds available to states for cooperative agreements.&nbsp;



Also, within the ESA, the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/endangered-species-conservation#:~:text=NOAA%20Fisheries%20is%20responsible%20for,the%20ecosystems%20they%20depend%20on." target="_blank" rel="noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a> is responsible for the "protection, conservation, and recovery of endangered and threatened marine and anadromous species".&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-1978-and-beyond-esa-amendments">1978 And Beyond: ESA Amendments</h3>



Congress amended the ESA in 1978. These amendments allowed Federal agencies to take actions that would endanger listed species <a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-1978.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">if cabinet-level committee gave them exemptions</a>. Furthermore, critical habitat had to be listed concurrently with corresponding species and economic factors were to be taken into consideration when deciding on area boundaries.&nbsp;



Later, in 1982, Congress made further amendments, including that the status of species was to be determined independently of economic factors, and speeding up the process of evaluating candidate species.&nbsp;



In 1988 Congress determined that candidate and recovered species must be monitored and would be eligible for emergency listing if there were significant risks. Any recovery plans became <a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-1988.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">open to public comment</a> and mandated reports.&nbsp;



Additionally, in 2004, things changed yet again in conjunction with the National Defence Authorization Act. Congress amended the ESA, exempting the Defence Department from critical habitat designations as long as there was "an integrated natural resources management plan prepared" and accepted by the Secretary of the Department of the Interior.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-polarized-protection">Polarized Protection&nbsp;</h2>



There are conflicting views of the ESA. Not everyone was (or is) on board with the initiative. As a result, the supreme court has seen <a href="https://www.justice.gov/enrd/supreme-court" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an increased amount of litigation</a> around the ESA since the act's inception. Conflicts might include home builders and birdwatchers - like in the case of the National Association Of Home Builders Vs. Defenders Of Wildlife. Sometimes, the argument at play is one of the various definitions of national security. An example of this would be Winter Vs. NRDC: Navy Sonar and Whales.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Our country continues to embody growing political extremism in the face of the climate crisis. The ESA as it currently stands is barely enough to protect animal and plant populations. Let's hope it continues to be a force for the protection of biodiversity and habitat protection for the foreseeable future.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/grizzly-73505_640.jpg" alt="grizzly bear" class="wp-image-1892188"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/brigachtal-17257/">brigachtal</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act">The Future Of the Endangered Species Act&nbsp;</h2>



While in power, the Trump administration made <a href="https://www.edf.org/ecosystems/maintaining-our-bipartisan-wildlife-history" target="_blank" rel="noopener">numerous attempts to attack</a> the science-based decision-making and conservation tactics of the ESA. Even though this legislation is incredibly popular amongst most Americans, there are <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/senate-blocks-legislation-to-reverse-clean-water-act/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">those still in office today</a> who seek to chip away at it. For example, Rob Bishop of Utah, the former chairman of the House Committee on Natural Resources has often spoken about scrapping the law altogether and "modernizing it". Environmentalists say does not bode well for the species this act was designed to protect.&nbsp;



Bold climate action from congress and the senate are necessary for the protection of biodiversity and natural resources.&nbsp;



Importantly, we can all participate in the endangered species act in small ways that can accumulate into massive changing tides. People-powered initiatives can and do address climate change.&nbsp;



For instance, we all know that ddt is bad and that styrofoam will be around for millions of years after we're dead. Take the next step. Familiarize yourself with the endangered species list and how it relates to your region. Plant certain plants, restore your lawn to native specimen and for the love of compost, stop using synthetic pesticides.&nbsp;



Combat foreign species where you can, and maybe <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/vegetarian-diet-boston/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">forage them for dinner</a> (like in the case of garlic mustard). Vote for local national politicians who <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-clean-air-act-has-saved-as-many-as-1-5-billion-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">demonstrate dedication to green initiatives</a> and value the environmental protection agency.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion&nbsp;</h2>



The danger of extinction is real and looming. Furthermore, our continued existence depends on the health and vitality of the landscapes we call home.&nbsp;



We all define our roles within communities of plants, animals, fungus, and people in different ways. However, in the face of the climate crisis, we have to find ways to move sustainably into the future. Whether you live on an island of the coast of Florida, in the redwoods of California, the crowded metropolises of New York, or the wilderness of Alaska, these conversations, legislations, and correlating activism will impact you.&nbsp;



With the imperiled species recovery of whooping cranes, gray wolves, monarch butterflies, grizzly bear, the American alligator, and so many more, our own species might recover and survive as well. Lastly, it won't be the first time our species has risen to unprecedented circumstances. 



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A Brief History of the "Endangered Species Act"

The Endangered Species Act is a foundational environmental law in...

African,Penguin,On,The,Sandy,Beach.,African,Penguin,(,Spheniscus

The African penguin, Latin name Spheniscus demersus, is a species of penguin endemic to the waters of South Africa. They are flightless birds that have evolved to thrive in their marine habitat. Highly <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4116197/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">social and vocal</a>, these penguins have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguin-foraging-behavior-habitat-health/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">tough battle</a> ahead to survive the human impact and the unfolding climate crisis of the Anthropocene.  
<h2>How Is It Different From Other Penguins?</h2>
There are <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/penguin#:~:text=Penguins%20are%20a%20family%20of,primarily%20in%20the%20Southern%20Hemisphere." target="_blank" rel="noopener">17-19 different species of penguins</a> in the world, all of which live in the southern hemisphere.  African penguins are distinguishable from other species in their appearance: these birds have a pale pink coloring around their eyes and <a href="http://www.penguins.cl/african-penguins.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a black facial mask</a>. 

The pink colorings around their eyes are actually sweat glands that are part of the birds’ <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/thermoregulation#:~:text=Thermoregulation%20is%20a%20process%20that,falls%20within%20a%20narrow%20window.">thermoregulatory system</a>. When temperatures rise, blood flow increases to these glands, causing the pink color to deepen. 

Less than two feet tall, their white underparts are spotted and also marked with a black band. These spotted patterns upon their breasts are unique to each bird, sort of like a human’s fingerprints. The African penguin’s color is an example of “countershading”, which is a protective adaption to certain environments. Their spotted-white underparts make it hard for predators to see them from under the water, and their black backs blend into the water from the sky, protecting them from predators in the air. 

Other common names for the African penguin include cape penguin, jackass penguin, black-footed penguin, and South African penguin. 

The African penguin’s feeding style is classified as a “pursuit diver”. This means that the birds’ underwater propulsion is possible due to their wings or feet. In the case of the African penguins, their wings operate like flippers, allowing the birds to move quickly and gracefully in the water. This swimming speed allows for a greater area in which to feed in comparison to species of birds that are only able to feed on the water’s surface. However, this evolutionary adaption for hunting in the water is why these birds are unable to fly. Because they are unable to fly, guilds of pursuit divers are not able to migrate as easily to other locations. 

African penguins' diet consists of squid and fish. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1888405" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_252302530-1.jpg" alt="African Penguins" width="1000" height="728" />
<h2>Where To Find Them</h2>
Locals and tourists alike consider African penguins to be a charismatic species. The penguin's loud bray call, in particular, charms onlookers. Apparently, it sounds quite like a donkey. 

Populations of these birds can be found in <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026082526/http://www.dict.org.za/penguin.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener">South Africa, Namibia</a>, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Mozambique, and Gabon. 

This species of penguin is also a popular member of zoos around the world - it’s possible an African penguin could be close by, even if you live far away from South African waters! 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1888406" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_494918926.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="591" />
<h2>African Penguins Are a Threatened Species</h2>
In the wild, African penguins <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4116197/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">live in colonies</a>, and these populations <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203072203/http://www.seaturtles.org/article.php?id=1800" target="_blank" rel="noopener">have declined by 95%</a> since the pre-industrial era.

Why is this the case? The answer is simple: us. As is so often the case, human impact, convenience, and cultural delicacies often <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7417240/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">come at the expense of the creatures around us</a>, to heartbreaking effect. 

Local communities have long considered African penguin eggs to be a delicacy. People legally collected these eggs and sold them well into the 1970s. The people who collected these eggs would smash older eggs before larger collecting efforts to ensure that the eggs they were harvesting were fresh. It’s a brutal approach, but it wasn’t only to meet the demand of nearby townspeople - beginning in the 1950s, <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/50557919/french-gourmet-finds-penguin-egg/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">French chefs</a> sought after the African penguin eggs, too, fueling cruel and unsustainable harvesting practices. 

The story gets bleaker, though. People began to harvest the penguin guano from islands where the colonies lived. Farmers then used the guano as fertilizer for their soil. These practices eliminate the necessary burrowing material available to the penguins. 

And then there are the oil spills. The African penguin’s habitat has been criminally polluted by petrochemicals via shipwrecks, oil spills, and tankards at sea where there are few regulations and even less accountability for companies and governments trafficking these resources. Arctic penguins’ exposure is both chronic and acute and is <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/50559428/south-africas-penguins-die-from-oil/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a crisis that spans decades</a>. Today, the penguins are an endangered species and included on the IUCN “Red List”. 

That’s not all. Fisheries near the colonies have had <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/54568076/penguins-elude-oil-spill-but-fishermen/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a drastic impact</a> on the availability of sardines and anchovy in the area - two of the main staples of the African penguin’s diet. This means the birds have to search farther offshore for food and otherwise settle for less nutritious food. Officials have experimented with restricting commercial fishing near the colonies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multi-drone-system-uses-a-unique-algorithm-to-survey-penguin-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to positive effect. </a>

<a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/african-penguin-on-sandy-beach-spheniscus-536915842">Image</a>
<h2>The Future Is in Restoration</h2>
Conservation efforts are ongoing and applaudable, but they will not be enough to save the African Penguin or any of the other species threatened by the climate crisis. We must require that governments invest in sustainable energy resources, that oil companies are held accountable for their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-crisis-antarctic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">unjust business practices</a>, and that individuals and communities around the world are incentivized to drastically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-temperature-has-been-steadily-rising-since-the-1850s/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">reduce their carbon footprint</a>. The future of the African penguin depends on this. And so do we. 

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What Is the African Penguin? Why Is it Endangered?

The African penguin, Latin name Spheniscus demersus, is a species...

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo sapien) share not only a common ancestor with both these primates, but we also share over 98% of our genome. But while these two great ape species have many similarities, they are actually quite different animals. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-and-chimpanzee-taxonomy">Bonobo and Chimpanzee Taxonomy</h2>



Physically, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-chimpanzee-day-celebrating-our-closest-cousins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a> are quite similar, and together, they make up the sole members of the genus Pan. Their genus shares the family Hominidae with the other tailless great apes like gorillas and orangutans. Originally, researchers assumed bonobos were just a subspecies of chimpanzees. 



In fact, until <a href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=943824&amp;print_version=PRT&amp;source=to_print#null" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1954</a>, scientists called them pygmy chimpanzees. Eventually, the two ape species were seen as distinct. Over the years, research has continued to reveal differences between chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus). Keep reading to learn more about the ecology of these two primates along with some of their key differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-amp-range">Distribution &amp; Range</h2>



Both chimpanzees and bonobos live in the tropical jungles of central Africa. However, bonobos have a much smaller range. In fact, bonobos are <a href="https://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/research/3chimps/chimps-bonobos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endemic</a> to a small region of the Congo River Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 



On the other hand, chimpanzees are found across twelve countries in east, central, and west Africa. Though both species can be found in the Congo River Basin, bonobos stay south of the river while chimpanzees can be found to the north.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_222261151.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903275"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/rolands">Patrick Rolands</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-and-bonobos-look-different">Do Chimpanzees and Bonobos Look Different?</h2>



At first glance, it might be hard to tell the two primates apart, but, in fact, chimpanzees and bonobos have a few key differences in appearance. To start, they have quite different body shapes. Bonobos are slender with long lanky limbs. Chimps, on the other hand, are much burlier. 



Additionally, chimpanzees display sexual dimorphism as the males are significantly larger than the females. In contrast, bonobo females and males are much closer in size. Their coloration differs slightly as well. 



Bonobos have dark black faces from birth, while baby chimps have pale pink faces that darken with maturation. You can always tell a bonobo from a chimp by their lips! Bonobos have bright pink lips while chimpanzees have dark lips. 



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td>Trait</td><td>Chimpanzees</td><td>Bonobos</td></tr><tr><td>Lip Color</td><td>Bright Pink Lips</td><td>Dark Lips</td></tr><tr><td>Build</td><td>Slender</td><td>Robust</td></tr><tr><td>Face Color</td><td>Black</td><td>Darkens with age</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A table highlighting the key physical differences between chimpanzees and bonobos.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h2>



Both chimps and bonobos are primarily frugivores, preferring to munch on the wide variety of fruit available in the tropical forests of central Africa. However, bonobos are more likely to <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.393.9208&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">add vegetables to their diets</a> by grazing on stems, leaves, and flowers. 



Additionally, while bonobos won’t shy away from a protein source like worms or ants or the occasional duiker (small antelope), chimps tend to be a bit more carnivorous. 



Seemingly tied to competition for status and mates, male chimpanzees will go on violent hunting sprees, mostly targeted at the smaller colobus monkeys. Bonobo communities tend to hunt for meat about twice per month, and they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-generous-share-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">share</a> their prey generously with the group. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-vs-bonobo-behavior">Chimpanzee vs. Bonobo Behavior</h2>



The most dramatic differences between chimps and bonobos lie in their social behaviors. Not only fascinating from an ecological perspective, but primate behavior can also give us clues to human evolution. 



In the field of evolutionary anthropology, scientists use <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/204757" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate studies</a> to answer questions. Chimpanzee and bonobo behavior can help us understand if certain human behaviors are part of our genome or learned through societal pressures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structure">Social Structure</h3>



Both primates live in social groups of mixed males and females, with bonobos generally occupying larger groups. Both groups use a fission-fusion structure in which smaller foraging teams reunite at night to sleep. 



However, there are several key divergences in how the primates interact between ages and genders. Chimpanzee communities have a clear hierarchy of males that defend clearly marked territories. 



On the other hand, wild bonobos are less strict with their territory borders and operate under a more matriarchal society. These trends in social structure are built on the social bonds between individuals.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_2111507969.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903276"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/anolis01">Edwin Butter</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-society">Chimpanzee Society</h4>



For chimpanzees, the relationships between males define the group structure. A classic example of natural selection, chimps compete for power in the group which translates to more chances to mate and pass on their offspring. 



The more dominant alpha males intimidate younger chimps and have more offspring. However, this fierce competition comes at a violent cost. Chimps are known to commit both infanticide and cannibalism to increase their chances of fathering offspring. 



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-society">Bonobo Society</h4>



In contrast, female bonobos run the show south of the Congo River. In general, bonobo society has much more interaction between genders and ages, and female bonds are critical. While young males stay with their natal groups, adolescent females disperse to find a new group. 



In the quest to become accepted, the new female will pamper the higher-ranking females. Sexual behavior between females is extremely common, and this new female will use <a href="https://www.reed.edu/biology/courses/BIO342/2011_syllabus/2011_websites/subramanian_jaime/genesis.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">socio-sexual behaviors</a> to eventually bond with all the non-related female bonobos.  



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication">Communication</h4>



Both species of great ape have complex communication with several similarities. However, their vocalizations sound quite different. Chimpanzees have lower-pitched voices, letting out barks and grunts. Bonobos are higher-pitched, and their vocalizations sound like squeals and yelps.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_235455565.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903277"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/joshuadavenport">Joshua Davenport</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use">Tool Use</h3>



One of the most well-known fun facts about these two primates is their creative tool use! Chimpanzees have been observed using a plethora of tools from absorbant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-drinking-sticks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking sticks</a> to makeshift shovels. To help with foraging, chimp mothers intentionally <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-mothers-teach-their-children-how-to-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teach their young</a> to use specific herbs like a spoon in a termite mound. 



Bonobos have also been seen to use tools including rocks and sticks. Due to the nature of their habitat, wild bonobo populations are understudied, and most of the tool observations have been made in captivity. Who knows what else they could be up to in the jungle?! 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h2>



Unfortunately, the IUCN red list lists both chimpanzees and bonobos as endangered. Most of their population declines come as a result of human action. Whether deforestation, poaching, urban development, or the impending threat of climate change, these primate populations are at risk.&nbsp;



While all species deserve protection, certainly we owe it to our closest living relatives to treat our shared planet with a bit more thoughtfulness. 



Conservation efforts to protect both these species have garnered attention since Jane Goodall made her first observations. However, slowing the devastating effects of climate change and habitat destruction is critical to the survival of these two amazing apes!



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Chimpanzees vs. Bonobos: What’s the Difference?

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo...

Amphibians are a unique group of animals that live on every continent except for Antarctica. Loads of amphibian species are threatened by extinction, and many are listed as endangered by the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN).

Many amphibians are incredibly fragile, partly due to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-amphibians-breathe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">unique way of breathing</a>. Minute changes in their environment can lead to a species becoming endangered, or worse.

The rate of extinction of amphibians is higher than almost every other group of organisms. So, why are some endangered amphibians going extinct?

There are a few main reasons why some amphibian species are disappearing. Before we get into them, we need to first understand global amphibian diversity, and why the decline of these animals is alarming.

[caption id="attachment_1874007" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img class="wp-image-1874007 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/amphibian_diversity.jpg" alt="Amphibian diversity" width="1000" height="773" /> Photo from AmphibiaWeb, by Christina Lew[/caption]
<h2>Diversity and Decline Causing Amphibian Extinction</h2>
Worldwide, there are over 7,000 species of amphibians. These include frogs, salamanders, and snake-like creatures called caecilians. The place with the highest amphibian diversity is the Amazon rainforest. Nearly a third of all amphibian species are at least threatened, and hundreds are listed as critically endangered.

Amphibians are often good indicator species. When frog or salamander populations start to decline, it can be a sign that there are small changes in the environment. This can range from a change in temperature to the introduction of a pollutant in a stream or pond.

In any case, a changing amphibian community often tips us off that something is beginning to change in the environment. Sometimes, we can then identify an environmental problem before it gets too bad. The fact that amphibian populations decline in part due to climate change could be a bad omen for many other organisms.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1874008 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Chytridiomycosis.jpg" alt="Dead frog" width="1000" height="752" />
<h2>Why Are Amphibians Going Extinct?</h2>
The decline of amphibians worldwide is alarming. What exactly is causing frogs, salamanders, and caecilians to struggle to survive? Like with many endangered species, there’s more than just one reason.
<h3>Habitat Destruction</h3>
One of the main threats to many plants and animals is habitat destruction. Amphibians are no exception. In the US alone, less than 0.01% of native <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-5-resourceful-grassland-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">grasslands</a> remain. Wetlands, ponds, and forests are more habitat types important for amphibians that humans are disturbing more and more.

Unfortunately, many amphibians have very small home ranges and are unable to move from habitat to habitat, which makes <a href="https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/human-impacts/habitat-fragmentation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">habitat fragmentation</a> also very impactful to amphibians.
<h3>Climate Change</h3>
Amphibians are incredibly sensitive to small changes in their environment. This is partly what makes them such great indicator species. However, it’s also what makes them extremely susceptible to climate change and changing temperatures.

One major impact climate change has on frogs is that it changes when they breed. Many species are breeding earlier in the year due to warmer temperatures.

When this happens, it’s possible there is not enough food for their young once the tadpoles hatch, and many are unable to make it to adulthood. A more indirect impact may include climate change affecting amphibian immune systems, which makes them more prone to disease.
<h3>Chytrid Fungus</h3>
Perhaps the most terrifying reason some amphibians are going extinct is a fungal disease called <a href="https://amphibiaweb.org/chytrid/chytridiomycosis.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chytridiomycosis</a>. The disease is caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, commonly called the chytrid fungus.

The origin of the fungus is likely Asia, but it's now spread throughout much of the world. Unfortunately, the disease is spreading fast and affecting amphibians all over the world. It’s said to be the single greatest disease-caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decreases-biodiversity-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">loss of biodiversity</a> in recorded history.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1874009 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/golden-toad-1024x683.jpg" alt="golden toad" width="1024" height="683" />
<h2>The Golden Toad</h2>
One of the poster children for animal extinctions and amphibian conservation is the golden toad. A small, brilliantly colored toad once lived in a tiny area in Monteverde, Costa Rica. In fact, it’s native range was only 4 square kilometers (1.5 square miles).

Despite its small home range, the golden toad was abundant. There were estimated to be around 1500 individuals from their discovery in 1964 until 1987. Then, in 1988, researchers only saw 10 individuals.

The next year, none. Since 1989, not a single golden toad has been spotted. In just three years, an entire species went from being happy and healthy to extinct entirely.

How did this happen? There are different schools of thought. Some think a dryer than normal year in 1987 led to the disappearance of the golden toad. Others believe it was airborne pollution. Another supported theory blames chytrid fungus.

Although there’s no possibility of ever knowing the answer, the most likely cause was all three together. A combination of climate change, pollution, and chytrid fungus was a perfect storm to cause the golden toad to go extinct.

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Why Are So Many Amphibian Species Threatened By Extinction?

Amphibians are a unique group of animals that live on...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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