There are many arguments for which kind of diet is healthiest. Many people opt for a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, while others choose to follow an Atkins or a raw food diet. No matter the type of diet one chooses to abide by, one thing is certain: avoid processed foods. Even if you do eat meat and other animal products, avoiding processed foods like sugary candy or salty chips is above all in terms of eating healthy. <strong>Whichever nutritional approach you choose, a plant-based diet can be a wise choice.</strong>

We’ll go over what a diet centered around fruits and vegetables is, and try to answer the question: is a plant-based diet healthy?

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1872459 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/salad.jpg" alt="" width="900" height="600" /></h3>
&nbsp;
<h2>What Is a Plant-Based Diet?</h2>
A plant-based diet focuses on whole-grain, plant-based foods. This is different from <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/becoming-a-vegetarian" target="_blank" rel="noopener">vegetarianism</a> or veganism, which are two of the most popular diets around today and exclude certain animal products entirely. In reality, vegetarians and vegans follow a plant-based diet, but they aren’t the only ones who do. Our diet in question is solely based on consuming plants as food. This means someone who is a devout plant-based follower can still eat the occasional animal product, like cheese or milk. However, it’s discouraged and should be avoided when possible!

Choosing a plant-based diet can be a healthy move, and there are many ways to achieve it. Here’s a list of some plant-based diets one can opt into:
<ul>
 	<li><strong>Semi-vegetarian or flexitarian:</strong> Includes eggs, cheese, and occasionally poultry, fish, and meat.</li>
 	<li><strong>Pescatarian:</strong> Excludes all meat except for fish.</li>
 	<li><strong>Vegetarian:</strong> Doesn’t eat any meat, but does eat other animal products like eggs and cheese.</li>
 	<li><strong>Vegan:</strong> Strictly plant-based, and doesn’t eat any animal products.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

No matter the category of plant consumer, a diet heavy on botanically based foods can still include all the required nutrients we need to live. As long as you keep a balanced diet and eat a wide array of plant foods, you can get all the proteins and vitamins you need.

<strong>Beans, soy, and other legumes</strong> will provide tons of protein. These can make up the bulk of many meals.

More protein-rich plants are <strong>seeds and nuts</strong>. Things like peanuts and <a href="https://www.amazonconservation.org/ourwork/livelihoods.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Brazil nuts</a> are full of protein, plus healthy fats!

Starchy plants such as <strong>potatoes and squash</strong> are packed with fiber and potassium.

<a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324431.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Fruits,</strong></a> namely citrus, will give you a huge array of vitamins.

<strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/video/cook-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Green veggies</a> like kale</strong> are also full of vitamins and minerals.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1338273 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Eating-fiber-helps-your-body-fight-off-the-effects-of-stress.jpg" alt="New research has revealed that the effects of stress on our gut and behavior may be reduced by eating foods that are high in fiber." width="1210" height="806" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Bonus - Plant-Based Eating Is Good for the Environment!</h3>
As you may know, animal agriculture is one of the leading causes of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data" target="_blank" rel="noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a> in the world. These emissions come from the animals we farm - mostly cattle we use for beef. By reducing your meat consumption, even if it’s just cutting beef from your diet, you can help lower the amount of methane emitted into the atmosphere by a literal ton.

Plant-based diets can be extremely healthy when done right. Although it may take a bit more planning and thought about what you eat, it’s a good choice for someone who wants to make a healthy change of direction in their eating habits. Again, the best thing one can do to improve their diet is to limit the amount of processed foods they eat. Luckily, plants are easy to find fresh and unprocessed, unlike many of the animal products on the market today.

&nbsp;

Is a Plant-Based Diet Healthy?

There are many arguments for which kind of diet is...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Sometimes, the cutest animals are the deadliest. Take the poison dart frog, for example. Members of this tiny, brightly colored family of frogs only measure 1.5 inches long as adults, but are some of the </span><a href="http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150422-the-worlds-most-poisonous-animal" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">most poisonous animals on earth</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">These frogs all belong to the family </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dendrobatidae </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">- which has 13 genera over 170 species. Native to the rainforests between Costa Rica and Brazil, their coloring can be black, white, red, gold, copper, green, blue, or yellow! Like all amphibians, they live their entire lives near water in to keep their skin moist </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-amphibians-breathe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">and to breath</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

&nbsp;
<h2><b>Where Does the Poison Come From?</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The toxin found on the skin of </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dendrobatidae </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">is a type of </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/alkaloid" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">alkaloid</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> - a class of nitrogen-containing compounds that have strong effects in humans. Scientists have long debated the source of the poison found on the frogs, but </span><a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/426599" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">an article by the University of Chicago</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> attempts to put this question to rest. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The current theory is that toxicity of poison dart frogs is actually “exogenous” -  meaning the amphibians don't make the poison themselves. Instead, they obtain and concentrate the toxins - known as alkaloids - through their diet. The team calls this the ‘diet‐toxicity hypothesis.’</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The organisms that the frogs eat - ants and other small arthropods - themselves consume a diet of plants, the ultimate source of the alkaloids. This hypothesis is further supported by the fact that poison dart frogs raised in captivity (and thus have their diet controlled) </span><a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/amphibians/group/poison-dart-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">never develop their poison</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1872196" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/frog-894366_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="golden poison dart frog" width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;
<h2><b>How Poisonous Are They?</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Some poison dart frogs are safer than others to handle. </span><a href="https://amphibiaweb.org/species/1632" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Granular Poison Frog</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Oophaga granulifera) </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">poison can only be absorbed through the bloodstream or mouth, and low quantities of</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> O. granulifera </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">poison will likely only cause nausea and fever. This is not the case for the </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/golden-poison-frog-phyllobates-terribilis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Golden Poison Frog</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Phyllobates terribilis)</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">. <strong>This frog contains enough poison to </strong></span><strong><a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/amphibians/g/golden-poison-frog/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">kill ten grown men</a>!</strong>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">While poison dart frog toxin can be deadly to humans, they have at least one natural predator that is capable of safely eating them. One species of snake, the fire-bellied snake (<em>Leimadophis epinephelus</em>), has developed a resistance to the frogs’ poison. They may have enzymes capable of rendering the toxin harmless once it enters their system.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><b>Why the Bright Colors?</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most members of </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dendrobatidae </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">are very recognizable due to their distinctive bright colors. But why do they look this way? The coloration of these frogs is a </span><a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/side_0_0/aposematic_01" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">type of signaling</span></a>.<span style="font-weight: 400;"> These signals are meant to grab a predator’s attention, and inform them that the frog is deadly to eat. This is the same concept as the bright, waving, poisonous spines of the </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-lionfish-pterois-volitans/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">lionfish</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> or the contrasting black and white banding of a wasp.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1872195" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/frog-649564_1280-1024x681.jpg" alt="blue poison dart frog" width="1024" height="681" />

&nbsp;
<h2><b><i>Dendrobatidae </i></b><b>Species</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">There are so many beautiful examples of poison dart frogs - let’s take a look at a few!</span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/dyeing-poison-frog-dendrobates-tinctorius/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dyeing dart frog</a></strong><span style="font-weight: 400;">: this species is commonly </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">kept as a pet</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">, and is the 9th deadliest </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dendrobatidae </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">in the world. It is very recognizable due to the brilliant blue coloring on its legs.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/green-and-black-poison-frog-dendrobates-auratus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Green-and-black poison dart frog</a></strong><span style="font-weight: 400;">: they can be green or light blue, but almost all of them have dark black coloration in the form of spots or stripes. Like all poison dart frogs, it is native to northern South America, but this species has also been introduced to Hawaii as well.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Bumblebee poison frog:</strong> these frogs are named for their striking black and yellow stripe pattern. It is one of the largest species in </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dendrobatidae, </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">sometimes growing to be larger than 2 inches.</span></li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<h2><b>Uses of Poison Dart Frogs</b></h2>
<i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dendrobatidae </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">are more than just a family of colorful frogs. Humans have utilized their poison for a variety of purposes. Historically, the indigenous Embera Choco people of western Colombia have used the frogs’ poison to </span><a href="http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/species/golden_poison_dart_frog" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">aid with their hunting and warfare</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. When the frogs are impaled and exposed to heat they "sweat" their poison out. This sweat can then be used to coat the tips of arrows or other weapons. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Scientists at Stanford University are interested in the utility of the golden poison dart frog’s poison for </span><a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2016/11/17/502324984/chemists-recreate-deadly-frog-poison-in-the-lab" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">medical research</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, as well. The main toxin, batrachotoxin, causes some strange effects on a victim’s nervous system. Understanding how the poison spreads through the body could provide useful insight into how nerve impulses are conducted. </span>

&nbsp;
<h2><b>Frogs in Danger of Extinction</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Several species of </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dendrobatidae</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> are on the brink of extinction due to human activity. The frogs can only survive in the rainforest, and habitat destruction is limiting the available territory for them to thrive. Many non-profits, like </span><a href="https://rainforestfoundation.org/donatenow/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Save the Rainforest</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, work to end deforestation in the Amazon and Central America. This destruction of habitat not only threatens frogs like </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dendrobatidae</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">, but countless other species in the rainforest and biodiversity on planet Earth. Take a moment and consider<a href="https://www.earth.com/take-action-save-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> supporting organizations</a> that help save frogs and their home forests!</span>

&nbsp;

What Makes Poison Dart Frogs Poisonous?

Sometimes, the cutest animals are the deadliest. Take the poison...

Though we rarely think about them, we rely on satellites for much of our daily lives. They enable global communication, GPS and weather reports. Satellites also help <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/nasa-satellite-measures-deforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">measure environmental destruction</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/new-weather-satellite-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">track weather</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-track-sea-level/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sea levels</a>, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/map-living-conditions-global-poverty/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">global economics</a>. These satellites face a huge problem - the exponentially growing amount of space junk sharing Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

Satellites don’t last forever. Eventually, they stop working. However, when this happens they do not magically disappear or fall back to earth. These objects remain in their orbit, moving at incredible speeds.

In 1978, NASA astrophysicist <a href="http://iaass.space-safety.org/awards/jerome-lederer-space-safety-pioneer-award/space-safety-pioneer-award-hall-of-fame/kessler-biography/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Donald J. Kessler</a> made a startling prediction. The growing debris in LEO would eventually reach a tipping point. When this happened, it would start a chain reaction of collisions. Each collision creating more debris, leading to more collisions. <strong>This domino effect is called the Kessler Syndrome.</strong>

If we reach this point, the consequences will be disastrous. The resulting debris field would destroy essential satellites. Pieces of space junk would shred the International Space Station to bits. The cascading debris would make LEO too cluttered for new satellites. This would fundamentally change the way humans use space. Many modern conveniences we take for granted would disappear.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872177 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/space-junk-11644_640.jpg" alt="A map of spacejunk orbiting earth." width="640" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What Makes Space Junk So Dangerous?</strong></h2>
Compared to the amount of overall waste produced by humanity, space junk may seem pretty minor. It is <a href="http://stuffin.space/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">floating in the void of space</a>. It seems too far away to hurt any of us. Out of sight, out of mind.

The reality is that this “trash” is more like thousands of missiles. <strong>In orbit, space debris generally moves at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news/debris_faq.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">7-8 kilometers per second</a>, over 25,000 kilometers per hour </strong>(15,000 miles per hour.) Collisions are even faster due to the speed of the satellite. At these speeds, a 10-centimeter object would have the force of <a href="https://bigthink.com/paul-ratner/how-the-kessler-syndrome-can-end-all-space-exploration-and-destroy-modern-life" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><b>7 kilograms of TNT</b></a>.

These collisions are still rare, but the amount of space junk is growing. Currently, there are <a href="http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/usspc-fs/space.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">8,000 orbiting objects being tracked by the Space Surveillance Network</a>. This is far less than the estimated 22,000 objects larger than 4 inches in orbit. When smaller objects are considered, that number goes into the tens of millions. Each collision has the potential to multiply these objects.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872178 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/international-space-station-67774_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="The view of earth from the international space station with an astronaut looking out the window." width="1024" height="680" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Do Collisions With Active Satellites Actually Happen?</strong></h2>
There are around 1,000 working satellites in LEO. A number of different countries and private companies own these satellites. Most of these are able to avoid collisions using thrusters. When they detect a threatening object, they make evasive maneuvers. However, with the number of satellites and objects in space, this is not always possible.

In <a href="http://www.spacesafetymagazine.com/space-debris/kessler-syndrome/iridium-33-cosmos-2251-years-later-learned-then/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2009 the private satellite Iridium 33 collided with the derelict Russian Cosmos 2251</a>. This event revealed the real risks of orbital debris. The collision underscored the realities of the Kessler Syndrome. This led to increased international cooperation to combat the threat.

The largest object in LEO is the international space station (ISS.) This space station houses astronauts continually. A large collision with the ISS would be disastrous. Essential components of the ISS can withstand pieces of space junk up to 1cm. However, about once a year the ISS has to maneuver to avoid a larger collision.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>How to Prevent the Kessler Syndrome</strong></h2>
<h3><strong>Make Less Trash</strong></h3>
The most important step to prevent the Kessler Syndrome is to create less junk. This means being careful about what we send into space. <a href="https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/universe/what-is-kessler-syndrome-definition-example-effects-solution.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Limitations on the number of satellites</a> launched is an obvious step. In addition, organizations must design satellites must with this threat in mind. This means ensuring that they can be safely disposed of when they die. In the US, satellites must reenter the Earth’s atmosphere (where they burn up) or be launched to the “graveyard orbit” well outside of LEO. The UN also has a set of debris mitigation guidelines.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872179 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/dark-2024127_1280-1024x643.png" alt="A meteor of piece of space junk burining up in earth's atmosphere" width="1024" height="643" />

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Cleanup Efforts</strong></h3>
Even if all new satellites were safely disposed of, collisions could still happen. The daisy chain of the Kessler Syndrome could turn operational satellites into hundreds of new pieces of junk.

Currently, there is no method to remove existing space junk. Some objects will naturally enter the atmosphere in a matter of years. However, those further out will likely <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news/debris_faq.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">stay in orbit for centuries</a>.

Research is ongoing into possible cleanup techniques. A “<a href="http://www.spacedaily.com/news/debris-00a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">laser broom</a>” is one proposed solutions. This would use lasers to push debris toward reentry. International treaties, cost, and complexity have prevented any significant effort to remove debris.

&nbsp;

The Kessler Syndrome is a very real threat. Pollution is a problem that follows humans everywhere we go, even in space. We can only hope that action to mitigate the dangers of pollution in space will happen quickly enough to prevent disaster.

&nbsp;

What is the Kessler Syndrome?

Though we rarely think about them, we rely on satellites...

What are digestive plant enzymes? To answer this, we have to first ask: what are digestive enzymes to begin with? You may have learned about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-eating-enzyme-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">enzymes</a> in a biology class at some point, but we’ll give you a refresher.

Organisms need energy to function. But, where does this energy come from? From food, of course! After you scarf down a slice of pizza or drink a glass of orange juice, the body isn’t able to magically absorb a piece of pepperoni or orange pulp. It needs something to make that energy usable - like enzymes!

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Digestive Enzymes</strong></h2>
Every organism that needs to convert food into energy needs some sort of enzyme to carry out the job. They help organisms break down a meal into smaller components that are easier for the body to absorb. Digestive enzymes dissolve proteins, fats, and carbohydrates into tiny molecules that are absorbed by your small intestine as they pass through. <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/natural-digestive-enzymes" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Some foods</a> even contain enzymes to aid in digestion.

There are several main types of digestive enzymes:
<ul>
 	<li><strong>Proteases and peptidases</strong> divide proteins into small peptides and amino acids.</li>
 	<li><strong>Lipases</strong> split fat into three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule.</li>
 	<li><strong>Amylases</strong> convert carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars like glucose.</li>
 	<li><strong>Nucleases</strong> change nucleic acids to nucleotides.</li>
</ul>
Now that we have a better idea of what digestive enzymes are, let’s ask our question again.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872038 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/pitcherplant.jpg" alt="pitcher plant" width="1000" height="715" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What Are Digestive Plant Enzymes?</strong></h2>
Although most plants create their energy through a process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photosynthesis-efficient-enough/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">photosynthesis</a>, some actually retrieve their nutrients from elsewhere.

Carnivorous plants make up an incredibly small percentage of all plant species, and they have an extremely unique way of getting nutrients. Because they often grow in poor soil conditions, these plants need to supplement their nutrient intake using another method: carnivory. These plants are able to convert organic matter into energy, just like animals do with their digestive track. In order to break down their food into smaller components, guess what they use? Enzymes! Although plants don’t have the same kind of digestive enzymes as animals, the processes that they undergo are very similar.

The most important nutrients a plant needs are nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Digestive plant enzymes make it possible for a carnivorous plant to get these nutrients in a place where they would otherwise be nearly impossible to retrieve. One of the most interesting things about digestive enzymes in plants and animals is that they evolved independently of one another. This is an awesome example of <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/convergent_evolution.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">convergent evolution</a>!

Plants secrete their digestive enzymes from modified leaves. In the case of a pitcher plant, they create a pool of digestive fluid that contains these enzymes. For a venus fly trap, the “mouth” of the plant is coated with these enzymes and clamp down on its prey not only to trap it, but also to cover as much of its prey as possible with the enzymes.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872039" align="alignnone" width="454"]<img class="wp-image-1872039 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/chitinase.png" alt="" width="454" height="255" /> Diagram of chitinase[/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Common Plant Enzymes</strong></h2>
<ul>
 	<li>Esterase</li>
 	<li>Phosphatase</li>
 	<li>Glucanase</li>
 	<li>Peroxidase</li>
 	<li>Ureas</li>
 	<li>Chitinase</li>
</ul>
All of these enzymes have a specific function. That is, break down only one or a few unique structures. As its name implies, chitinase is used to dissolve the exoskeleton (made of chitin) of insects and other arthropods. Without it, plants wouldn’t be able to digest the hard outer shell of a beetle.

Digestive plant enzymes are a marvel of biology. To think plants have evolved a similar way to digest foods that humans and other animals use is astounding!

&nbsp;

What Are Digestive Plant Enzymes?

What are digestive plant enzymes? To answer this, we have...

Humans have been genetically modifying organisms (GMO) for close to 10,000 years - starting with the domestication of wheat in southwest Asia around 7800 BCE. Since their explosion in the mid-1970s in the United States, GMO crops now account for practically all of the corn and soybeans planted each year in the country.

Plants are not the only organisms that scientists have their sights set on. A Belgian team <a href="http://www.ruthmueller.info/medical-entomology" target="_blank" rel="noopener">led by Dr. Ruth Müeller</a> aims to use cutting-edge genetic technologies to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-mosquitoes-malaria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitos</a>.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What Is Malaria?</strong></h2>
To understand why scientists want to eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitos, let’s first take a look at the disease. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Malaria</a> is “vector-borne,” meaning that living organisms can transmit the disease between humans.

While mosquitos are all members of the family Culicidae (which contains over 3,500 species), only one genus, <a href="https://www.who.int/features/qa/10/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><em>Anopheles</em></a>, can pass the parasite along. Only females of this genus are able to bite humans. When they do, they draw a minuscule amount of blood. During each bite, the mosquito ‘backwashes’ some of the blood from its previous bite into the new bite. <strong>If at any point the mosquito came in contact with malaria-containing blood, that mosquito can pass the disease onto its next victim.</strong>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871890" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_2-1024x512.jpg" alt="red blood cells malaria" width="1024" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Genetics Vocab</strong></h2>
How does Dr. Müeller’s team plan to eradicate these dangerous mosquitos? Before we get there, we need to understand some vocabulary:
<ul>
 	<li><strong>Gene:</strong> a piece of DNA that codes for a specific trait, like hair color, eye color, or whether you have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-017-07792-7" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dangly earlobes</a></li>
 	<li><strong>Allele:</strong> a specific variant of a gene, like red hair or blue eyes</li>
 	<li><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/gene-editing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gene editing</a>:</strong> part of a new wave of technologies that aims to change small parts of an organism’s DNA, sometimes as small as a single gene</li>
 	<li><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-effects-crispr-gene-editing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">CRISPR</a>:</strong> short for “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats” - a technology in development since 1993 that makes editing single genes possible by utilizing a pair of ‘genetic scissors’ to add or remove genetic information within an organism’s DNA</li>
 	<li><strong>Gene drive:</strong> a technology that ensures a specific allele is passed onto almost all of an organism's offspring. Usually, half of an organism’s offspring will receive any given allele, but gene drives raise this percentage of offspring close to 100%</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871891" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_3-1024x512.jpg" alt="dna genetic engineering CRISPR" width="1024" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Müeller’s Plan</strong></h2>
The Belgian team aims to stop the spread of malaria by stopping the spread of the mosquito that carries it.

Their first challenge was to use CRISPR to modify a gene. This gene, known as doublesex, is involved with the sexual development of mosquitos. “The females become a bit more male,” Müeller told NPR in an interview in February, likening them to “a kind of hermaphrodite.”

<strong>This modification of doublesex causes two deformations:</strong> one of the females’ mouths, making it impossible for them to bite humans, and another of their reproductive organs, rendering them unable to lay eggs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Keeping the Mutation Going</strong></h2>
Mutating a single mosquito isn’t enough, though. Müeller’s team wants to enable the mutation to spread throughout entire populations of mosquitos. By utilizing a <strong>gene drive</strong>, the group hopes to ensure that the mutation will be passed onto each successive generation.

As Müeller puts it, “All the children — the mosquito children — have this modification.” Eventually, the team intends for the mutation to spread to the entirety of a wild population - eradicating every mosquito. This ecosystem-wide impact has raised significant concern.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>The Controversy</strong></h2>
While the possible, eventual results of Müeller’s research could benefit <a href="https://www.who.int/features/factfiles/malaria/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">roughly half of the world’s population</a> by reducing the threat of malaria, the issue is not so simple

Dana Perls, of <a href="https://foe.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Friends of the Earth</a>, worries about the unknown consequences, “This is an experimental technology which could have devastating impacts.” Friends of the Earth is just one of many international organizations that are concerned with the pace that GMO mosquito research is progressing. “We need to slow down. We need to hit the pause button on gene drives,” she adds.

Furthermore, what effect will eliminating a species of mosquito have on the environment? “It's difficult to see what the downside would be to removal, except for collateral damage,” says insect ecologist Steven Juliano in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2010/100721/full/466432a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2010 Nature article</a>. Scientists believe that the ecological harm caused by eliminating Anopheles would be far outweighed by the benefit of reducing the deadly human diseases they carry.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871892" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_4-1024x575.jpg" alt="swarm of GMO mosquitos" width="1024" height="575" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Next Steps for Müeller’s Team</strong></h2>
Now that Müeller’s team has developed GMO mosquitos, they have already put their ideas to the test. <strong>Deep within a specially designed lab in Terni, Italy, their GMO mosquitos were released into populations of normal, healthy mosquitos.</strong>

Over the course of the next year, the team will track the spread of the doublesex mutation within this experimental lab population. She is excited, to say the least. “This will really be a breakthrough experiment,” says Müeller.

The group’s research is just one arm of the international organization <a href="https://targetmalaria.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Target Malaria's</a> global malaria reduction strategy. Other teams at the University of Cambridge, University of Notre Dame, and the University of Oxford - amongst others - are working towards similar goals to those of Müeller’s team.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>GMO Mosquitos in the Future</strong></h2>
What does this mean for the future of malaria on planet earth?

Although Müeller’s experiment is set to conclude in February of 2020, there is still much to be done. They plan to spend four to five additional years studying the possible long-term consequences of the mosquitos’ release into the wild, as well as understanding the necessary ecological and political hurdles they must clear in order to implement their vision.

The team does not expect their mosquitos to be released into the wild anytime soon. But their research is already happening, and it’s not too early for all of us to start asking questions about how it will affect our shared future.

&nbsp;

Why Are There GMO Mosquitos?

Humans have been genetically modifying organisms (GMO) for close to...

It may come as a surprise to learn that <strong>most of the cells in your body are not your own.</strong> Scientists estimate bacteria may outnumber human cells by as much as 10 to 1! Admittedly, this estimate is on the higher side. However, it is generally agreed that there are at least as many non-human cells as human cells in the average person.

This may sound like a terrifying invasion, but don’t fear. These “foreign” cells are your microbiome. They are an essential part of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3450280/pdf/12088_2010_Article_34.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">human “superorganism.”</a>

Since the advent of "germ theory," we’ve seen bacteria as evil. They're invaders, hiding out on doorknobs and cellphones. Bacteria is just waiting for you to forget to wash your hands. Then it can infect you and everyone you come in contact with. This view of bacteria isn’t entirely accurate. Though some bacteria can be harmful (and you should definitely keep washing your hands), most are benign and some are helpful!

The microbiome is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humansrelationship-microbes-inside/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the community of organisms living inside you</a> (<a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">or their collective genes</a>.) These include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and even viruses! The term microbiome can also refer to the communities of microbes in environmental samples. In this article, we will be focusing on the <strong>human microbiome</strong>.

Scientists are just beginning to research the role of the microbiome in health. The importance of the microbiome to human health has become apparent.

The human microbiome is often associated with gut bacteria. But, the microbiome is not restricted to the digestive tract. Microbes live throughout the human body, and helpful microbes are found in many organs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What Makes a Microbe Good?</strong></h2>
Everyone's microbiome has many different types of microbes. This microbial community plays an essential role in digestion and our immune systems. The amount of help provided by bacteria can vary. Some <a href="https://www.gutmicrobiotaforhealth.com/en/glossary/commensal-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">species are mutualistic</a>, providing and receiving benefits to their host. Others are commensal, simply living inside our guts without harming or benefiting us.

<strong>Microbes play an essential role in digestion.</strong> They assist in digesting foods that humans have trouble processing. Probiotics supplements and foods offer a way to boost your gut microbiota. These good bacteria include many species of <i>Lactobacillus </i>and <i>Bifidobacterium</i>.

The microbes in the urinary tract and eyelids keep foreign bacteria at bay. By establishing a community, they make it harder for bad microbes to invade.

Bacteria are by far the most common and most discussed microbe in our bodies. However, the microbiome is far more complex. It also includes fungi, viruses, and archaea. These organisms provide a diverse environment that can respond to changing conditions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Where Do These Microbes Come From?</strong></h2>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871718 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/yogurt-1442034_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="Yogurt with oats and strawberries sitting on a table with a plate of strawberries in the corner." width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;

We know the microbiome is an essential part of a healthy human. But where do all these microbes from? It turns out that our first exposure to these microbes happens as early as birth. We are exposed to microbes in the birth canal. The microbial community continues to develop through infancy. Breast milk can also deliver microbes. Though our microbiome is not inherited in the traditional sense it is still <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">passed from mother to child</a>.

The microbiome continues to develop and change throughout life. Diet has a huge influence on how the microbiome grows. It can also introduce new bacteria to the microbiome. Many probiotic or cultured foods contain good bacteria and yeast. Yogurt, kombucha, and kimchi are just a few examples of sources of good digestive bacteria.

<strong>Environment, location, diet, and health can all influence exposure to good and bad microbes.</strong>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Where Is Our Microbiome?</strong></h2>
The microbiome occupies a large number of different organs. The microbes present are different in each. Though they share many functions, each community is unique. Research is ongoing to better understand the microbiome's role. Imbalances in the microbiome can have far-reaching effects. The microbes can influence many parts of the body.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Skin</h3>
</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3535073/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The skin</a> is a diverse habitat for a wide range of organisms. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and even small mites. These organisms are primarily harmless, while others provide essential services. They protect against invasion by pathogens, train the immune system, and even assist in killing pathogens.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Eye (conjunctiva)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The ocular microbiome is less well-known but can provide essential services. The <a href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/anatomy/microbiome-of-eye" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the eye</a> occurs on the conjunctiva, the clear tissue covering the whites of your eye. The eye has fewer microbes than the skin, around 1/100th the number. Healthy eyes usually have only 4 genera of bacteria. The ocular microbiome may be important in many conditions. These include chronic dry eyes and blepharitis.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Gut</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The gut is host to the most diverse and active microbiome. Microbes in the gut are essential for digestion. There is evidence that the gut microbiome may play a role in a wide array of different diseases. This article will focus on the gut microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Urinary Tract (UT)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
In the past, scientists believed the urinary tract was sterile. Any microbes in the UT were assumed to be a UTI. New evidence has shown that a healthy urinary tract has certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405456916301596" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbial communities</a>. Changes in this community have been linked to diseases. These include incontinence, cysts, STIs, pain, and even cancers! Research is being done on how to protect and repair this community. Diet, probiotics, and prebiotics may help regulate the urinary microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Vagina</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The <a href="http://vmc.vcu.edu/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the vagina</a> is essential to vaginal health. These communities are complex and change over time. Hormonal and environmental changes have a large influence on this community. In general, the beneficial bacteria that exist in the vagina produce lactic acid. This acid lowers the pH, protecting against pathogens and infections. This protection is essential to prevent STIs, yeast infections, UTIs and bacterial vaginosis.

The vaginal microbiome is also involved in birth. Miscarriages and infertility are associated with an imbalanced microbiome. The vaginal microbiome also exposes newborns to microbes. This process provides many of the microbes that will become the child's microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Mouth</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The mouth leads directly to our largest microbiome, the gut. With this in mind, it makes sense that the mouth would also host a <a href="https://askthedentist.com/oral-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">complex microbiome</a>. The oral microbiome has around 700 species of organisms. Many diseases are associated with imbalances in the oral microbiome. These include cavities, gingivitis, and other conditions. Brushing and flossing are key to maintaining a balanced oral microbiome. Avoiding antibacterial mouthwash may also help.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Lungs</h3>
</li>
</ul>
Like the UT, the lungs were historically believed to be sterile. Genetic sequencing has revealed that this is not the case. Though the lungs have fewer total microbes than the gut, they are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440512/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extremely diverse</a>. However, lung microbes are still poorly understood. The lung microbiome may play a role in lung diseases. Research into the microbial community associated with pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, HIV, tobacco use, and other diseases may reveal important treatment options.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Why Does the Microbiome Matter?</strong></h2>
&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Digestion</strong></h3>
The microbiome is most prevalent in the gut. Here, bacteria play essential roles in digestion. They are crucial to digesting foods that humans naturally cannot. Bacteria digest a group of sugars called FODMAPs. This stands for <b>F</b>ermentable <b>O</b>ligo-, <b>D</b>i, <b>M</b>ono-saccharides, <b>A</b>nd <b>P</b>olyols. FODMAPs include well-known culprits of digestive issues such as lactose. FODMAPs may also play a role in the rise of reported non-celiac gluten intolerance. Many of these sugars are difficult or impossible for people to digest on their own.

An abnormal gut microbiome is associated with various gastrointestinal disease. <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:mixTdAaa9JcJ:https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news/microbiomics_its_growing_significance_in_the_world_of_medicines_testing+&amp;cd=1&amp;hl=en&amp;ct=clnk&amp;gl=us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Irritable bowel syndrome </a>is one example. In this condition, disrupted gut bacteria interfere with normal bile acid metabolism. Other medical issues including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-fungi-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">obesity</a> and diabetes are linked to an irregular microbiome. An improved understanding of the role of the microbiome in disease will improve treatment options.

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Immune function</strong></h3>
The microbiome also plays an <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-03-gut-bacteria-essential-healthy-immune.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential role in immune health</a>. <strong>The microbiome is a training ground for your immune system.</strong> Exposure to these bacteria helps your immune cells build a response to pathogens. It also teaches the body that some microbes are not dangerous. This is important to prevent unnecessary inflammatory responses. Without the microbiome, every new food or environment would cause an unnecessary waste of energy.

Experiments on mice have shown that a lack of microbes creates an immature immune system. Adding bacterial flora quickly causes the immune system to improve.

A diverse microbiome provides the best benefits to health and immune function. It is essential that your microbiome remains balanced. Measuring and understanding the variation in gut microbes may help treat immune diseases like Crohn’s. Techniques to characterize the gut microbiome will continue to improve. This will enable individually targeted treatments to rebalance the gut microbiome.

&nbsp;
<h3>Relationship to the Brain</h3>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871719 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brain-512758_1280-1024x736.png" alt="A drawing on a human brain." width="1024" height="736" />

&nbsp;

The phrase “trust your gut” may have more truth to it than you ever knew. <a href="https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/the-simplified-guide-to-the-gut-brain-axis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The gut-brain axis</a> is the connection between the central nervous system (CNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS). The role of the gut microbiome in influencing these systems is being investigated.

The CNS and ENS are independent but connected by the vagus nerve. This connects the gut directly to the hypothalamus and limbic system. These parts of the brain regulate emotion. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trust-your-instincts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The limbic system and the gut</a> send signals back and forth. This relationship may be important in psychiatric disorders. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Depression</a>, anxiety, and even schizophrenia are linked to the microbiome.

Microbes can create neurotransmitters. These compounds are what our neurons use to communicate. These end up circulating in the blood. As a result, they affect day to day experience. In addition, bacteria play a role in modifying metabolism. As a result, levels of important precursors to neurotransmitters such as serotonin are changed.

The relationship between the gut and the brain is not well understood. However, it is clear that your microbiome has the potential to influence your emotions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>How Do We Study the Microbiome?</strong></h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Culturing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871716 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg" alt="Petri dish with microbes growing on it. Microbes are yellow on a black background. The dish is labeled &quot;Falcon&quot;" width="600" height="450" />

&nbsp;

The simplest way to look at a microbiome is to try and grow it in the lab. They place samples from the gut or another organ on nutrient-rich media. After that, the samples sit at body temperature until the microbes begin to grow. Finally, they grow each species on its own. Therefore, culturing microbes allows them to isolate individual species. Finally, they characterize species by appearance and chemistry.

However, culturing faces major hurdles. It is not possible to culture all the organisms present in the gut. Some need specific conditions only found in the gut. Reproducing these in the lab can be extremely difficult. Others need oxygen and will die immediately when removed from the body. Some species may be completely impossible to grow in the lab.

In addition, identifying microbes is difficult. For example, many species have similar appearances.

Even when culturing techniques succeed, they can be misleading. The species that grow may not represent the actual expression of genes and proteins. This is because they may behave differently outside of the body. Therefore, understanding the functional microbiome requires genetic techniques.

&nbsp;
<h3>Sequencing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871717 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dna-163466_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="An artistic rendering of the double helix of DNA. 3 Blue strands of DNA on a black background." width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;

To get an accurate impression of the microbiome, you need genetic techniques. Sequencing helps determine the species present as well as the microbiomes gene expression. Both of these are important in understanding how the microbiome relates to health. Sequencing all the RNA and DNA in a sample gives a better picture of the function of the microbiome.

There are many techniques to sequence the genome. As technology improves detailed sequencing is more available. In the future, it may even be practical to use sequencing to diagnose patients.

&nbsp;
<h3>rRNA Sequencing</h3>
rRNA is a special type of RNA that helps create protein. This RNA sequence changes very little because it is so important. It also occurs in all cells. This makes it a great way to identify species.

rRNA sequencing lets researchers determine the diversity of species in the microbiome. It can also help determine which species are most common. This information is essential to help characterize the gut microbe community.

It is not always easy to identify the sequenced species. The meaning of “species” becomes a lot less clear with bacteria. These organisms readily share genes. They also reproduce so quickly that they evolve in real-time.

This makes it difficult to classify species. Instead, researchers group genomes by their similarity. Preset cutoffs define the groups. They call these cutoffs operational taxonomic units (or OTUs).

&nbsp;
<h3>Shotgun Sequencing</h3>
The alternative to rRNA sequencing is metagenomic, or “shotgun” sequencing. This technique involves sequencing tons of small pieces of DNA. Computers can reconstruct the genome. First, they find overlapping sequences. With enough overlapping sequences, you can reconstruct the whole genome.

This strategy has the potential to reveal the full genomes of microbes. Knowing this could provide better detail of the diversity of the microbiome.

&nbsp;

Genetic techniques and technologies continue to improve. These improvements will help researchers understand the microbiome. This research could pave the way towards <strong>microbiome diagnosis, which might provide early warning signs of diseases like IBS, diabetes, and obesity.</strong>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Microbiome Provides New Insight</h2>
The role of the microbiome in health is complex. These communities are ecosystems with complex relationships. Each microbe interacts with their hosts (you and me) and each other. This complex network of interactions can have important impacts on health and disease. An improved understanding of these systems will help us to diagnose, prevent, and treat human disease. As advances in genetic sequencing continue to open the door to a better understanding of the microbiome, ongoing research into the human microbiome holds great potential.

&nbsp;

What Is Microbiomics?

It may come as a surprise to learn that most...

One of the unique creatures Charles Darwin encountered on the Galápagos Islands was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/galapagos-marine-iguana-amblyrhynchus-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">marine iguana</a>. He was shocked by their appearance, describing them as the “most disgusting, clumsy lizards” and “hideous-looking.” Yikes...

The marine iguana has a scaly loose skin with a squished looking face and long claws. Marine iguanas are primarily black. The average adult male is 1.3 meters (4.25 ft) while the female is 0.6 meters (2 ft). Different subspecies vary in color and size.

Despite their less-than-beautiful appearance, the marine iguana is a unique species. It is the only species of reptile that forages in the sea. <strong>This makes it the only known marine reptile.</strong> Scientists believe that this species evolved from land iguanas <a href="https://oceana.org/marine-life/sea-turtles-reptiles/marine-iguana" target="_blank" rel="noopener">around 4.5 million years ago</a>.

This species occurs only on the Galápagos Islands. Like many Galápagos species, distinct subspecies live on different islands. These subspecies each have unique coloration. Their small geographic range puts them <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/1086/3222951" target="_blank" rel="noopener">at risk of extinction</a>.

The marine iguana has never had any natural predators. Because of this, they are extremely docile. This makes them very popular with tourists.

The iguanas generally live in large colonies. They will pile onto each other on cold nights to conserve body heat. They generally stay near the coast, though they are great climbers and are often seen on top of cliffs.

&nbsp;
<h2>Marine Iguana Foraging</h2>
The marine iguana gets its name because it forages for food at sea! This is unique in the reptile kingdom.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871288" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871288 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-883488_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="This marine iguana is swimming underwater headed up." width="1024" height="768" /> The marine iguana can dive as deep as 30 meters![/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Diving Deep is Delicious</h2>
The male iguanas can <a href="https://theplanetd.com/marine-iguanas-feeding-underwater-amazing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dive up to 30 meters</a> (100 ft) deep to forage. Stronger iguanas swim out into the tides, anchoring themselves on rocks. The younger iguanas and smaller females stay closer to shore.

Only about 5% of the iguanas dive for food. These are large, strong males. They dive in order to avoid competition in shallow water. <strong>Adult iguanas can dive for up to an hour.</strong> This is an impressive feat for a land animal, especially a reptile.

Diving deep in the cold ocean water is difficult for a cold-blooded reptile. The marine iguana must lower its heart rate and metabolism when diving. This allows their body temperature to <a href="https://marinebio.org/species/marine-iguanas/amblyrhynchus-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">drop by 10 degrees Celsius</a> while underwater. Even with these changes, the conditions are extreme. In order to prepare for these extreme conditions, the iguanas must bask in the sun, preparing for their dive. Though it may look like these lizards just relax in the sun all day, basking is essential for the lizards to live. This absorbed heat keeps them from being immobilized in the cold water.

&nbsp;
<h2>Eating Algae</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871286" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871286 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-883486_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="A marine iguana underwater near the ocean floor eating algae off of a rock." width="1024" height="768" /> This marine iguana has found some delicious algae.[/caption]

&nbsp;

The marine iguanas feed on algae. These marine algae grow on rocks near the shore. There have been <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">nine species of algae</a> identified as iguana food. The iguanas prefer inter and subtidal algae. There are <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-do-marine-iguanas-primarily-feed-on" target="_blank" rel="noopener">4-5 species of red algae</a> that they prefer to eat. Other species are added to the diet when the good stuff isn’t available.

Though they are mostly marine foragers, the marine iguana can eat other food sources. They have been seen eating grasshoppers, crustaceans and <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sea lion afterbirth</a>! When times are really dire, the marine iguana resorts to <a href="https://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/galsite/research/projects/metcalfe/marineiguanas.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eating feces</a>. They will eat the droppings of other iguanas as well as that of sea lions and red crabs.

&nbsp;
<h2>El Niño</h2>
Though the marine iguana is isolated on the Galápagos, global weather patterns affect them. The El Niño Southern Oscillation Event (or ENSO) decreases algae on the Galápagos islands. The increased rainfall and surface temperature decreases the algal growth. During these events, the iguanas will shrink by up to 20%. <strong>It is believed that the <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-do-marine-iguanas-primarily-feed-on" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lizard's bones may actually shrink</a> by up to 10%!</strong> These changes are quickly reversed when food becomes available again.

&nbsp;
<h2>Too Much Salt</h2>
The unusual eating habits of the marine iguana require some specialized adaptations. Diving in the sea comes with unique hazards. The amount of salt in seawater causes a risk of dehydration. In order to combat this, they <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">evolved salt glands</a>. These glands take excess salt and force it out of the lizard's nostrils. All this salt sneezing gives them a white crown.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871287" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871287 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-1826683_1920-1024x685.png" alt="Two marine iguanas with their eyes closed" width="1024" height="685" /> These marine iguanas are enjoying the sun.[/caption]

&nbsp;

The marine iguana is a uniquely interesting reptile. Its diet of algae is entirely unique for a reptile. This species is threatened with extinction due to its tiny range and specialized diet. Though they have survived ENSO events in the past, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/el-nino-is-strengthening/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">these are becoming more frequent</a> and intense. Climate change is causing extreme weather years to become more common. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-iguanas-struggling-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">threatens the marine iguana's </a>food source. Consecutive low-food years could be disastrous.

In addition, their small range poses a threat. Localized events could wipe out the entire species. Though they are protected, as are the Galápagos Islands, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-galapagos-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pollution in the ocean can’t be controlled</a>. A nearby oil spill could greatly harm this species.

&nbsp;

What do Marine Iguanas Eat?

One of the unique creatures Charles Darwin encountered on the...

Grasslands are one of the most important habitat types on our planet. They cover almost 25% of Earth’s surface on land and are found on every continent except <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-antarctica-green/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Antarctica</a>. The animals that live in grasslands need to be extremely resourceful. How does an animal eat when their food is under a meter of snow? Without trees and shrubs to hide in, how would an animal escape or avoid its predators? Before we look into 5 of the most resourceful grassland animals, let’s define what a grassland is first.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What’s a Grassland?</strong></h2>
As its name implies, a grassland is an ecosystem comprised of - you guessed it - grass! Plants called rushes and sedges often accompany the grass to create the characteristic plains and savannahs we see today. Grasslands go by many names, depending on the locale. In North America, they are referred to as prairies. Pampas are the grasslands of South America. In Central Asia, they’re called <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/steppe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">steppes</a>. Savannas usually refer to the expansive grasslands of Africa.

So, which grassland animals are the most resourceful?

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871144 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Giraffe.jpg" alt="giraffe pair savanna" width="1000" height="667" />

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Giraffe (<em>Giraffa</em> spp.)</strong></h3>
Giraffes have adapted to take advantage of a food resource almost no other animals has. They are one of the only animals in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-african-savanna-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">African savanna</a> that can reach the highest leaves on trees, thanks to their extremely long neck. For a giraffe, eating the highest leaves from the tallest savanna trees is a walk in the park. Giraffes eat about 34 kilograms (75 pounds) of leaves a day. For their size, they actually require much less food than the average herbivore because the leaves they eat are extremely nutritious - a luxury other herbivores don’t have.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1871145 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/prairie-dog-1024x682.jpg" alt="prairie dog" width="1024" height="682" /></h3>
&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Prairie Dog (<em>Cynomys</em> spp.)</strong></h3>
A characteristic animal of North American prairies is the aptly named prairie dog. Unlike dogs, these rodents are not carnivores. They’re some of the most abundant animals in the grasslands of North America. Although they are the prey of various other animals, they still manage to thrive.

Prairie dogs succeed in highly competitive grasslands by using resources above and below ground. They create burrows that can be dozens of meters long, and even make different chambers for varying purposes. Because they live above the soil as well as within it, they eat every single part of a plant. Leaves, seeds, stems, and roots are all fair game for the prairie dog. Other animals, like moles and gophers, eat only the below-ground parts, while other herbivores eat only the above-ground portions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1871146 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Vicuna.jpg" alt="vicuna" width="800" height="600" /></h3>
&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Vicuña (<em>Vicugna vicugna</em>)</strong></h3>
The vicuña is a relative to the domesticated llama and alpaca of South America. They live in the highest alpine plains of the Andes at 3,200 to 4,800 meters (10,500 to 15,700 feet), which are some of the harshest grasslands in the world. At night, temperatures drop well below freezing. Luckily for the vicuña, it has some of the warmest wool in the animal kingdom. Their fur is extremely fine, with each hair measuring only 12 micrometers in diameter. For this reason, it’s highly prized by people and is some of the <a href="https://www.businessoffashion.com/articles/intelligence/inside-the-business-of-vicuna-the-wool-worth-more-than-gold" target="_blank" rel="noopener">most expensive wool in the world</a>. Vicuñas trap their own body heat very close to their skin thanks to their wool, which is how they survive in the cold, harsh environment of the Andes.

Vicuñas need to use another odd resource to supplement their low nutrient diet. <strong>In order to get the minerals they need, vicuñas simply lick rocks to obtain salt and other small amounts of nutrients. Ingenious!</strong>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871143 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/caribou-1024x691.jpg" alt="caribou" width="1024" height="691" />

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Caribou (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>)</strong></h3>
Caribou are also known by the name of reindeer. They’re found in northern regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. Why do Santa’s trusty companions make the list of most resourceful grassland animals? It has to do with the lengths they go to obtain their food and care for their young. Every year, caribou embark on one of Earth’s greatest animal migrations. As summer approaches, herds of caribou migrant northward to reach the abundant plants beginning to grow. A full round trip sees caribou traveling up to 2500 kilometers (1600 miles) in a single year!

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871142 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/bison.jpg" alt="bison herd grassland" width="1000" height="561" />

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Bison (<em>Bison</em> spp.)</strong></h3>
Bison are another one of the dominant animals in the grasslands of North America. They have been incredibly important for humans for millennia because their meat is highly nutritious and their pelts are valuable. Sadly, in the 1800’s humans were responsible for the near-extinction of the animal. Fortunately, bison are extremely resilient and resourceful, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bison-american-survival-story/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">their numbers have been steadily growing</a> for the past 100 years.

Bison, like many grassland animals, eat plants. One problem they face is finding food during the cold winter months when they have to wade through waist-deep snow. Amazingly, bison use their enormous head to dig through and push the snow aside to access the scant amount of grass below. The grass, which is frozen and nearly dead, is hardly nutritious. Bison eat enough to survive through the winter, thanks to using a resource no other animal would even consider.

&nbsp;

Top 5 Resourceful Grassland Animals

Grasslands are one of the most important habitat types on...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Sea creatures are big mysteries to most of us. What do they do under the waves? What do they eat? How do they navigate and communicate? And… what are they? </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Dolphins, whales, seals, sea lions, and otters are all mammals.</strong> They give birth to live young and nurse their young with milk. In contrast, even though some sharks give birth to live young, <strong>sharks are fish.</strong></span>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What is a Mammal, Again?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">It’s a bit confusing whether dolphins, whales, and sharks are mammals unless you remember the basics of what a mammal is.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Mammals are warm-blooded animals that give birth to live young (except for a few exceptions </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-there-mammals-that-lay-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">that lay eggs</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">) and feed those young with milk. Most mammals are hairy - but not all! Humans and naked mole rats are both mammals but they aren’t exactly fluffy.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Mammals do not have gills. That means that any aquatic or marine mammals need to be able to come to the surface often enough to breathe. In contrast, fish and amphibians with gills can stay underwater indefinitely.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870873 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dolphin-203875_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="682" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Are Dolphins and Whales Mammals?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Dolphins are actually a subset of the order Artiolydacta, which includes all whales and porpoises as well as pigs, giraffes, llamas, and hippos. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises are all part of the infraorder Cetacea. The closest related land mammal to whales and dolphins is the hippo.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>All whales and dolphins are warm-blooded, give birth to live young, and feed their young with milk</strong>. In other words, whales and dolphins are mammals.</span>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What About Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Otters?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Seals and sea lions are also mammals, but they’re not very closely related to whales and dolphins. In fact, seals, sea lions, and sea otters are all part of the order Carnivora. Carnivora also includes dogs, cats, bears, and skunks. The closest living relatives of sea lions and seals are probably bears. The closest living relatives of sea otters are other otter species.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870874 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/shark-3197585_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="are sharks mammals" width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Are Sharks Mammals?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">On the other hand, sharks are a subgroup of fish. Some sharks do give birth to live young, but<strong> they do not nurse and they’re not warm-blooded</strong>. In fact, sharks don’t even have true bones. Their skeleton is made up entirely of cartilage. Sharks don’t have ribcages, so they’re easily crushed under their own weight on land.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Unlike most other fish, sharks don’t have a swim bladder. They “float” within the water column thanks to their cartilaginous skeleton, which is far less dense than bone. Sand sharks can also store air in their stomachs to help them keep afloat. Most sharks also rely on </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">dynamic lift</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to avoid sinking in water. This means they need to keep moving and rely on their pectoral fins like wings to stay still, and they can't swim backward.</span>

&nbsp;

Are Dolphins, Sharks, and Whales Mammals?

Sea creatures are big mysteries to most of us. What...

The lotus flower is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sacred-plants-mythology-spirituality/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sacred and iconic plants</a> in the world. The striking flower is a symbolic staple for some of the most prolific cultures and religions throughout history. It's safe to say that for thousands of years, the lotus has been a plant celebrity.

Hieroglyphics in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eight-egyptian-mummies-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Ancient Egypt</a> often include lotus flowers portrayed side-by-side with important priests and pharaohs. Statues depicting sacred Buddhist figures feature the person sitting on, or underneath a lotus flower. Some of the gods and goddesses of Hinduism are associated with the flowers. <strong>The lotus flower is a recurring symbol across time and space</strong>. What makes this flower (and lotus seeds) so encapturing? To understand why the plant is so symbolic and timeless, we have to first understand its life history.
<h2>About the Lotus Flower</h2>
The white lotus (also called sacred lotus), <em>Nelumbo nucifera</em>, has a huge natural range. It grows in northern India up to elevations as high as 1,400 meters (4,600 feet), all the way to East Asia throughout much of China and almost all of southeast Asia.

The blue lotus, <em>Nymphaea caerulea</em>, is native to the Nile river and other parts of East Africa. Botanically speaking, these flowers are actually a type of water lily. But, the reasons why it’s sacred are similar to that of the white lotus. It also happens to grow in a very similar fashion to the white lotus.

<strong><em>N. caerulea</em> itself is an aquatic plant</strong>. It thrives in muddy, still water and roots itself into the muck below. The long stems rise through the water and the leaves sit directly on or above the water. The huge, showy flowers bloom above the leaves, sometimes 20 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter! The petals have a special waxy coating on them which shed water and dirt. So even after blooming out of otherwise dirty, turbid water, the flower itself is perfectly pristine. One by one new flowers emerge and only last a single day. This is one of the reasons lotus flowers are so admired. Their ability to remain clean while growing out of the mud evokes persistence and spiritual purity.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870668 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/buddha.jpg" alt="buddha statue lotus flower" width="1000" height="666" />
<h2><strong>Buddhism and the Lotus</strong></h2>
In Buddhism, the sacred lotus is an important symbol of purity, spiritual awakening, and faithfulness. Statues of Buddha often show him sitting atop an open lotus flower, like the one pictured above. In the land of Buddha, there are many different colors of lotus, and <a href="https://buddhists.org/buddhist-symbols/the-meanings-of-the-different-colors-of-the-lotus-flower-in-buddhism/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">each one holds a different meaning.</a>
<ul>
 	<li><strong>Blue</strong> symbolizes a victory of the spirit over that of wisdom, intelligence, and knowledge. In Buddhist artwork, blue lotuses are never fully open as to not observe the center of the flower.</li>
 	<li><strong>White</strong> symbolizes Bodhi (being enlightened). It also represents mental purity, spiritual perfection, and peace.</li>
 	<li><strong>Purple</strong> is thought to be mystic. The eight petals of this lotus represent the Noble Eightfold Path, one of the most important teachings of Buddha.</li>
 	<li><strong>Red</strong> represents the heart and symbolizes love and compassion.</li>
 	<li><strong>Pink</strong> is considered to be the “true” lotus and is the main color of the flower according to Buddha.</li>
</ul>
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1870669 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brahma.jpg" alt="Brahma statue lotus flower" width="1000" height="801" /></h3>
<h2><strong>Hindu Gods, Goddesses, and the White Lotus</strong></h2>
<em>The N. caerulea</em> flower is sacred in Hinduism. It symbolizes beauty, fertility, prosperity, spirituality, and eternity. These are some pretty significant ideals, and all have the white lotus representing them. Many <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/top-hindu-deities-1770309" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Hindu deities</a> hold or associate themselves with lotus.

The goddess of prosperity, Laxmi, is most often depicted sitting atop an open lotus flower, with more of the blooms held in two of her four hands. The four-faced god of creation, Brahma, apparently emerged from a lotus himself. In Hinduism, the unflawed flower is divine. It emerges from muddy waters and <strong>represents enlightenment in a person with little attachments to the world.</strong>

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1740768 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Blue-egyptian-lotus-Nymphaea-caerulea.jpg" alt="" width="915" height="768" />
<h2><strong>Ancient Egypt and the Blue Lotus</strong></h2>
Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics depict more than one type of <em>N. caerulea</em>, but the blue lotus is definitely the most common and sacred of them all. The blue flower often symbolizes rebirth, due to its nature of submerging underwater and reemerging the next day. When it blooms from the water a second time, it is as clean and pure as it was the day before.

Because of the lotus flower’s ability to enter the water and return the next day, it eventually came to symbolize the sun and the creation of the world. Because the lotus is associated with rebirth, it consequentially also became associated with death. Many ancient Egyptians believed there was a way to turn into a lotus after death, so one could be reborn the next day.

Apart from the symbolic and spiritual nature of these beautiful flowers, they also had a more political significance. Upper and Lower Egypt were long separate. Eventually, the Egyptian lotus flower (abundant in Upper Egypt) and the <a href="https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/foliage/papyrus/papyrus-plants.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">papyrus plant</a> (abundant in Lower Egypt) became united in symbols and hieroglyphics. Combining two of the most important plants in Ancient Egypt led to the unity of the two kingdoms.

Why the Lotus Flower Is a Plant Celebrity

The lotus flower is one of the most sacred and...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">You may think your dog is the smartest animal to have graced the earth. However, the competition might surprise you. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The questions of which animals are smart is far from simple. Measuring the intelligence of animals is difficult. However, many species show obvious signs of complex thought. Crows </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-fashion-hooks-wood/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">build simple tools</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, and </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planning-skills-animals-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">make plans</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Your dog has an uncanny ability </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-understand-humans-better/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">to know when you’re feeling down</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Obviously, many animals are smart. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Intelligence in animals is difficult to define. Any test may favor a species that needs that skill in the wild. If you measure whether a crow or a dolphin is better at building a nest, your results won’t mean much.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Some traits such as memory and problem solving are often used. Solving a maze or learning a behavior indicates that an animal can remember, and apply experience. Learning is a key aspect of intelligence.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870313 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/squid-225423_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="Cephalopod facing the camera on a background of seaweed" width="1024" height="768" />
<h2><strong>Our foot-headed friends (cephalopods)</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Octopuses, squids, and cuttlefish are part of a larger group called the cephalopods. Their name comes from Greek words for head and foot. This describes their odd appearance. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">This taxon is very different from humans in many ways. <strong>First of all, cephalopods bleed blue.</strong> Cephalopods lack the red, iron-containing hemoglobin of humans. Instead, </span><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">cephalopod blood uses blue copper</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to carry oxygen.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most (</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-argonaut/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">though not all</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">) have soft, boneless bodies, enabling them to squeeze through tiny spaces.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">These sea creatures may seem strange, but we have something big in common. Cephalopod brains are large and well developed like mammals.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870314 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/blue-ringed-octopus-2414408_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="A blue ringed octopus with an orange body and blue circles" width="1024" height="683" />
<h2><strong>An entirely new take on the brain</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Cephalopod brains are unique. They have relatively large brains for their body size. This is a common sign of intelligence in animals. However, this is where the similarities end. Cephalopod brains are very different from the brains of mammals.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>A different path to intelligence</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The invertebrates split from vertebrates' evolutionary line over </span><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">600 million years ago</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. This was long before life was as widespread as it is today. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most invertebrates do not have complex brains. This means that octopuses developed brains independently from mammals. <strong>The result is as close to an alien brain as you will find on earth. </strong></span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The structure of an octopus brain is very unusual. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Most of the octopuses 500 million neurons are in its arms! This allows them to not only feel, but to taste and smell with their tentacles.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">No other invertebrates have brains as complex as cephalopods. Cephalopods are predators that have to hunt for their food. Scientists believe that their </span><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">need to hunt and hide </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">led them to develop complex brains.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most intelligent animals have </span><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/30/science/animal-intelligence-octopus-cephalopods.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">strong social bonds and live long lives</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Octopuses, on the other hand, live only months or years. Scientists believed they were solitary animals. However, a recent study showed </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-social-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">octopuses are more social than we thought</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. These differences show just how different octopuses are. Their intelligence is something special.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>How octopuses teach us about human brains</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Octopuses' big brains are paired with big neurons. The large cells of their nervous system can be seen without magnification. This has made them a popular tool for studying nerves. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Though they evolved separately from human brains, the basic structure is the same. Studying </span><a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/so-you-think-youre-smarter-cephalopod" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">octopus neurons has provided insight </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">into the workings of the human brain.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Some of the smartest things octopuses have done</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The way octopuses behave reveals their intellect. Octopuses are often mischevious. Here are a few examples of octopus behavior.</span>

<strong>Octopuses...</strong>
<ul>
 	<li><b>... turn out the lights. <span style="font-weight: 400;">Octopuses in captivity have learned to use jets of water to short circuit lights they find annoying.</span></b></li>
 	<li><b>...steal fish from neighboring tanks.<span style="font-weight: 400;"> Octopuses in aquariums have learned to sneak out of their tanks to eat fish in neighboring tanks.</span></b></li>
 	<li><strong>...use tools to solve problems.</strong> <span style="font-weight: 400;">There are many examples of </span><a href="https://www.upworthy.com/octopus-intelligence-here-are-13-of-the-most-frighteningly-smart-things-they-can-do" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">octopuses using tools</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Some will steal the tentacles of a </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/portuguese-man-o-war-physalia-physalis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Portuguese man o war</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> jellyfish and use them as a weapon! There are even examples of them carrying coconut shells with them as a disguise. </span></li>
 	<li><strong>...display complicated camouflage.</strong> <span style="font-weight: 400;">Octopuses can copy complicated textures. They also will </span><a href="https://www.upworthy.com/octopus-intelligence-here-are-13-of-the-most-frighteningly-smart-things-they-can-do" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">imitate large predators </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">to scare off anyone hunting them. Their camouflage is so good, it is being </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-skin-camouflage-material/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">used to inspire new technology.</span></a></li>
 	<li><strong>...recognize individual people.</strong></li>
 	<li><strong>...enjoy playing with toys.</strong></li>
 	<li><strong>...can <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mind-of-an-octopus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">solve mazes and open jars</a>.</strong></li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

<span style="font-weight: 400;">It is impossible to know how an octopus sees the world. The question of animal intelligence is complicated by the different needs and skills of animals. What we do know, is that octopuses are good problem solvers. <strong>They are clearly intelligent.</strong> What intelligence means for an octopus is unclear.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Cephalopods provide a new take on the brain. This unique part of evolution provides valuable diversity, and it is important that we protect these unique animals. Human behavior such as </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-farming-overfishing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">overfishing </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">and pollution threaten many octopuses. So next time you see an octopus, remember that they might be wondering about your intelligence too! </span>

&nbsp;

Are Octopuses Smart?

You may think your dog is the smartest animal to...

The History of Earth in Exactly 2000 Words

The history of Earth is obviously a ginormous topic. Really,...

First of all, what is hibernation?

Some animals give a whole new meaning to “sleeping in.” Hibernation is a behavior in many animals that allows them to enter an extended sleep-like state during the winter.

Though hibernation seems a lot like sleep, it is actually a unique state. During sleep, our bodies still function normally. Our heart rate drops and metabolism slows, these changes are minor.

Hibernation, on the other hand, is when animals enter a state called torpor for an extended period of time. Torpor is far more extreme than sleep. In torpor, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">metabolism drops below 5% of the normal level</a>. Most physiological functions grind to a halt or slow to a fraction of normal. Heart rates go below 10% of their normal level. Some animals take only one breath a minute. This state is so extreme, they may appear to be dead.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Why Hibernate?</strong></h2>
Hibernation occurs during the winter when resources are scarce and conditions extreme. Animals hibernate in order to conserve limited resources. By dropping their metabolism, many animals go for months at a time without needing food. Instead, they rely on the energy stored in their body fat.

This might sound pretty nice. You pack on calories, eating your fill and getting fat in the fall. Then you go to take a long nap through the winter, during which all that fat magically disappears. You wake up to springs flowers, plenty of food, and the prospect of a huge feast when it starts getting cold again.

However, hibernation requires careful preparation. In order to survive for extended periods with no food, animals need to focus on eating in the months before hibernation. It is also essential that they find a safe and warm place to hibernate.

I addition to saving on calories, hibernation can provide protection from predators. Though it might seem odd that sleeping provides protection, it actually makes sense. Hibernating animals are hidden, perfectly still and don’t sweat. Animals are <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1723/3355.short" target="_blank" rel="noopener">five times less likely to die</a> while hibernating.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Which Animals Hibernate?</strong></h2>
There are many different species throughout the animal kingdom that hibernate. Below are some of the most well-known or impressive hibernators.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872066 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/black-bear-1611349_1920-1024x729.jpg" alt="Black bear behind ferns looking at the camera" width="1024" height="729" />
<h3>Black Bears <i>(</i><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/american-black-bear-ursus-americanus/"><i>Ursus americanus</i></a><i>)</i></h3>
Bears are certainly the most well-known hibernators. However, out of 9 species of bears, only 4 of them hibernate. These are the American Black Bear, Asiatic Black Bear, Brown Bear, and Polar Bear. Though hibernation is associated with them, Bears hibernation is not complete. Their body temperature does not drop to the temperature outside. They can also <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wake up during hibernation</a>. Females wake up to have their cubs during hibernation.

Human activity can influence bear hibernation. A recent study showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-food-bears-hibernate-age-faster/">eating human food makes bears hibernate for less time</a>. This can decrease the bear's lifespan and survival rate.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872067" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872067 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2048px-Common_Poorwill-1024x683.jpg" alt="Common poorwill on a hand with a black background" width="1024" height="683" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Connorlong90" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Connor Long</a>[/caption]
<h3>Common Poorwill <i>(Phalaenoptilus nuttallii)</i></h3>
The common poorwill is quite unique. It is the <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">only bird that is known to hibernate</a>! Most birds deal with the extremes of winter by migrating south. The poorwill has evolved hibernation to avoid this arduous journey. The Hopi people have known about the poorwill’s hibernation for a long time, naming it “the sleeping one.” Poorwills generally hibernate from October to March.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872068 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/painted-turtle-565974_1920-1024x685.jpg" alt="Close up of a painted turtles head" width="1024" height="685" />
<h3>Painted Turtles (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/painted-turtle-chrysemys-picta/">Chrysemys picta</a>)</h3>
Turtles are reptiles and therefore are cold-blooded. This means they need external sources of heat in order to keep their body temperature and metabolism high enough to move. When temperatures get low, they are no longer able to forage. There are hundreds of species of turtles ranging across most of the earth, both on land and in the water. Each species deals with this problem differently.

The painted turtle survives the winter by hibernating. They remain below the ice of their ponds for months. They will often burrow into the mud at the bottom of lakes, using it to insulate themselves from the cold. Though these turtles need oxygen to survive, they are able to absorb dissolved oxygen through their skin. Even in the absence of oxygen, these turtles can live for over 100 days in water that is only 3°C. They do this by reducing their metabolism by as much as 99%. The cold water makes these feats possible. The low temperatures act like a fridge to slow down damage and growth in this state.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872069" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872069 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Fat-tailed_Dwarf_Lemur_Kirindy_Madagascar-1024x768.jpg" alt="A fat-tailed dwarf lemur on a branch at night" width="1024" height="768" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/42244964@N03" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Frank Vassen</a>[/caption]
<h3>Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemurs (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/western-fat-tailed-dwarf-lemur-cheirogaleus-medius/"><i>Cheirogaleus medius</i>)</a></h3>
The fat-tailed dwarf lemur is <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">another lonely hibernator</a>. They are one of only three primates that are known to hibernate. All of these species are lemurs, which live only on Madagascar.

The fat-tail lemur is tiny, weighing an average of 160 grams (less than half a pound!) Their fat-tail is more than just cute. It is an essential part of hibernation. They store much of the energy they need for hibernation as fat in their tail!

They can hibernate for as long as 7 months! These lemurs do take breaks from this extended hibernation. They will become active for periods of six to 12 days during these extended hibernations.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872070 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/garter-snake-3546237_1920-1024x686.jpg" alt="A garter snake on a rock with lichen" width="1024" height="686" />
<h3>Garter Snakes (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-garter-snake-thamnophis-sirtalis/"><i>Thamnophis sirtalis</i></a>)</h3>
Snakes hibernation is called brumation, or wintering. As cold-blooded animals, they need to find a way to avoid the frost. The garter snake (and other species) form groups that hibernate together to protect each other from the cold.<strong> These groups are called “hibernacles” and <a href="https://animalsake.com/animals-that-hibernate" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sometimes have hundreds of snakes</a> twisted together.</strong> A mountain of slithering snakes is quite a sight! Stumbling upon a hibernacle could be quite the shock if you aren’t a fan of snakes.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872071 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bee-535247_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bumble bee on a white flower" width="1024" height="680" />
<h3>Bumblebees (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/small-garden-bumblebee-bombus-hortorum/"><em>Bombus spp.</em></a>)</h3>
Bumblebees hibernate in a way consistent with their eusocial nature. The majority of the colony dies off in the winter. The queen survives, eating the nectar collected by her workers. When the spring comes, she starts a new colony.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872072 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Lithobates_sylvaticus_wood_frog-1024x768.jpg" alt="A close up photo of a wood frog" width="1024" height="768" />
<h3>Wood Frogs (<i><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/wood-frog-lithobates-sylvaticus/">Lithobates sylvaticus</a>)</i></h3>
These tiny amphibians give a new meaning to the phrase “chilled to the bone.”<strong> They are literally <a href="https://www.kidactivities.net/animals-that-hibernate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">frozen and thawed every winter</a>!</strong> Unlike other hibernators, they don’t spend too much time trying to find a warm hole. Instead, they bury themselves in some leaves and let the cold make them into cute little ice cubes. When they thaw out in the spring they happily hop back out of their hiding places, good as new!

&nbsp;

Hibernation is a common adaptation to deal with the difficulties of winter. There animals from nearly every part of the animal kingdom that hibernate. It can even be argued that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-hibernate-underground/">plants hibernate</a>! Hibernation is also a fascinating phenomenon that may help us learn more about human metabolism.

&nbsp;

Which Are the Animals That Hibernate?

First of all, what is hibernation? Some animals give a...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



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<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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