There are many arguments for which kind of diet is healthiest. Many people opt for a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, while others choose to follow an Atkins or a raw food diet. No matter the type of diet one chooses to abide by, one thing is certain: avoid processed foods. Even if you do eat meat and other animal products, avoiding processed foods like sugary candy or salty chips is above all in terms of eating healthy. Whichever nutritional approach you choose, a plant-based diet can be a wise choice.

We’ll go over what a diet centered around fruits and vegetables is, and try to answer the question: is a plant-based diet healthy?

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1872459 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/salad.jpg" alt="" width="900" height="600" /></h3>
&nbsp;
<h2>What Is a Plant-Based Diet?</h2>
A plant-based diet focuses on whole-grain, plant-based foods. This is different from <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/becoming-a-vegetarian" target="_blank" rel="noopener">vegetarianism</a> or veganism, which are two of the most popular diets around today and exclude certain animal products entirely. In reality, vegetarians and vegans follow a plant-based diet, but they aren’t the only ones who do. Our diet in question is solely based on consuming plants as food. This means someone who is a devout plant-based follower can still eat the occasional animal product, like cheese or milk. However, it’s discouraged and should be avoided when possible!

Choosing a plant-based diet can be a healthy move, and there are many ways to achieve it. Here’s a list of some plant-based diets one can opt into:
<ul>
 	<li>Semi-vegetarian or flexitarian: Includes eggs, cheese, and occasionally poultry, fish, and meat.</li>
 	<li>Pescatarian: Excludes all meat except for fish.</li>
 	<li>Vegetarian: Doesn’t eat any meat, but does eat other animal products like eggs and cheese.</li>
 	<li>Vegan: Strictly plant-based, and doesn’t eat any animal products.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

No matter the category of plant consumer, a diet heavy on botanically based foods can still include all the required nutrients we need to live. As long as you keep a balanced diet and eat a wide array of plant foods, you can get all the proteins and vitamins you need.

Beans, soy, and other legumes will provide tons of protein. These can make up the bulk of many meals.

More protein-rich plants are seeds and nuts. Things like peanuts and <a href="https://www.amazonconservation.org/ourwork/livelihoods.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Brazil nuts</a> are full of protein, plus healthy fats!

Starchy plants such as potatoes and squash are packed with fiber and potassium.

<a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324431.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Fruits,</a> namely citrus, will give you a huge array of vitamins.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/video/cook-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Green veggies</a> like kale are also full of vitamins and minerals.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1338273 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Eating-fiber-helps-your-body-fight-off-the-effects-of-stress.jpg" alt="New research has revealed that the effects of stress on our gut and behavior may be reduced by eating foods that are high in fiber." width="1210" height="806" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Bonus - Plant-Based Eating Is Good for the Environment!</h3>
As you may know, animal agriculture is one of the leading causes of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data" target="_blank" rel="noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a> in the world. These emissions come from the animals we farm - mostly cattle we use for beef. By reducing your meat consumption, even if it’s just cutting beef from your diet, you can help lower the amount of methane emitted into the atmosphere by a literal ton.

Plant-based diets can be extremely healthy when done right. Although it may take a bit more planning and thought about what you eat, it’s a good choice for someone who wants to make a healthy change of direction in their eating habits. Again, the best thing one can do to improve their diet is to limit the amount of processed foods they eat. Luckily, plants are easy to find fresh and unprocessed, unlike many of the animal products on the market today.

&nbsp;

Is a Plant-Based Diet Healthy?

There are many arguments for which kind of diet is...

Sometimes, the cutest animals are the deadliest. Take the poison dart frog, for example. Members of this tiny, brightly colored family of frogs only measure 1.5 inches long as adults, but are some of the <a href="http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150422-the-worlds-most-poisonous-animal" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">most poisonous animals on earth</a>. 

These frogs all belong to the family Dendrobatidae - which has 13 genera over 170 species. Native to the rainforests between Costa Rica and Brazil, their coloring can be black, white, red, gold, copper, green, blue, or yellow! Like all amphibians, they live their entire lives near water in to keep their skin moist <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-amphibians-breathe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">and to breath</a>. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Does the Poison Come From?</h2>
The toxin found on the skin of Dendrobatidae is a type of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/alkaloid" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">alkaloid</a> - a class of nitrogen-containing compounds that have strong effects in humans. Scientists have long debated the source of the poison found on the frogs, but <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/426599" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">an article by the University of Chicago</a> attempts to put this question to rest. 

The current theory is that toxicity of poison dart frogs is actually “exogenous” -  meaning the amphibians don't make the poison themselves. Instead, they obtain and concentrate the toxins - known as alkaloids - through their diet. The team calls this the ‘diet‐toxicity hypothesis.’

The organisms that the frogs eat - ants and other small arthropods - themselves consume a diet of plants, the ultimate source of the alkaloids. This hypothesis is further supported by the fact that poison dart frogs raised in captivity (and thus have their diet controlled) <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/amphibians/group/poison-dart-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">never develop their poison</a>.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1872196" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/frog-894366_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="golden poison dart frog" width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;
<h2>How Poisonous Are They?</h2>
Some poison dart frogs are safer than others to handle. <a href="https://amphibiaweb.org/species/1632" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Granular Poison Frog</a> (Oophaga granulifera) poison can only be absorbed through the bloodstream or mouth, and low quantities of O. granulifera poison will likely only cause nausea and fever. This is not the case for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/golden-poison-frog-phyllobates-terribilis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Golden Poison Frog</a> (Phyllobates terribilis). This frog contains enough poison to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/amphibians/g/golden-poison-frog/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">kill ten grown men</a>!

While poison dart frog toxin can be deadly to humans, they have at least one natural predator that is capable of safely eating them. One species of snake, the fire-bellied snake (Leimadophis epinephelus), has developed a resistance to the frogs’ poison. They may have enzymes capable of rendering the toxin harmless once it enters their system.

&nbsp;
<h2>Why the Bright Colors?</h2>
Most members of Dendrobatidae are very recognizable due to their distinctive bright colors. But why do they look this way? The coloration of these frogs is a <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/side_0_0/aposematic_01" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">type of signaling</a>. These signals are meant to grab a predator’s attention, and inform them that the frog is deadly to eat. This is the same concept as the bright, waving, poisonous spines of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-lionfish-pterois-volitans/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">lionfish</a> or the contrasting black and white banding of a wasp.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1872195" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/frog-649564_1280-1024x681.jpg" alt="blue poison dart frog" width="1024" height="681" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Dendrobatidae Species</h2>
There are so many beautiful examples of poison dart frogs - let’s take a look at a few!
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/dyeing-poison-frog-dendrobates-tinctorius/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dyeing dart frog</a>: this species is commonly kept as a pet, and is the 9th deadliest Dendrobatidae in the world. It is very recognizable due to the brilliant blue coloring on its legs.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/green-and-black-poison-frog-dendrobates-auratus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Green-and-black poison dart frog</a>: they can be green or light blue, but almost all of them have dark black coloration in the form of spots or stripes. Like all poison dart frogs, it is native to northern South America, but this species has also been introduced to Hawaii as well.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Bumblebee poison frog: these frogs are named for their striking black and yellow stripe pattern. It is one of the largest species in Dendrobatidae, sometimes growing to be larger than 2 inches.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<h2>Uses of Poison Dart Frogs</h2>
Dendrobatidae are more than just a family of colorful frogs. Humans have utilized their poison for a variety of purposes. Historically, the indigenous Embera Choco people of western Colombia have used the frogs’ poison to <a href="http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/species/golden_poison_dart_frog" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">aid with their hunting and warfare</a>. When the frogs are impaled and exposed to heat they "sweat" their poison out. This sweat can then be used to coat the tips of arrows or other weapons. 

Scientists at Stanford University are interested in the utility of the golden poison dart frog’s poison for <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2016/11/17/502324984/chemists-recreate-deadly-frog-poison-in-the-lab" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">medical research</a>, as well. The main toxin, batrachotoxin, causes some strange effects on a victim’s nervous system. Understanding how the poison spreads through the body could provide useful insight into how nerve impulses are conducted. 

&nbsp;
<h2>Frogs in Danger of Extinction</h2>
Several species of Dendrobatidae are on the brink of extinction due to human activity. The frogs can only survive in the rainforest, and habitat destruction is limiting the available territory for them to thrive. Many non-profits, like <a href="https://rainforestfoundation.org/donatenow/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Save the Rainforest</a>, work to end deforestation in the Amazon and Central America. This destruction of habitat not only threatens frogs like Dendrobatidae, but countless other species in the rainforest and biodiversity on planet Earth. Take a moment and consider<a href="https://www.earth.com/take-action-save-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> supporting organizations</a> that help save frogs and their home forests!

&nbsp;

What Makes Poison Dart Frogs Poisonous?

Sometimes, the cutest animals are the deadliest. Take the poison...

Though we rarely think about them, we rely on satellites for much of our daily lives. They enable global communication, GPS and weather reports. Satellites also help <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/nasa-satellite-measures-deforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">measure environmental destruction</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/new-weather-satellite-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">track weather</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-track-sea-level/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sea levels</a>, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/map-living-conditions-global-poverty/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">global economics</a>. These satellites face a huge problem - the exponentially growing amount of space junk sharing Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

Satellites don’t last forever. Eventually, they stop working. However, when this happens they do not magically disappear or fall back to earth. These objects remain in their orbit, moving at incredible speeds.

In 1978, NASA astrophysicist <a href="http://iaass.space-safety.org/awards/jerome-lederer-space-safety-pioneer-award/space-safety-pioneer-award-hall-of-fame/kessler-biography/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Donald J. Kessler</a> made a startling prediction. The growing debris in LEO would eventually reach a tipping point. When this happened, it would start a chain reaction of collisions. Each collision creating more debris, leading to more collisions. This domino effect is called the Kessler Syndrome.

If we reach this point, the consequences will be disastrous. The resulting debris field would destroy essential satellites. Pieces of space junk would shred the International Space Station to bits. The cascading debris would make LEO too cluttered for new satellites. This would fundamentally change the way humans use space. Many modern conveniences we take for granted would disappear.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872177 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/space-junk-11644_640.jpg" alt="A map of spacejunk orbiting earth." width="640" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What Makes Space Junk So Dangerous?</h2>
Compared to the amount of overall waste produced by humanity, space junk may seem pretty minor. It is <a href="http://stuffin.space/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">floating in the void of space</a>. It seems too far away to hurt any of us. Out of sight, out of mind.

The reality is that this “trash” is more like thousands of missiles. In orbit, space debris generally moves at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news/debris_faq.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">7-8 kilometers per second</a>, over 25,000 kilometers per hour (15,000 miles per hour.) Collisions are even faster due to the speed of the satellite. At these speeds, a 10-centimeter object would have the force of <a href="https://bigthink.com/paul-ratner/how-the-kessler-syndrome-can-end-all-space-exploration-and-destroy-modern-life" target="_blank" rel="noopener">7 kilograms of TNT</a>.

These collisions are still rare, but the amount of space junk is growing. Currently, there are <a href="http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/usspc-fs/space.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">8,000 orbiting objects being tracked by the Space Surveillance Network</a>. This is far less than the estimated 22,000 objects larger than 4 inches in orbit. When smaller objects are considered, that number goes into the tens of millions. Each collision has the potential to multiply these objects.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872178 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/international-space-station-67774_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="The view of earth from the international space station with an astronaut looking out the window." width="1024" height="680" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Do Collisions With Active Satellites Actually Happen?</h2>
There are around 1,000 working satellites in LEO. A number of different countries and private companies own these satellites. Most of these are able to avoid collisions using thrusters. When they detect a threatening object, they make evasive maneuvers. However, with the number of satellites and objects in space, this is not always possible.

In <a href="http://www.spacesafetymagazine.com/space-debris/kessler-syndrome/iridium-33-cosmos-2251-years-later-learned-then/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2009 the private satellite Iridium 33 collided with the derelict Russian Cosmos 2251</a>. This event revealed the real risks of orbital debris. The collision underscored the realities of the Kessler Syndrome. This led to increased international cooperation to combat the threat.

The largest object in LEO is the international space station (ISS.) This space station houses astronauts continually. A large collision with the ISS would be disastrous. Essential components of the ISS can withstand pieces of space junk up to 1cm. However, about once a year the ISS has to maneuver to avoid a larger collision.

&nbsp;
<h2>How to Prevent the Kessler Syndrome</h2>
<h3>Make Less Trash</h3>
The most important step to prevent the Kessler Syndrome is to create less junk. This means being careful about what we send into space. <a href="https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/universe/what-is-kessler-syndrome-definition-example-effects-solution.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Limitations on the number of satellites</a> launched is an obvious step. In addition, organizations must design satellites must with this threat in mind. This means ensuring that they can be safely disposed of when they die. In the US, satellites must reenter the Earth’s atmosphere (where they burn up) or be launched to the “graveyard orbit” well outside of LEO. The UN also has a set of debris mitigation guidelines.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872179 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/dark-2024127_1280-1024x643.png" alt="A meteor of piece of space junk burining up in earth's atmosphere" width="1024" height="643" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Cleanup Efforts</h3>
Even if all new satellites were safely disposed of, collisions could still happen. The daisy chain of the Kessler Syndrome could turn operational satellites into hundreds of new pieces of junk.

Currently, there is no method to remove existing space junk. Some objects will naturally enter the atmosphere in a matter of years. However, those further out will likely <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news/debris_faq.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">stay in orbit for centuries</a>.

Research is ongoing into possible cleanup techniques. A “<a href="http://www.spacedaily.com/news/debris-00a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">laser broom</a>” is one proposed solutions. This would use lasers to push debris toward reentry. International treaties, cost, and complexity have prevented any significant effort to remove debris.

&nbsp;

The Kessler Syndrome is a very real threat. Pollution is a problem that follows humans everywhere we go, even in space. We can only hope that action to mitigate the dangers of pollution in space will happen quickly enough to prevent disaster.

&nbsp;

What is the Kessler Syndrome?

Though we rarely think about them, we rely on satellites...

What are digestive plant enzymes? To answer this, we have to first ask: what are digestive enzymes to begin with? You may have learned about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-eating-enzyme-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">enzymes</a> in a biology class at some point, but we’ll give you a refresher.

Organisms need energy to function. But, where does this energy come from? From food, of course! After you scarf down a slice of pizza or drink a glass of orange juice, the body isn’t able to magically absorb a piece of pepperoni or orange pulp. It needs something to make that energy usable - like enzymes!

&nbsp;
<h2>Digestive Enzymes</h2>
Every organism that needs to convert food into energy needs some sort of enzyme to carry out the job. They help organisms break down a meal into smaller components that are easier for the body to absorb. Digestive enzymes dissolve proteins, fats, and carbohydrates into tiny molecules that are absorbed by your small intestine as they pass through. <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/natural-digestive-enzymes" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Some foods</a> even contain enzymes to aid in digestion.

There are several main types of digestive enzymes:
<ul>
 	<li>Proteases and peptidases divide proteins into small peptides and amino acids.</li>
 	<li>Lipases split fat into three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule.</li>
 	<li>Amylases convert carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars like glucose.</li>
 	<li>Nucleases change nucleic acids to nucleotides.</li>
</ul>
Now that we have a better idea of what digestive enzymes are, let’s ask our question again.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872038 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/pitcherplant.jpg" alt="pitcher plant" width="1000" height="715" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What Are Digestive Plant Enzymes?</h2>
Although most plants create their energy through a process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photosynthesis-efficient-enough/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">photosynthesis</a>, some actually retrieve their nutrients from elsewhere.

Carnivorous plants make up an incredibly small percentage of all plant species, and they have an extremely unique way of getting nutrients. Because they often grow in poor soil conditions, these plants need to supplement their nutrient intake using another method: carnivory. These plants are able to convert organic matter into energy, just like animals do with their digestive track. In order to break down their food into smaller components, guess what they use? Enzymes! Although plants don’t have the same kind of digestive enzymes as animals, the processes that they undergo are very similar.

The most important nutrients a plant needs are nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Digestive plant enzymes make it possible for a carnivorous plant to get these nutrients in a place where they would otherwise be nearly impossible to retrieve. One of the most interesting things about digestive enzymes in plants and animals is that they evolved independently of one another. This is an awesome example of <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/convergent_evolution.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">convergent evolution</a>!

Plants secrete their digestive enzymes from modified leaves. In the case of a pitcher plant, they create a pool of digestive fluid that contains these enzymes. For a venus fly trap, the “mouth” of the plant is coated with these enzymes and clamp down on its prey not only to trap it, but also to cover as much of its prey as possible with the enzymes.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872039" align="alignnone" width="454"]<img class="wp-image-1872039 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/chitinase.png" alt="" width="454" height="255" /> Diagram of chitinase[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Common Plant Enzymes</h2>
<ul>
 	<li>Esterase</li>
 	<li>Phosphatase</li>
 	<li>Glucanase</li>
 	<li>Peroxidase</li>
 	<li>Ureas</li>
 	<li>Chitinase</li>
</ul>
All of these enzymes have a specific function. That is, break down only one or a few unique structures. As its name implies, chitinase is used to dissolve the exoskeleton (made of chitin) of insects and other arthropods. Without it, plants wouldn’t be able to digest the hard outer shell of a beetle.

Digestive plant enzymes are a marvel of biology. To think plants have evolved a similar way to digest foods that humans and other animals use is astounding!

&nbsp;

What Are Digestive Plant Enzymes?

What are digestive plant enzymes? To answer this, we have...

Humans have been genetically modifying organisms (GMO) for close to 10,000 years - starting with the domestication of wheat in southwest Asia around 7800 BCE. Since their explosion in the mid-1970s in the United States, GMO crops now account for practically all of the corn and soybeans planted each year in the country.

Plants are not the only organisms that scientists have their sights set on. A Belgian team <a href="http://www.ruthmueller.info/medical-entomology" target="_blank" rel="noopener">led by Dr. Ruth Müeller</a> aims to use cutting-edge genetic technologies to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-mosquitoes-malaria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitos</a>.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Is Malaria?</h2>
To understand why scientists want to eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitos, let’s first take a look at the disease. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Malaria</a> is “vector-borne,” meaning that living organisms can transmit the disease between humans.

While mosquitos are all members of the family Culicidae (which contains over 3,500 species), only one genus, <a href="https://www.who.int/features/qa/10/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anopheles</a>, can pass the parasite along. Only females of this genus are able to bite humans. When they do, they draw a minuscule amount of blood. During each bite, the mosquito ‘backwashes’ some of the blood from its previous bite into the new bite. If at any point the mosquito came in contact with malaria-containing blood, that mosquito can pass the disease onto its next victim.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871890" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_2-1024x512.jpg" alt="red blood cells malaria" width="1024" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Genetics Vocab</h2>
How does Dr. Müeller’s team plan to eradicate these dangerous mosquitos? Before we get there, we need to understand some vocabulary:
<ul>
 	<li>Gene: a piece of DNA that codes for a specific trait, like hair color, eye color, or whether you have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-017-07792-7" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dangly earlobes</a></li>
 	<li>Allele: a specific variant of a gene, like red hair or blue eyes</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/gene-editing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gene editing</a>: part of a new wave of technologies that aims to change small parts of an organism’s DNA, sometimes as small as a single gene</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-effects-crispr-gene-editing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">CRISPR</a>: short for “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats” - a technology in development since 1993 that makes editing single genes possible by utilizing a pair of ‘genetic scissors’ to add or remove genetic information within an organism’s DNA</li>
 	<li>Gene drive: a technology that ensures a specific allele is passed onto almost all of an organism's offspring. Usually, half of an organism’s offspring will receive any given allele, but gene drives raise this percentage of offspring close to 100%</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871891" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_3-1024x512.jpg" alt="dna genetic engineering CRISPR" width="1024" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Müeller’s Plan</h2>
The Belgian team aims to stop the spread of malaria by stopping the spread of the mosquito that carries it.

Their first challenge was to use CRISPR to modify a gene. This gene, known as doublesex, is involved with the sexual development of mosquitos. “The females become a bit more male,” Müeller told NPR in an interview in February, likening them to “a kind of hermaphrodite.”

This modification of doublesex causes two deformations: one of the females’ mouths, making it impossible for them to bite humans, and another of their reproductive organs, rendering them unable to lay eggs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Keeping the Mutation Going</h2>
Mutating a single mosquito isn’t enough, though. Müeller’s team wants to enable the mutation to spread throughout entire populations of mosquitos. By utilizing a gene drive, the group hopes to ensure that the mutation will be passed onto each successive generation.

As Müeller puts it, “All the children — the mosquito children — have this modification.” Eventually, the team intends for the mutation to spread to the entirety of a wild population - eradicating every mosquito. This ecosystem-wide impact has raised significant concern.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Controversy</h2>
While the possible, eventual results of Müeller’s research could benefit <a href="https://www.who.int/features/factfiles/malaria/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">roughly half of the world’s population</a> by reducing the threat of malaria, the issue is not so simple

Dana Perls, of <a href="https://foe.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Friends of the Earth</a>, worries about the unknown consequences, “This is an experimental technology which could have devastating impacts.” Friends of the Earth is just one of many international organizations that are concerned with the pace that GMO mosquito research is progressing. “We need to slow down. We need to hit the pause button on gene drives,” she adds.

Furthermore, what effect will eliminating a species of mosquito have on the environment? “It's difficult to see what the downside would be to removal, except for collateral damage,” says insect ecologist Steven Juliano in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2010/100721/full/466432a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2010 Nature article</a>. Scientists believe that the ecological harm caused by eliminating Anopheles would be far outweighed by the benefit of reducing the deadly human diseases they carry.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871892" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_4-1024x575.jpg" alt="swarm of GMO mosquitos" width="1024" height="575" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Next Steps for Müeller’s Team</h2>
Now that Müeller’s team has developed GMO mosquitos, they have already put their ideas to the test. Deep within a specially designed lab in Terni, Italy, their GMO mosquitos were released into populations of normal, healthy mosquitos.

Over the course of the next year, the team will track the spread of the doublesex mutation within this experimental lab population. She is excited, to say the least. “This will really be a breakthrough experiment,” says Müeller.

The group’s research is just one arm of the international organization <a href="https://targetmalaria.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Target Malaria's</a> global malaria reduction strategy. Other teams at the University of Cambridge, University of Notre Dame, and the University of Oxford - amongst others - are working towards similar goals to those of Müeller’s team.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>GMO Mosquitos in the Future</h2>
What does this mean for the future of malaria on planet earth?

Although Müeller’s experiment is set to conclude in February of 2020, there is still much to be done. They plan to spend four to five additional years studying the possible long-term consequences of the mosquitos’ release into the wild, as well as understanding the necessary ecological and political hurdles they must clear in order to implement their vision.

The team does not expect their mosquitos to be released into the wild anytime soon. But their research is already happening, and it’s not too early for all of us to start asking questions about how it will affect our shared future.

&nbsp;

Why Are There GMO Mosquitos?

Humans have been genetically modifying organisms (GMO) for close to...

It may come as a surprise to learn that most of the cells in your body are not your own. Scientists estimate bacteria may outnumber human cells by as much as 10 to 1! Admittedly, this estimate is on the higher side. However, it is generally agreed that there are at least as many non-human cells as human cells in the average person.

This may sound like a terrifying invasion, but don’t fear. These “foreign” cells are your microbiome. They are an essential part of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3450280/pdf/12088_2010_Article_34.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">human “superorganism.”</a>

Since the advent of "germ theory," we’ve seen bacteria as evil. They're invaders, hiding out on doorknobs and cellphones. Bacteria is just waiting for you to forget to wash your hands. Then it can infect you and everyone you come in contact with. This view of bacteria isn’t entirely accurate. Though some bacteria can be harmful (and you should definitely keep washing your hands), most are benign and some are helpful!

The microbiome is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humansrelationship-microbes-inside/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the community of organisms living inside you</a> (<a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">or their collective genes</a>.) These include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and even viruses! The term microbiome can also refer to the communities of microbes in environmental samples. In this article, we will be focusing on the human microbiome.

Scientists are just beginning to research the role of the microbiome in health. The importance of the microbiome to human health has become apparent.

The human microbiome is often associated with gut bacteria. But, the microbiome is not restricted to the digestive tract. Microbes live throughout the human body, and helpful microbes are found in many organs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>What Makes a Microbe Good?</h2>
Everyone's microbiome has many different types of microbes. This microbial community plays an essential role in digestion and our immune systems. The amount of help provided by bacteria can vary. Some <a href="https://www.gutmicrobiotaforhealth.com/en/glossary/commensal-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">species are mutualistic</a>, providing and receiving benefits to their host. Others are commensal, simply living inside our guts without harming or benefiting us.

Microbes play an essential role in digestion. They assist in digesting foods that humans have trouble processing. Probiotics supplements and foods offer a way to boost your gut microbiota. These good bacteria include many species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium.

The microbes in the urinary tract and eyelids keep foreign bacteria at bay. By establishing a community, they make it harder for bad microbes to invade.

Bacteria are by far the most common and most discussed microbe in our bodies. However, the microbiome is far more complex. It also includes fungi, viruses, and archaea. These organisms provide a diverse environment that can respond to changing conditions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Do These Microbes Come From?</h2>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871718 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/yogurt-1442034_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="Yogurt with oats and strawberries sitting on a table with a plate of strawberries in the corner." width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;

We know the microbiome is an essential part of a healthy human. But where do all these microbes from? It turns out that our first exposure to these microbes happens as early as birth. We are exposed to microbes in the birth canal. The microbial community continues to develop through infancy. Breast milk can also deliver microbes. Though our microbiome is not inherited in the traditional sense it is still <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">passed from mother to child</a>.

The microbiome continues to develop and change throughout life. Diet has a huge influence on how the microbiome grows. It can also introduce new bacteria to the microbiome. Many probiotic or cultured foods contain good bacteria and yeast. Yogurt, kombucha, and kimchi are just a few examples of sources of good digestive bacteria.

Environment, location, diet, and health can all influence exposure to good and bad microbes.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Is Our Microbiome?</h2>
The microbiome occupies a large number of different organs. The microbes present are different in each. Though they share many functions, each community is unique. Research is ongoing to better understand the microbiome's role. Imbalances in the microbiome can have far-reaching effects. The microbes can influence many parts of the body.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Skin</h3>
</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3535073/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The skin</a> is a diverse habitat for a wide range of organisms. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and even small mites. These organisms are primarily harmless, while others provide essential services. They protect against invasion by pathogens, train the immune system, and even assist in killing pathogens.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Eye (conjunctiva)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The ocular microbiome is less well-known but can provide essential services. The <a href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/anatomy/microbiome-of-eye" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the eye</a> occurs on the conjunctiva, the clear tissue covering the whites of your eye. The eye has fewer microbes than the skin, around 1/100th the number. Healthy eyes usually have only 4 genera of bacteria. The ocular microbiome may be important in many conditions. These include chronic dry eyes and blepharitis.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Gut</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The gut is host to the most diverse and active microbiome. Microbes in the gut are essential for digestion. There is evidence that the gut microbiome may play a role in a wide array of different diseases. This article will focus on the gut microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Urinary Tract (UT)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
In the past, scientists believed the urinary tract was sterile. Any microbes in the UT were assumed to be a UTI. New evidence has shown that a healthy urinary tract has certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405456916301596" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbial communities</a>. Changes in this community have been linked to diseases. These include incontinence, cysts, STIs, pain, and even cancers! Research is being done on how to protect and repair this community. Diet, probiotics, and prebiotics may help regulate the urinary microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Vagina</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The <a href="http://vmc.vcu.edu/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the vagina</a> is essential to vaginal health. These communities are complex and change over time. Hormonal and environmental changes have a large influence on this community. In general, the beneficial bacteria that exist in the vagina produce lactic acid. This acid lowers the pH, protecting against pathogens and infections. This protection is essential to prevent STIs, yeast infections, UTIs and bacterial vaginosis.

The vaginal microbiome is also involved in birth. Miscarriages and infertility are associated with an imbalanced microbiome. The vaginal microbiome also exposes newborns to microbes. This process provides many of the microbes that will become the child's microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Mouth</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The mouth leads directly to our largest microbiome, the gut. With this in mind, it makes sense that the mouth would also host a <a href="https://askthedentist.com/oral-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">complex microbiome</a>. The oral microbiome has around 700 species of organisms. Many diseases are associated with imbalances in the oral microbiome. These include cavities, gingivitis, and other conditions. Brushing and flossing are key to maintaining a balanced oral microbiome. Avoiding antibacterial mouthwash may also help.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Lungs</h3>
</li>
</ul>
Like the UT, the lungs were historically believed to be sterile. Genetic sequencing has revealed that this is not the case. Though the lungs have fewer total microbes than the gut, they are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440512/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extremely diverse</a>. However, lung microbes are still poorly understood. The lung microbiome may play a role in lung diseases. Research into the microbial community associated with pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, HIV, tobacco use, and other diseases may reveal important treatment options.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Does the Microbiome Matter?</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Digestion</h3>
The microbiome is most prevalent in the gut. Here, bacteria play essential roles in digestion. They are crucial to digesting foods that humans naturally cannot. Bacteria digest a group of sugars called FODMAPs. This stands for Fermentable Oligo-, Di, Mono-saccharides, And Polyols. FODMAPs include well-known culprits of digestive issues such as lactose. FODMAPs may also play a role in the rise of reported non-celiac gluten intolerance. Many of these sugars are difficult or impossible for people to digest on their own.

An abnormal gut microbiome is associated with various gastrointestinal disease. <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:mixTdAaa9JcJ:https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news/microbiomics_its_growing_significance_in_the_world_of_medicines_testing+&amp;cd=1&amp;hl=en&amp;ct=clnk&amp;gl=us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Irritable bowel syndrome </a>is one example. In this condition, disrupted gut bacteria interfere with normal bile acid metabolism. Other medical issues including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-fungi-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">obesity</a> and diabetes are linked to an irregular microbiome. An improved understanding of the role of the microbiome in disease will improve treatment options.

&nbsp;
<h3>Immune function</h3>
The microbiome also plays an <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-03-gut-bacteria-essential-healthy-immune.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential role in immune health</a>. The microbiome is a training ground for your immune system. Exposure to these bacteria helps your immune cells build a response to pathogens. It also teaches the body that some microbes are not dangerous. This is important to prevent unnecessary inflammatory responses. Without the microbiome, every new food or environment would cause an unnecessary waste of energy.

Experiments on mice have shown that a lack of microbes creates an immature immune system. Adding bacterial flora quickly causes the immune system to improve.

A diverse microbiome provides the best benefits to health and immune function. It is essential that your microbiome remains balanced. Measuring and understanding the variation in gut microbes may help treat immune diseases like Crohn’s. Techniques to characterize the gut microbiome will continue to improve. This will enable individually targeted treatments to rebalance the gut microbiome.

&nbsp;
<h3>Relationship to the Brain</h3>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871719 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brain-512758_1280-1024x736.png" alt="A drawing on a human brain." width="1024" height="736" />

&nbsp;

The phrase “trust your gut” may have more truth to it than you ever knew. <a href="https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/the-simplified-guide-to-the-gut-brain-axis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The gut-brain axis</a> is the connection between the central nervous system (CNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS). The role of the gut microbiome in influencing these systems is being investigated.

The CNS and ENS are independent but connected by the vagus nerve. This connects the gut directly to the hypothalamus and limbic system. These parts of the brain regulate emotion. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trust-your-instincts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The limbic system and the gut</a> send signals back and forth. This relationship may be important in psychiatric disorders. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Depression</a>, anxiety, and even schizophrenia are linked to the microbiome.

Microbes can create neurotransmitters. These compounds are what our neurons use to communicate. These end up circulating in the blood. As a result, they affect day to day experience. In addition, bacteria play a role in modifying metabolism. As a result, levels of important precursors to neurotransmitters such as serotonin are changed.

The relationship between the gut and the brain is not well understood. However, it is clear that your microbiome has the potential to influence your emotions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>How Do We Study the Microbiome?</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Culturing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871716 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg" alt="Petri dish with microbes growing on it. Microbes are yellow on a black background. The dish is labeled &quot;Falcon&quot;" width="600" height="450" />

&nbsp;

The simplest way to look at a microbiome is to try and grow it in the lab. They place samples from the gut or another organ on nutrient-rich media. After that, the samples sit at body temperature until the microbes begin to grow. Finally, they grow each species on its own. Therefore, culturing microbes allows them to isolate individual species. Finally, they characterize species by appearance and chemistry.

However, culturing faces major hurdles. It is not possible to culture all the organisms present in the gut. Some need specific conditions only found in the gut. Reproducing these in the lab can be extremely difficult. Others need oxygen and will die immediately when removed from the body. Some species may be completely impossible to grow in the lab.

In addition, identifying microbes is difficult. For example, many species have similar appearances.

Even when culturing techniques succeed, they can be misleading. The species that grow may not represent the actual expression of genes and proteins. This is because they may behave differently outside of the body. Therefore, understanding the functional microbiome requires genetic techniques.

&nbsp;
<h3>Sequencing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871717 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dna-163466_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="An artistic rendering of the double helix of DNA. 3 Blue strands of DNA on a black background." width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;

To get an accurate impression of the microbiome, you need genetic techniques. Sequencing helps determine the species present as well as the microbiomes gene expression. Both of these are important in understanding how the microbiome relates to health. Sequencing all the RNA and DNA in a sample gives a better picture of the function of the microbiome.

There are many techniques to sequence the genome. As technology improves detailed sequencing is more available. In the future, it may even be practical to use sequencing to diagnose patients.

&nbsp;
<h3>rRNA Sequencing</h3>
rRNA is a special type of RNA that helps create protein. This RNA sequence changes very little because it is so important. It also occurs in all cells. This makes it a great way to identify species.

rRNA sequencing lets researchers determine the diversity of species in the microbiome. It can also help determine which species are most common. This information is essential to help characterize the gut microbe community.

It is not always easy to identify the sequenced species. The meaning of “species” becomes a lot less clear with bacteria. These organisms readily share genes. They also reproduce so quickly that they evolve in real-time.

This makes it difficult to classify species. Instead, researchers group genomes by their similarity. Preset cutoffs define the groups. They call these cutoffs operational taxonomic units (or OTUs).

&nbsp;
<h3>Shotgun Sequencing</h3>
The alternative to rRNA sequencing is metagenomic, or “shotgun” sequencing. This technique involves sequencing tons of small pieces of DNA. Computers can reconstruct the genome. First, they find overlapping sequences. With enough overlapping sequences, you can reconstruct the whole genome.

This strategy has the potential to reveal the full genomes of microbes. Knowing this could provide better detail of the diversity of the microbiome.

&nbsp;

Genetic techniques and technologies continue to improve. These improvements will help researchers understand the microbiome. This research could pave the way towards microbiome diagnosis, which might provide early warning signs of diseases like IBS, diabetes, and obesity.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Microbiome Provides New Insight</h2>
The role of the microbiome in health is complex. These communities are ecosystems with complex relationships. Each microbe interacts with their hosts (you and me) and each other. This complex network of interactions can have important impacts on health and disease. An improved understanding of these systems will help us to diagnose, prevent, and treat human disease. As advances in genetic sequencing continue to open the door to a better understanding of the microbiome, ongoing research into the human microbiome holds great potential.

&nbsp;

What Is Microbiomics?

It may come as a surprise to learn that most...

One of the unique creatures Charles Darwin encountered on the Galápagos Islands was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/galapagos-marine-iguana-amblyrhynchus-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">marine iguana</a>. He was shocked by their appearance, describing them as the “most disgusting, clumsy lizards” and “hideous-looking.” Yikes...

The marine iguana has a scaly loose skin with a squished looking face and long claws. Marine iguanas are primarily black. The average adult male is 1.3 meters (4.25 ft) while the female is 0.6 meters (2 ft). Different subspecies vary in color and size.

Despite their less-than-beautiful appearance, the marine iguana is a unique species. It is the only species of reptile that forages in the sea. This makes it the only known marine reptile. Scientists believe that this species evolved from land iguanas <a href="https://oceana.org/marine-life/sea-turtles-reptiles/marine-iguana" target="_blank" rel="noopener">around 4.5 million years ago</a>.

This species occurs only on the Galápagos Islands. Like many Galápagos species, distinct subspecies live on different islands. These subspecies each have unique coloration. Their small geographic range puts them <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/1086/3222951" target="_blank" rel="noopener">at risk of extinction</a>.

The marine iguana has never had any natural predators. Because of this, they are extremely docile. This makes them very popular with tourists.

The iguanas generally live in large colonies. They will pile onto each other on cold nights to conserve body heat. They generally stay near the coast, though they are great climbers and are often seen on top of cliffs.

&nbsp;
<h2>Marine Iguana Foraging</h2>
The marine iguana gets its name because it forages for food at sea! This is unique in the reptile kingdom.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871288" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871288 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-883488_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="This marine iguana is swimming underwater headed up." width="1024" height="768" /> The marine iguana can dive as deep as 30 meters![/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Diving Deep is Delicious</h2>
The male iguanas can <a href="https://theplanetd.com/marine-iguanas-feeding-underwater-amazing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dive up to 30 meters</a> (100 ft) deep to forage. Stronger iguanas swim out into the tides, anchoring themselves on rocks. The younger iguanas and smaller females stay closer to shore.

Only about 5% of the iguanas dive for food. These are large, strong males. They dive in order to avoid competition in shallow water. Adult iguanas can dive for up to an hour. This is an impressive feat for a land animal, especially a reptile.

Diving deep in the cold ocean water is difficult for a cold-blooded reptile. The marine iguana must lower its heart rate and metabolism when diving. This allows their body temperature to <a href="https://marinebio.org/species/marine-iguanas/amblyrhynchus-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">drop by 10 degrees Celsius</a> while underwater. Even with these changes, the conditions are extreme. In order to prepare for these extreme conditions, the iguanas must bask in the sun, preparing for their dive. Though it may look like these lizards just relax in the sun all day, basking is essential for the lizards to live. This absorbed heat keeps them from being immobilized in the cold water.

&nbsp;
<h2>Eating Algae</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871286" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871286 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-883486_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="A marine iguana underwater near the ocean floor eating algae off of a rock." width="1024" height="768" /> This marine iguana has found some delicious algae.[/caption]

&nbsp;

The marine iguanas feed on algae. These marine algae grow on rocks near the shore. There have been <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">nine species of algae</a> identified as iguana food. The iguanas prefer inter and subtidal algae. There are <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-do-marine-iguanas-primarily-feed-on" target="_blank" rel="noopener">4-5 species of red algae</a> that they prefer to eat. Other species are added to the diet when the good stuff isn’t available.

Though they are mostly marine foragers, the marine iguana can eat other food sources. They have been seen eating grasshoppers, crustaceans and <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sea lion afterbirth</a>! When times are really dire, the marine iguana resorts to <a href="https://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/galsite/research/projects/metcalfe/marineiguanas.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eating feces</a>. They will eat the droppings of other iguanas as well as that of sea lions and red crabs.

&nbsp;
<h2>El Niño</h2>
Though the marine iguana is isolated on the Galápagos, global weather patterns affect them. The El Niño Southern Oscillation Event (or ENSO) decreases algae on the Galápagos islands. The increased rainfall and surface temperature decreases the algal growth. During these events, the iguanas will shrink by up to 20%. It is believed that the <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-do-marine-iguanas-primarily-feed-on" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lizard's bones may actually shrink</a> by up to 10%! These changes are quickly reversed when food becomes available again.

&nbsp;
<h2>Too Much Salt</h2>
The unusual eating habits of the marine iguana require some specialized adaptations. Diving in the sea comes with unique hazards. The amount of salt in seawater causes a risk of dehydration. In order to combat this, they <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">evolved salt glands</a>. These glands take excess salt and force it out of the lizard's nostrils. All this salt sneezing gives them a white crown.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871287" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871287 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-1826683_1920-1024x685.png" alt="Two marine iguanas with their eyes closed" width="1024" height="685" /> These marine iguanas are enjoying the sun.[/caption]

&nbsp;

The marine iguana is a uniquely interesting reptile. Its diet of algae is entirely unique for a reptile. This species is threatened with extinction due to its tiny range and specialized diet. Though they have survived ENSO events in the past, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/el-nino-is-strengthening/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">these are becoming more frequent</a> and intense. Climate change is causing extreme weather years to become more common. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-iguanas-struggling-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">threatens the marine iguana's </a>food source. Consecutive low-food years could be disastrous.

In addition, their small range poses a threat. Localized events could wipe out the entire species. Though they are protected, as are the Galápagos Islands, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-galapagos-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pollution in the ocean can’t be controlled</a>. A nearby oil spill could greatly harm this species.

&nbsp;

What do Marine Iguanas Eat?

One of the unique creatures Charles Darwin encountered on the...

Grasslands are one of the most important habitat types on our planet. They cover almost 25% of Earth’s surface on land and are found on every continent except <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-antarctica-green/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Antarctica</a>. The animals that live in grasslands need to be extremely resourceful. How does an animal eat when their food is under a meter of snow? Without trees and shrubs to hide in, how would an animal escape or avoid its predators? Before we look into 5 of the most resourceful grassland animals, let’s define what a grassland is first.

&nbsp;
<h2>What’s a Grassland?</h2>
As its name implies, a grassland is an ecosystem comprised of - you guessed it - grass! Plants called rushes and sedges often accompany the grass to create the characteristic plains and savannahs we see today. Grasslands go by many names, depending on the locale. In North America, they are referred to as prairies. Pampas are the grasslands of South America. In Central Asia, they’re called <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/steppe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">steppes</a>. Savannas usually refer to the expansive grasslands of Africa.

So, which grassland animals are the most resourceful?

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871144 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Giraffe.jpg" alt="giraffe pair savanna" width="1000" height="667" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Giraffe (Giraffa spp.)</h3>
Giraffes have adapted to take advantage of a food resource almost no other animals has. They are one of the only animals in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-african-savanna-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">African savanna</a> that can reach the highest leaves on trees, thanks to their extremely long neck. For a giraffe, eating the highest leaves from the tallest savanna trees is a walk in the park. Giraffes eat about 34 kilograms (75 pounds) of leaves a day. For their size, they actually require much less food than the average herbivore because the leaves they eat are extremely nutritious - a luxury other herbivores don’t have.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1871145 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/prairie-dog-1024x682.jpg" alt="prairie dog" width="1024" height="682" /></h3>
&nbsp;
<h3>Prairie Dog (Cynomys spp.)</h3>
A characteristic animal of North American prairies is the aptly named prairie dog. Unlike dogs, these rodents are not carnivores. They’re some of the most abundant animals in the grasslands of North America. Although they are the prey of various other animals, they still manage to thrive.

Prairie dogs succeed in highly competitive grasslands by using resources above and below ground. They create burrows that can be dozens of meters long, and even make different chambers for varying purposes. Because they live above the soil as well as within it, they eat every single part of a plant. Leaves, seeds, stems, and roots are all fair game for the prairie dog. Other animals, like moles and gophers, eat only the below-ground parts, while other herbivores eat only the above-ground portions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1871146 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Vicuna.jpg" alt="vicuna" width="800" height="600" /></h3>
&nbsp;
<h3>Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna)</h3>
The vicuña is a relative to the domesticated llama and alpaca of South America. They live in the highest alpine plains of the Andes at 3,200 to 4,800 meters (10,500 to 15,700 feet), which are some of the harshest grasslands in the world. At night, temperatures drop well below freezing. Luckily for the vicuña, it has some of the warmest wool in the animal kingdom. Their fur is extremely fine, with each hair measuring only 12 micrometers in diameter. For this reason, it’s highly prized by people and is some of the <a href="https://www.businessoffashion.com/articles/intelligence/inside-the-business-of-vicuna-the-wool-worth-more-than-gold" target="_blank" rel="noopener">most expensive wool in the world</a>. Vicuñas trap their own body heat very close to their skin thanks to their wool, which is how they survive in the cold, harsh environment of the Andes.

Vicuñas need to use another odd resource to supplement their low nutrient diet. In order to get the minerals they need, vicuñas simply lick rocks to obtain salt and other small amounts of nutrients. Ingenious!

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871143 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/caribou-1024x691.jpg" alt="caribou" width="1024" height="691" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Caribou (Rangifer tarandus)</h3>
Caribou are also known by the name of reindeer. They’re found in northern regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. Why do Santa’s trusty companions make the list of most resourceful grassland animals? It has to do with the lengths they go to obtain their food and care for their young. Every year, caribou embark on one of Earth’s greatest animal migrations. As summer approaches, herds of caribou migrant northward to reach the abundant plants beginning to grow. A full round trip sees caribou traveling up to 2500 kilometers (1600 miles) in a single year!

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871142 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/bison.jpg" alt="bison herd grassland" width="1000" height="561" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Bison (Bison spp.)</h3>
Bison are another one of the dominant animals in the grasslands of North America. They have been incredibly important for humans for millennia because their meat is highly nutritious and their pelts are valuable. Sadly, in the 1800’s humans were responsible for the near-extinction of the animal. Fortunately, bison are extremely resilient and resourceful, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bison-american-survival-story/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">their numbers have been steadily growing</a> for the past 100 years.

Bison, like many grassland animals, eat plants. One problem they face is finding food during the cold winter months when they have to wade through waist-deep snow. Amazingly, bison use their enormous head to dig through and push the snow aside to access the scant amount of grass below. The grass, which is frozen and nearly dead, is hardly nutritious. Bison eat enough to survive through the winter, thanks to using a resource no other animal would even consider.

&nbsp;

Top 5 Resourceful Grassland Animals

Grasslands are one of the most important habitat types on...

Sea creatures are big mysteries to most of us. What do they do under the waves? What do they eat? How do they navigate and communicate? And… what are they? 

Dolphins, whales, seals, sea lions, and otters are all mammals. They give birth to live young and nurse their young with milk. In contrast, even though some sharks give birth to live young, sharks are fish.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>What is a Mammal, Again?</h2>
It’s a bit confusing whether dolphins, whales, and sharks are mammals unless you remember the basics of what a mammal is.

Mammals are warm-blooded animals that give birth to live young (except for a few exceptions <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-there-mammals-that-lay-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">that lay eggs</a>) and feed those young with milk. Most mammals are hairy - but not all! Humans and naked mole rats are both mammals but they aren’t exactly fluffy.

Mammals do not have gills. That means that any aquatic or marine mammals need to be able to come to the surface often enough to breathe. In contrast, fish and amphibians with gills can stay underwater indefinitely.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870873 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dolphin-203875_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="682" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Are Dolphins and Whales Mammals?</h2>
Dolphins are actually a subset of the order Artiolydacta, which includes all whales and porpoises as well as pigs, giraffes, llamas, and hippos. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises are all part of the infraorder Cetacea. The closest related land mammal to whales and dolphins is the hippo.

All whales and dolphins are warm-blooded, give birth to live young, and feed their young with milk. In other words, whales and dolphins are mammals.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>What About Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Otters?</h2>
Seals and sea lions are also mammals, but they’re not very closely related to whales and dolphins. In fact, seals, sea lions, and sea otters are all part of the order Carnivora. Carnivora also includes dogs, cats, bears, and skunks. The closest living relatives of sea lions and seals are probably bears. The closest living relatives of sea otters are other otter species.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870874 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/shark-3197585_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="are sharks mammals" width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Are Sharks Mammals?</h2>
On the other hand, sharks are a subgroup of fish. Some sharks do give birth to live young, but they do not nurse and they’re not warm-blooded. In fact, sharks don’t even have true bones. Their skeleton is made up entirely of cartilage. Sharks don’t have ribcages, so they’re easily crushed under their own weight on land.

Unlike most other fish, sharks don’t have a swim bladder. They “float” within the water column thanks to their cartilaginous skeleton, which is far less dense than bone. Sand sharks can also store air in their stomachs to help them keep afloat. Most sharks also rely on dynamic lift to avoid sinking in water. This means they need to keep moving and rely on their pectoral fins like wings to stay still, and they can't swim backward.

&nbsp;

Are Dolphins, Sharks, and Whales Mammals?

Sea creatures are big mysteries to most of us. What...

The lotus flower is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sacred-plants-mythology-spirituality/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sacred and iconic plants</a> in the world. The striking flower is a symbolic staple for some of the most prolific cultures and religions throughout history. It's safe to say that for thousands of years, the lotus has been a plant celebrity.

Hieroglyphics in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eight-egyptian-mummies-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Ancient Egypt</a> often include lotus flowers portrayed side-by-side with important priests and pharaohs. Statues depicting sacred Buddhist figures feature the person sitting on, or underneath a lotus flower. Some of the gods and goddesses of Hinduism are associated with the flowers. The lotus flower is a recurring symbol across time and space. What makes this flower (and lotus seeds) so encapturing? To understand why the plant is so symbolic and timeless, we have to first understand its life history.
<h2>About the Lotus Flower</h2>
The white lotus (also called sacred lotus), Nelumbo nucifera, has a huge natural range. It grows in northern India up to elevations as high as 1,400 meters (4,600 feet), all the way to East Asia throughout much of China and almost all of southeast Asia.

The blue lotus, Nymphaea caerulea, is native to the Nile river and other parts of East Africa. Botanically speaking, these flowers are actually a type of water lily. But, the reasons why it’s sacred are similar to that of the white lotus. It also happens to grow in a very similar fashion to the white lotus.

N. caerulea itself is an aquatic plant. It thrives in muddy, still water and roots itself into the muck below. The long stems rise through the water and the leaves sit directly on or above the water. The huge, showy flowers bloom above the leaves, sometimes 20 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter! The petals have a special waxy coating on them which shed water and dirt. So even after blooming out of otherwise dirty, turbid water, the flower itself is perfectly pristine. One by one new flowers emerge and only last a single day. This is one of the reasons lotus flowers are so admired. Their ability to remain clean while growing out of the mud evokes persistence and spiritual purity.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870668 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/buddha.jpg" alt="buddha statue lotus flower" width="1000" height="666" />
<h2>Buddhism and the Lotus</h2>
In Buddhism, the sacred lotus is an important symbol of purity, spiritual awakening, and faithfulness. Statues of Buddha often show him sitting atop an open lotus flower, like the one pictured above. In the land of Buddha, there are many different colors of lotus, and <a href="https://buddhists.org/buddhist-symbols/the-meanings-of-the-different-colors-of-the-lotus-flower-in-buddhism/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">each one holds a different meaning.</a>
<ul>
 	<li>Blue symbolizes a victory of the spirit over that of wisdom, intelligence, and knowledge. In Buddhist artwork, blue lotuses are never fully open as to not observe the center of the flower.</li>
 	<li>White symbolizes Bodhi (being enlightened). It also represents mental purity, spiritual perfection, and peace.</li>
 	<li>Purple is thought to be mystic. The eight petals of this lotus represent the Noble Eightfold Path, one of the most important teachings of Buddha.</li>
 	<li>Red represents the heart and symbolizes love and compassion.</li>
 	<li>Pink is considered to be the “true” lotus and is the main color of the flower according to Buddha.</li>
</ul>
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1870669 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brahma.jpg" alt="Brahma statue lotus flower" width="1000" height="801" /></h3>
<h2>Hindu Gods, Goddesses, and the White Lotus</h2>
The N. caerulea flower is sacred in Hinduism. It symbolizes beauty, fertility, prosperity, spirituality, and eternity. These are some pretty significant ideals, and all have the white lotus representing them. Many <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/top-hindu-deities-1770309" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Hindu deities</a> hold or associate themselves with lotus.

The goddess of prosperity, Laxmi, is most often depicted sitting atop an open lotus flower, with more of the blooms held in two of her four hands. The four-faced god of creation, Brahma, apparently emerged from a lotus himself. In Hinduism, the unflawed flower is divine. It emerges from muddy waters and represents enlightenment in a person with little attachments to the world.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1740768 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Blue-egyptian-lotus-Nymphaea-caerulea.jpg" alt="" width="915" height="768" />
<h2>Ancient Egypt and the Blue Lotus</h2>
Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics depict more than one type of N. caerulea, but the blue lotus is definitely the most common and sacred of them all. The blue flower often symbolizes rebirth, due to its nature of submerging underwater and reemerging the next day. When it blooms from the water a second time, it is as clean and pure as it was the day before.

Because of the lotus flower’s ability to enter the water and return the next day, it eventually came to symbolize the sun and the creation of the world. Because the lotus is associated with rebirth, it consequentially also became associated with death. Many ancient Egyptians believed there was a way to turn into a lotus after death, so one could be reborn the next day.

Apart from the symbolic and spiritual nature of these beautiful flowers, they also had a more political significance. Upper and Lower Egypt were long separate. Eventually, the Egyptian lotus flower (abundant in Upper Egypt) and the <a href="https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/foliage/papyrus/papyrus-plants.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">papyrus plant</a> (abundant in Lower Egypt) became united in symbols and hieroglyphics. Combining two of the most important plants in Ancient Egypt led to the unity of the two kingdoms.

Why the Lotus Flower Is a Plant Celebrity

The lotus flower is one of the most sacred and...

You may think your dog is the smartest animal to have graced the earth. However, the competition might surprise you. 

The questions of which animals are smart is far from simple. Measuring the intelligence of animals is difficult. However, many species show obvious signs of complex thought. Crows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-fashion-hooks-wood/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">build simple tools</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planning-skills-animals-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">make plans</a>. Your dog has an uncanny ability <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-understand-humans-better/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to know when you’re feeling down</a>. Obviously, many animals are smart. 

Intelligence in animals is difficult to define. Any test may favor a species that needs that skill in the wild. If you measure whether a crow or a dolphin is better at building a nest, your results won’t mean much.

Some traits such as memory and problem solving are often used. Solving a maze or learning a behavior indicates that an animal can remember, and apply experience. Learning is a key aspect of intelligence.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870313 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/squid-225423_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="Cephalopod facing the camera on a background of seaweed" width="1024" height="768" />
<h2>Our foot-headed friends (cephalopods)</h2>
Octopuses, squids, and cuttlefish are part of a larger group called the cephalopods. Their name comes from Greek words for head and foot. This describes their odd appearance. 

This taxon is very different from humans in many ways. First of all, cephalopods bleed blue. Cephalopods lack the red, iron-containing hemoglobin of humans. Instead, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cephalopod blood uses blue copper</a> to carry oxygen.

Most (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-argonaut/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">though not all</a>) have soft, boneless bodies, enabling them to squeeze through tiny spaces.

These sea creatures may seem strange, but we have something big in common. Cephalopod brains are large and well developed like mammals.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870314 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/blue-ringed-octopus-2414408_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="A blue ringed octopus with an orange body and blue circles" width="1024" height="683" />
<h2>An entirely new take on the brain</h2>
Cephalopod brains are unique. They have relatively large brains for their body size. This is a common sign of intelligence in animals. However, this is where the similarities end. Cephalopod brains are very different from the brains of mammals.

&nbsp;
<h2>A different path to intelligence</h2>
The invertebrates split from vertebrates' evolutionary line over <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">600 million years ago</a>. This was long before life was as widespread as it is today. 

Most invertebrates do not have complex brains. This means that octopuses developed brains independently from mammals. The result is as close to an alien brain as you will find on earth. 

The structure of an octopus brain is very unusual. Most of the octopuses 500 million neurons are in its arms! This allows them to not only feel, but to taste and smell with their tentacles.

No other invertebrates have brains as complex as cephalopods. Cephalopods are predators that have to hunt for their food. Scientists believe that their <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">need to hunt and hide </a>led them to develop complex brains.

Most intelligent animals have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/30/science/animal-intelligence-octopus-cephalopods.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">strong social bonds and live long lives</a>. Octopuses, on the other hand, live only months or years. Scientists believed they were solitary animals. However, a recent study showed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-social-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopuses are more social than we thought</a>. These differences show just how different octopuses are. Their intelligence is something special.

&nbsp;
<h2>How octopuses teach us about human brains</h2>
Octopuses' big brains are paired with big neurons. The large cells of their nervous system can be seen without magnification. This has made them a popular tool for studying nerves. 

Though they evolved separately from human brains, the basic structure is the same. Studying <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/so-you-think-youre-smarter-cephalopod" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopus neurons has provided insight </a>into the workings of the human brain.

&nbsp;
<h2>Some of the smartest things octopuses have done</h2>
The way octopuses behave reveals their intellect. Octopuses are often mischevious. Here are a few examples of octopus behavior.

Octopuses...
<ul>
 	<li>... turn out the lights. Octopuses in captivity have learned to use jets of water to short circuit lights they find annoying.</li>
 	<li>...steal fish from neighboring tanks. Octopuses in aquariums have learned to sneak out of their tanks to eat fish in neighboring tanks.</li>
 	<li>...use tools to solve problems. There are many examples of <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/octopus-intelligence-here-are-13-of-the-most-frighteningly-smart-things-they-can-do" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopuses using tools</a>. Some will steal the tentacles of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/portuguese-man-o-war-physalia-physalis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Portuguese man o war</a> jellyfish and use them as a weapon! There are even examples of them carrying coconut shells with them as a disguise. </li>
 	<li>...display complicated camouflage. Octopuses can copy complicated textures. They also will <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/octopus-intelligence-here-are-13-of-the-most-frighteningly-smart-things-they-can-do" target="_blank" rel="noopener">imitate large predators </a>to scare off anyone hunting them. Their camouflage is so good, it is being <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-skin-camouflage-material/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">used to inspire new technology.</a></li>
 	<li>...recognize individual people.</li>
 	<li>...enjoy playing with toys.</li>
 	<li>...can <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mind-of-an-octopus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">solve mazes and open jars</a>.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

It is impossible to know how an octopus sees the world. The question of animal intelligence is complicated by the different needs and skills of animals. What we do know, is that octopuses are good problem solvers. They are clearly intelligent. What intelligence means for an octopus is unclear.

Cephalopods provide a new take on the brain. This unique part of evolution provides valuable diversity, and it is important that we protect these unique animals. Human behavior such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-farming-overfishing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">overfishing </a>and pollution threaten many octopuses. So next time you see an octopus, remember that they might be wondering about your intelligence too! 

&nbsp;

Are Octopuses Smart?

You may think your dog is the smartest animal to...

The History of Earth in Exactly 2000 Words

The history of Earth is obviously a ginormous topic. Really,...

First of all, what is hibernation?

Some animals give a whole new meaning to “sleeping in.” Hibernation is a behavior in many animals that allows them to enter an extended sleep-like state during the winter.

Though hibernation seems a lot like sleep, it is actually a unique state. During sleep, our bodies still function normally. Our heart rate drops and metabolism slows, these changes are minor.

Hibernation, on the other hand, is when animals enter a state called torpor for an extended period of time. Torpor is far more extreme than sleep. In torpor, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">metabolism drops below 5% of the normal level</a>. Most physiological functions grind to a halt or slow to a fraction of normal. Heart rates go below 10% of their normal level. Some animals take only one breath a minute. This state is so extreme, they may appear to be dead.

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Hibernate?</h2>
Hibernation occurs during the winter when resources are scarce and conditions extreme. Animals hibernate in order to conserve limited resources. By dropping their metabolism, many animals go for months at a time without needing food. Instead, they rely on the energy stored in their body fat.

This might sound pretty nice. You pack on calories, eating your fill and getting fat in the fall. Then you go to take a long nap through the winter, during which all that fat magically disappears. You wake up to springs flowers, plenty of food, and the prospect of a huge feast when it starts getting cold again.

However, hibernation requires careful preparation. In order to survive for extended periods with no food, animals need to focus on eating in the months before hibernation. It is also essential that they find a safe and warm place to hibernate.

I addition to saving on calories, hibernation can provide protection from predators. Though it might seem odd that sleeping provides protection, it actually makes sense. Hibernating animals are hidden, perfectly still and don’t sweat. Animals are <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1723/3355.short" target="_blank" rel="noopener">five times less likely to die</a> while hibernating.

&nbsp;
<h2>Which Animals Hibernate?</h2>
There are many different species throughout the animal kingdom that hibernate. Below are some of the most well-known or impressive hibernators.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872066 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/black-bear-1611349_1920-1024x729.jpg" alt="Black bear behind ferns looking at the camera" width="1024" height="729" />
<h3>Black Bears (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/american-black-bear-ursus-americanus/">Ursus americanus</a>)</h3>
Bears are certainly the most well-known hibernators. However, out of 9 species of bears, only 4 of them hibernate. These are the American Black Bear, Asiatic Black Bear, Brown Bear, and Polar Bear. Though hibernation is associated with them, Bears hibernation is not complete. Their body temperature does not drop to the temperature outside. They can also <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wake up during hibernation</a>. Females wake up to have their cubs during hibernation.

Human activity can influence bear hibernation. A recent study showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-food-bears-hibernate-age-faster/">eating human food makes bears hibernate for less time</a>. This can decrease the bear's lifespan and survival rate.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872067" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872067 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2048px-Common_Poorwill-1024x683.jpg" alt="Common poorwill on a hand with a black background" width="1024" height="683" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Connorlong90" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Connor Long</a>[/caption]
<h3>Common Poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii)</h3>
The common poorwill is quite unique. It is the <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">only bird that is known to hibernate</a>! Most birds deal with the extremes of winter by migrating south. The poorwill has evolved hibernation to avoid this arduous journey. The Hopi people have known about the poorwill’s hibernation for a long time, naming it “the sleeping one.” Poorwills generally hibernate from October to March.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872068 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/painted-turtle-565974_1920-1024x685.jpg" alt="Close up of a painted turtles head" width="1024" height="685" />
<h3>Painted Turtles (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/painted-turtle-chrysemys-picta/">Chrysemys picta</a>)</h3>
Turtles are reptiles and therefore are cold-blooded. This means they need external sources of heat in order to keep their body temperature and metabolism high enough to move. When temperatures get low, they are no longer able to forage. There are hundreds of species of turtles ranging across most of the earth, both on land and in the water. Each species deals with this problem differently.

The painted turtle survives the winter by hibernating. They remain below the ice of their ponds for months. They will often burrow into the mud at the bottom of lakes, using it to insulate themselves from the cold. Though these turtles need oxygen to survive, they are able to absorb dissolved oxygen through their skin. Even in the absence of oxygen, these turtles can live for over 100 days in water that is only 3°C. They do this by reducing their metabolism by as much as 99%. The cold water makes these feats possible. The low temperatures act like a fridge to slow down damage and growth in this state.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872069" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872069 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Fat-tailed_Dwarf_Lemur_Kirindy_Madagascar-1024x768.jpg" alt="A fat-tailed dwarf lemur on a branch at night" width="1024" height="768" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/42244964@N03" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Frank Vassen</a>[/caption]
<h3>Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemurs (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/western-fat-tailed-dwarf-lemur-cheirogaleus-medius/">Cheirogaleus medius)</a></h3>
The fat-tailed dwarf lemur is <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">another lonely hibernator</a>. They are one of only three primates that are known to hibernate. All of these species are lemurs, which live only on Madagascar.

The fat-tail lemur is tiny, weighing an average of 160 grams (less than half a pound!) Their fat-tail is more than just cute. It is an essential part of hibernation. They store much of the energy they need for hibernation as fat in their tail!

They can hibernate for as long as 7 months! These lemurs do take breaks from this extended hibernation. They will become active for periods of six to 12 days during these extended hibernations.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872070 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/garter-snake-3546237_1920-1024x686.jpg" alt="A garter snake on a rock with lichen" width="1024" height="686" />
<h3>Garter Snakes (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-garter-snake-thamnophis-sirtalis/">Thamnophis sirtalis</a>)</h3>
Snakes hibernation is called brumation, or wintering. As cold-blooded animals, they need to find a way to avoid the frost. The garter snake (and other species) form groups that hibernate together to protect each other from the cold. These groups are called “hibernacles” and <a href="https://animalsake.com/animals-that-hibernate" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sometimes have hundreds of snakes</a> twisted together. A mountain of slithering snakes is quite a sight! Stumbling upon a hibernacle could be quite the shock if you aren’t a fan of snakes.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872071 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bee-535247_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bumble bee on a white flower" width="1024" height="680" />
<h3>Bumblebees (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/small-garden-bumblebee-bombus-hortorum/">Bombus spp.</a>)</h3>
Bumblebees hibernate in a way consistent with their eusocial nature. The majority of the colony dies off in the winter. The queen survives, eating the nectar collected by her workers. When the spring comes, she starts a new colony.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872072 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Lithobates_sylvaticus_wood_frog-1024x768.jpg" alt="A close up photo of a wood frog" width="1024" height="768" />
<h3>Wood Frogs (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/wood-frog-lithobates-sylvaticus/">Lithobates sylvaticus</a>)</h3>
These tiny amphibians give a new meaning to the phrase “chilled to the bone.” They are literally <a href="https://www.kidactivities.net/animals-that-hibernate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">frozen and thawed every winter</a>! Unlike other hibernators, they don’t spend too much time trying to find a warm hole. Instead, they bury themselves in some leaves and let the cold make them into cute little ice cubes. When they thaw out in the spring they happily hop back out of their hiding places, good as new!

&nbsp;

Hibernation is a common adaptation to deal with the difficulties of winter. There animals from nearly every part of the animal kingdom that hibernate. It can even be argued that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-hibernate-underground/">plants hibernate</a>! Hibernation is also a fascinating phenomenon that may help us learn more about human metabolism.

&nbsp;

Which Are the Animals That Hibernate?

First of all, what is hibernation? Some animals give a...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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