If you’ve ever tried to chase frogs, you’ve probably noticed that they can breathe on air and seemingly don’t need to resurface for air if they’re underwater. But is that really true? How do amphibians breathe - and can they breathe underwater?

Let’s start out with the basics of amphibian biology, then dig into how their bodies support their unusual lifestyles.

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<h2>What is an amphibian?</h2>
The term “amphibian” actually describes a class of animals. They’re in the same domain (Animalia) and phylum (Chordata, meaning they have a backbone) as you and me, but that’s about where the taxonomic similarities end.

The Class Amphibia includes three extant orders (which are groups of families, which are in turn groups of genera, which are groups of species):

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<ul>
 	<li>Anura. This order includes all of our modern frogs and toads. Frogs and toads are short-bodied, tailless, carnivorous, four-legged, and “cold-blooded.” Frogs and toads are most numerous in tropical parts of the world.</li>
 	<li>Urodela. This order includes all of the world’s salamanders and newts. Salamanders and newts have long bodies, short noses, and short limbs that project out at right angles from their bodies. They’re most common in the northern hemisphere.</li>
 	<li>Apoda. This class includes the caecilians. Whereas you probably can picture a frog and a newt, you’ve probably never seen a caecilian. These blind, limbless amphibians look a lot like giant earthworms. These bizarre creatures live in the undergrowth and detritus of tropical forests.</li>
</ul>
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There are probably about 7,000 species of amphibians currently alive. 85-90% of these species are frogs. That number is, sadly, dropping quickly because amphibians are so vulnerable to pollution. Because amphibians breathe partially through their skin (and their eggs don’t have shells), they are very susceptible to pollutants. Amphibians are often considered an “indicator” group, as they often drop in numbers before other species start to struggle to survive.

Amphibians require water to reproduce because, unlike reptiles and birds, their eggs lack an impervious shell. Some species of amphibians have adaptations that allow them to lay their eggs elsewhere, but the vast majority of amphibians require freshwater for their eggs. Amphibians are hatched into a larval stage that is quite different from their adult form. They must go through metamorphosis to reach adulthood.

Adult amphibians need to keep their skin moist even when they’re on land, so they’re limited to moist environments. Likewise, amphibians generally don’t survive in saltwater. A few species can live in brackish water, but otherwise, amphibians are creatures of fresh water.

Because amphibians are cold-blooded (ectothermic), their metabolic rates are low and they don’t need to eat much. Many amphibian species have ears that can detect vibrations in the air or water, helping them find prey and avoid being eaten. 

Many amphibians have mucous glands on their skin - some of which are poisonous. This special skin is our main topic for the day because amphibians can also breathe through their skin. Let’s talk about the lungs and skin of amphibians and how they work together.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870255 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/axolotl-38317_640.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" />

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<h2>What type of respiratory system do amphibians have?</h2>
Most adult amphibians can breathe both through cutaneous respiration (through their skin) and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/buccal-pumping" target="_blank" rel="noopener">buccal pumping</a> - though some also retain gills as adults. Amphibians have primitive lungs compared to reptiles, birds, or mammals. This means that they deal with slow diffusion of oxygen through their blood.

Buccal pumping works by having the amphibian draw in air through its nostrils. The animal then closes its nostrils and pushes air through the lungs by contracting their throat (not using a diaphragm). 

Amphibians like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/titicaca-water-frog-telmatobius-culeus/#.XJlOLVNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Titicaca water frog</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/hellbender-cryptobranchus-alleganiensis/#.XJlOXlNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hellbender salamander</a> that live in cold, fast-moving streams may be able to breathe through mainly cutaneous respiration. Cutaneous respiration allows the animal to absorb water through their skin directly into their bloodstream. Wrinkles in the skin help some species absorb more oxygen because they simply have more skin to use.

Famously, the lungless salamanders have neither lungs nor gills - they just breathe through their skin!

Some aquatic salamanders (and all tadpoles) have gills and can breathe underwater thanks to them. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/axolotl-ambystoma-mexicanum/#.XJlMQVNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mexican axolotl</a>, for example, never loses its gills.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870256 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/tadpole-2243032_640.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" />

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<h2>Can all amphibians breathe underwater?</h2>
As larvae (tadpoles), all species of amphibian can breathe underwater. As they go through metamorphosis, though, some species of amphibian lose their ability to breathe entirely underwater. 

Breathing underwater isn’t easy for many species of amphibians, so they might need to surface for air if they’re working hard (escaping a predator, for example) whereas they can meet their oxygen needs underwater if they’re at rest. Many frogs and toads can even breathe through thick mud during hibernation.

Some species of terrestrial amphibian cannot breathe underwater, though they can hold their breath for hours as needed.

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How Do Amphibians Breathe?

If you’ve ever tried to chase frogs, you’ve probably noticed...

The alpine zone is a region or biome of that world with <a href="http://w3.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/alpine.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">high-altitude conditions</a>. It is an incredible ecozone to explore and learn from. However, anyone who has been caught in an unexpected wind gust or summer storm in the region knows that these environments can be super harsh places to live. While it might not be ideal for most Homo sapiens to call home, there are plenty of plants that survive and thrive under these conditions. Here are some alpine plants to look for when hiking through the region:

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870195 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/primula-catchfly-117427_960_720.jpg" alt="moss campion" width="960" height="720" />
<h2>Moss Campion</h2>
While hiking along your chosen high-country trail, you might come across what looks to be a soft, green cushion. Peppered with small, pink flowers, Moss Campion is an alpine plant found in the sandy, rocky mountains of the Rocky Mountains as well as the Alps of Switzerland. Moss cushion’s round shape protects the plant from harsh, drying winds. It only grows from about 5 - 15 cm tall. With the plant’s small stature, it is able to hug the ground for warmth and survive the freezings temps found in the alpine biome.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870197 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/wildflower-2578730_960_720.jpg" alt="columbine" width="960" height="640" />
<h2>Rocky Mountain Columbine</h2>
Find yourself hiking in Colorado? Well, the state’s official state flower (and an alpine plant) won’t be far away. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/rocky-mountain-columbine/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rocky Mountain Columbine’s</a> white and lavender flower’s petals pop out along the trails of Alpine country. Inside the flower’s white cup, you’ll see a splash of yellow color. This flower is especially attractive to hummingbirds, bees, and butterflies because of its strong aroma. 

However, as you pass this enchanting flower, you’ll have to leave it behind. Uprooting the plant while on public land <a href="https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol/colorado/state-flower/rocky-mountain-columbine" target="_blank" rel="noopener">is illegal</a>. And leaving the beautiful landscape (that you’re lucky enough to hike through) just as it is is pretty as you found it is hiking tip #1. Do the right thing, you know?  

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<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1870199 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bristlecone-pine-1044189_960_720.jpg" alt="bristlecone pine" width="960" height="642" /></h3>
<h2>Bristlecone Pine</h2>
The Bristlecone Pine, or Pinus longaeva is the oldest known tree species in the world. Found in the arid mountainous regions of the American West, the oldest trees can be found in the White Mountains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-california-mountain-lions-extinction/#.XJfHJGRKgy4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">California</a>. Their age? <a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Almost 5,000 years.</a> This ancient alpine tree can survive up to elevations of 11,000 - 12,000 feet. Living in such an extreme, harsh climate, it is free from competition from other plants, insects and disease. 

These pine trees are multi-trunked. Their appearance is twisted and rugged. The tree’s needles are a deep-yellow green with a blunt end and purple-red flowers.

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[caption id="attachment_1870203" align="alignnone" width="683"]<img class="wp-image-1870203 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Phacelia_sericea_4793-683x1024.jpg" alt="silky phacelia" width="683" height="1024" /> Photo by: Walter Siegmund[/caption]
<h2>Silky Phacelia</h2>
Silky Phacelia, or Phacelia sericae, is an easy-to-spot perennial species in Western North America. An upright stem of purple flowers grows out of a woody base. They look similar to a paintbrush. Its leaves are silvery green. You’ll see this alpine plant’s blooms from early May to the end of August.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870200 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bluebells-669490_960_720.png" alt="Bluebells" width="560" height="720" />
<h2>Mountain Bluebells</h2>
Mountain Bluebells, also known as Mertensia ciliata, are a mountainous perennial alpine plant that prefers almost <a href="https://extension.usu.edu/rangeplants/forbsherbaceous/mountain-bluebells" target="_blank" rel="noopener">constant moisture</a> and elevations of 5,000-12,000 feet. You’ll be able to identify the plant by its bell-like blossoms that bounce in the wind. These bell flowers are blue and often tinged with pink. The flowers grow in clusters and the plant itself can get up to 3 feet tall. Because of this plant’s love of water, you’re most likely to see it along streambanks, meadows and wet cliffs. 

The bluebell flowers are also edible. The plant is a favorite snack of sheep and goats - but it works for humans, too. you can delight in a taste whether cooked or raw. Cheyanne Indians used the plant to make a tea that <a href="https://extension.usu.edu/rangeplants/forbsherbaceous/mountain-bluebells" target="_blank" rel="noopener">increases milk flow</a> of nursing mothers. They also used the powdered root to relieve the itching symptoms of diseases like measles and smallpox, just one aspect of the many horrors that Europeans brought to the Americas. 

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[caption id="attachment_1870204" align="alignnone" width="442"]<img class="wp-image-1870204 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/CO_Plants_alpine_willow.jpg" alt="alpine willow " width="442" height="333" /> Photo by: <a href="http://shelledy.mesa.k12.co.us/">shelledy.mesa.k12.co.us</a>[/caption]
<h2>Alpine Willow</h2>
Alpine Willow, or Salix petrophilia, is a tiny, creeping willow found throughout the world. It has been identified on the northern coast of greenland, the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevadas <a href="https://calscape.org/Salix-petrophila-(Alpine-Willow)" target="_blank" rel="noopener">and parts of China</a>. This shrub thrives in rocky moorlands with tundra conditions and you can spot its shiny green leaves.

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[caption id="attachment_1870201" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870201 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/1024px-Polylepis_rugulosa_A._Yates.jpg" alt="Polylepsis " width="1024" height="768" /> photo by Alexander Yates[/caption]
<h2>Polylepsis Forest</h2>
Located in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/winter-paints-andes-mountains-snow-ice/#.XJfHTWRKgy4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andes Mountains</a>, polylepsis forests can be found in sheltered areas at elevations of up to 4,500 meters. They are evergreen trees with knarled-looking roots and actually belong to the rose family. The original forest can be found in the cold corners of Bolivia’s Western Cordillera, though less than <a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">10% of the original forest survives today</a>. This is particularly bad news since the loss of high-mountain forests such as these is considered the main cause of water scarcity. These forests are also home to three of South America's beloved, and endangered birds: Parrots, Toucans, and Royal Cinclodes. 

Communities native to the Andean mountains use the trees for medicine, food, rituals, and building materials. While the forests began disappearing as early as the time of Incan civilization, even more forest was lost when the conquistadores arrived with sheep and cattle. There are on-going efforts to purchase swaths of land back and restore these ancient forests. Doing so would <a href="http://armoniabolivia.org/programs/polylepis-forest-program/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">preserve this unique habitat</a> and help to alleviate water erosion.  

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870202 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Wild_Potato-vine-1024x683.jpg" alt="wild potato " width="1024" height="683" />
<h2>Wild Potato</h2>
Long before the Yukon Gold took over the world via McDonald’s french fry, wild potatoes stubbornly flourished in the Andean mountains. It was first cultivated by indigenous peoples near Lake Titicaca in Peru <a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">over 8,000 years ago</a>.  

If you spot one while hiking now - count yourself lucky. These delicious tubers are <a href="https://www.bioversityinternational.org/news/detail/conservation-concerns-for-endemic-potato-species-in-bolivia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">endangered</a> and can be tricky to find, preferring thickets and waste areas. A member of the nightshade family, there are over 199 species of wild potato. Scientists and activists work to register as many varieties as they can before these ancient strains are cross-cultivated and lost to time.

Alpine Plants To Look For When Hiking

The alpine zone is a region or biome of that...

Organisms in the jungle are in intense competition with each other. Natural selection from that competition has lead to the creation of some pretty wild plants and animals. It’s no wonder that you find the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mating-routines-birds-paradise/#.XJVgUhNKjOQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener">bizarre and colorful birds</a>, the biggest trees, and some of the most ferocious predators tucked away deep in Earth’s jungles. Along with some of the most beautiful and weirdest organisms in the world, jungles hide some of the most dangerous species too.

For example, jungles of Central and South America are home to the two most painful insect stings known to man: the bullet ant and the tarantula hawk. Tropical forests in India and Australia boast some of the deadliest snakes in the world. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taller-older-rainforests-drought/#.XJVgpxNKjOQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Amazon Rainforest</a> is home to notoriously scary animals like electric eels and piranhas. Of course, environments all over the world have their own dangers. But, jungles certainly seem to have more than their fair share of dangerous organisms.

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<h2>What about dangerous jungle plants?</h2>
Some of the scariest, most dangerous plants in the world are found in jungles. These plants will give any animal a run for their money in the battle for the most dangerous organism in the jungle.

Plants, like all living things, need to defend themselves from potential threats. Some of the more common defenses are sharp thorns, being covered in irritating oils, and getting a hungry animal (or human) sick from eating its leaves or fruits. These physical and chemical features plants use to ward off animals have become so extreme that humans should stay far, far away. So, here are the top 3 most dangerous jungle plants you should definitely look out for!

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<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1870150 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/castor-oil-plant.jpg" alt="castor oil plant fruit" width="1000" height="666" /></h3>
<h2>Castor Bean (Ricinus communis)</h2>
Castor bean is a common roadside plant that’s widespread throughout the tropics these days, but it’s originally from Eastern Africa. The weedy shrub can grow to be up to 12 meters (39 feet) tall and covers riverbanks and roadsides throughout its range.

A common product extracted from the seeds of this plant is castor oil. The liquid is used in food production as a preservative, as well as in medicine for a <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/castor-oil#section1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">variety of benefits</a>. Castor oil is derived from the seed of the castor bean plant, which ironically also contains one of the most deadly poisons known to man.

The toxin hidden inside castor bean seeds, called ricin, is notoriously dangerous. You may recognize the poison’s name from its infamous use in the TV series Breaking Bad. In the real world, this poison was successfully used in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi_Markov#Assassination" target="_blank" rel="noopener">assassination of a Bulgarian journalist</a>.

It goes without saying that one should avoid eating castor bean. Any part of the plant can potentially contain ricin, so consumption of the stem, leaves, and of course the fruit, is a no-go. Castor bean is a common ornamental plant. If you have curious children or pets, it’s best to keep this plant out of your garden, as just one seed is enough to kill a small child.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870151 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Couroupita_guianensis_fruits.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="600" />
<h2>Cannonball Tree (Couroupita guianensis)</h2>
In some jungles of Central and South America, a huge tree bears a fruit that could easily kill a human. The fruit isn’t poisonous, though. In fact, it’s perfectly edible and even has a variety of medicinal properties. The fruit is only dangerous when you combine it with gravity.

Cannonball tree has fruits that hang off the side of the trunk. Their size and weight make it easy to understand how this plant got its name! The heavy fruits disperse themselves by falling to the ground and breaking open which exposes the seeds inside. The outer shell is incredibly tough and thick, so a fruit needs to hit the ground with enough force to crack open. This is what makes the tree so dangerous. If you’re unlucky enough to be right under a cannonball tree when a fruit falls on your head, you’ll be out like a light.

This tree is in the same family as the <a href="https://forestsnews.cifor.org/51293/brazil-nuts-savior-seeds-of-the-amazon-basin?fnl=en" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Brazil nut tree</a> (Lecythidaceae). Brazil nuts trees have a very similar fruit, with similar dangers facing those who harvest the nuts from these trees. People who work with Brazil nuts and the cannonball tree like to wear hardhats when out in the forest, as to not get knocked out from the very plants they work with.

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[caption id="attachment_1870148" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img class="wp-image-1870148 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/5-theworstkind.jpg" alt="suicide plant researcher dendrocnide moroides" width="1000" height="772" /> Photo by: Marina Hurley[/caption]
<h2>Gympie-Gympie, or the Suicide Plant (Dendrocnide moroides)</h2>
If a plant has the common name “suicide plant,” you should probably stay as far away as possible. It’s in the same plant family as stinging nettle, Urticaceae. This plant is basically the bigger, badder sibling of stinging nettle. The aptly named suicide plant defends itself in the exact same way as nettles do. It’s covered in tiny hollow hairs that, when touched, pierce the skin. As if that wasn’t enough, it's actually able to inject a toxin underneath the skin. It's hairs work very similar to how a hypodermic needle works.

After contact with the plant, the pain that ensues is apparently one of the most excruciating experiences one can endure. Instant stinging and burning are the first two symptoms and become more intense as time goes on. The pain of a sting can last for hours, or even days. One man allegedly had to be tied to a hospital bed for three weeks due to the pain!

One of the worst things about this formidable plant is that the hairs are so fine and light that they often become airborne. Floating, stinging hairs can come into contact with the skin even if you’re standing far away. Worse yet, they can be inhaled and can really damage your throat and lungs. <a href="https://phys.org/news/2018-09-worst-kind-pain-stung-tree.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Researchers who study Gympie-Gympie</a> (yes, there are actually people who seek this plant out) opt to wear respirators and special rubber gloves to study it.

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Top 3 Dangerous Jungle Plants

Organisms in the jungle are in intense competition with each...

You may think of bees as annoying, stinging pests or cute, fluffy balls, but their most important role is as pollinators of food plants. There are <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">almost 20,000 different species of bees</a>, many of which provide essential services to humans and ecosystems. In the United States alone there are around 3,500 species.

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<h2>What Is a Bee?</h2>
Bees are a <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">group of animals</a> that include a handful of different families. The best-known group, Apidae, includes honey-bees and bumblebees and have a shared “hivemind.” These collective bees dominate most peoples image of bees. <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">However, 98% of bee species are naturally solitary</a>, living without a queen or hive. Many nest in the ground, others form biological plastics to keep their homes dry. The many adaptations of bees are impressive and contain an amazing amount of diversity.

Another common misconception <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/group/wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">is that wasps are bees</a>. Wasps share many characteristics with bees. Both wasps and bees are classified in the order Hymenoptera (along with ants.) There are 30,000 unique species of wasps. You can tell wasps from bees by their narrow waist that connects their abdomen to their thorax. Wasp nests are papery and made from wood fiber, compared to the waxy hives of bees.

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<h2>Are Bees Endangered?</h2>
In recent years, bee populations have been declining globally. Increased rates of colony collapse disorder, climate change, and other factors have contributed to these changes. These changes have sparked fear that bees may go extinct, leaving us without essential pollination services. As a result, researchers are even exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-robots-electronic-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">creating robotic replacements for bees</a>.

The American Fish and Wildlife Service has recognized the severe decline in some threatened wild bee populations. In 2016, seven species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-bee-species-put-endangered-species-list/">Hawaiian yellow-faced bees were placed on the endangered species list</a>. In 2017 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rusty-patched-bumble-bee-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the rusty patch bumble bee (Bombus affinis) was designated as an endangered species</a>. This was the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/u-s-lists-a-bumble-bee-species-as-endangered-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">first bumblebee species to receive this classification</a>. This provides these species some protection under the endangered species act.

In addition, <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=135293&amp;searchType=species" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists</a> 16 species of bees as vulnerable, 18 as endangered and 9 as critically endangered globally. However, these endangered species include American native bee species that are not on the endangered species list. Groups in California are <a href="https://newsroom.defenders.org/conservation-organizations-seek-protection-for-californias-endangered-bumble-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pushing to protect these species.</a>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869701 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bee-170551_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bee on a yellow flower" width="1024" height="680" />

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<h2>Why Do Bees Matter?</h2>
The great diversity among species of bees means that there is a great risk of losing species before we understand them. Many bee species have developed extremely complex and intricate relationships with plant species. These relationships provide pollination for plants that could otherwise never reproduce. With the loss of bees comes the loss of many plants.

The diversity and evolution of insects likely played a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollination-insects-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">major role in the evolution of flowering plants</a>. We could lose this diversity that has developed over hundreds of millions of years in just decades.

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<h2>Humans and Bees</h2>
Humans rely upon bees to pollinate our food, as well as the many flowering plants we grow for all sorts of uses. In the wild, bees play an essential role in keeping our natural lands healthy.

However, human impacts are a serious threat to many species of bees.

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<h2>The Biggest Bee in the Business</h2>
The western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most important pollinator for agriculture. These bees are cultivated on every continent except Antarctica. This species plays a huge role in the food supply. As a result, they are domesticated and bred at a large scale.

In recent years, colony collapse disorder has risen for unknown reasons, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-native-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">harming many apiarists and farmers</a>. Though honey bee populations have experienced substantial changes over the last few decades, they are not endangered.

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<h2>Are Pesticides Killing Bees?</h2>
One of the most likely culprits harming bee colonies is a common insecticide used on crops. Neonicotinoids are synthetic compounds derived from nicotine, a natural insecticide. These chemicals are often sprayed on seeds to prevent insects from eating them before they begin to grow. Studies have shown that these compounds may affect bees at extremely low concentrations. Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-pesticides-bee-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">these insecticides are neurotoxic to bees </a>and cause harm to colonies even in non-deadly doses.

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<h2>How Agriculture Harms Bee Diversity</h2>
The loss of bees is not enough to fully explain changes in pollination. Decreasing bee diversity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-losses-pollination-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">due to habitat fragmentation from agriculture may play a role</a>. In addition, many pesticides have non-lethal effects on bee behavior. This may cause bees to pollinate less effectively, and has the potential to change how our forests and grasslands are pollinated.

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<h2>Climate Change and Bees</h2>
Climate change also plays a significant role in threatening populations of bees and other pollinators. Changing seasonal trends in temperature, water availability, and season length can have significant impacts on flowering plants. Many of these species rely on these seasonal cues to know when to flower. Historically, pollinators have been in sync with these cycles. But when climate change disturbs these cycles, pollinators may emerge to find that all of the flowers have already bloomed, or that none are open yet. These complex relationships are difficult to predict, and changes to them ripple throughout the ecosystem.

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There are only a few bee species classified as endangered. However, the many sudden changes to their environment pose a real threat. The incredible importance of bees makes it essential that we find ways to protect them.

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Are Bees Endangered?

You may think of bees as annoying, stinging pests or...

Jasmine has been cultivated and prized by humans for millennia. The showy plant is famous for its beautiful white flowers and rich fragrance. Many people have heard of the flower, or maybe even have a friend named Jasmine. But, not many people know of the importance of this simple looking white bloom. We’ll go over some facts about jasmine and why this plant has so much significance in many different cultures.

Jasmine is a genus of plants we call Jasminum. There are actually well over 200 species of the plant, and they come in a variety of shapes, colors, and sizes. You can find them all over tropical and subtropical regions of Europe, Asia, and Oceania. But, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/species-diversity-greater-tropics-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">highest diversity</a> of jasmine is in southern and southeast Asia.

Although there is only one species of jasmine native to Europe, many different species now grow naturally in Meditteranean countries. Likewise, horticulturists and home gardeners alike cultivate the flowers throughout the Americas. It seems like everyone wants to fill their gardens with the delicate, scented flowers. What makes this plant so great?

&nbsp;
<h2>Fragrance</h2>
The main reason jasmine is so famous is its <a href="https://www.quora.com/Which-is-the-best-jasmine-perfume" target="_blank" rel="noopener">strong fragrance</a>. People adore the flower for its strong, sweet smell. Countless cultures worldwide include it in aromatic products like candles, perfumes, soaps, and lotions. You can even infuse your own products at home with the lovely scent of the white bloom.

Some types of jasmines are grown commercially, strictly for use in cosmetics and aromatherapy. Because it’s such a highly sought after scent, jasmine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/essential-oils-mosquito-repellent/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential oil</a> is one of the most expensive commodities in fragrance-based industries!

One common gardening practice is to plant jasmine close to windows, to allow the scented air to drift into your home during the day. It’s basically like having a natural air freshener right outside your house.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869299 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/jasminebuds.jpg" alt="jasmine buds tea" width="1000" height="594" />
<h2>Jasmine Tea</h2>
In many countries, <a href="https://www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/beverage/health-benefits-of-jasmine-tea.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">jasmine tea</a> is a popular drink. Tea makers start with a base of green or white tea. The flower buds of Arabian jasmine, Jasminum sambac, are steeped in the tea inside a special machine for up to six hours to flavor the beverage. Sometimes, brewers repeat this process multiple times to get the most flavor from the plant.

It’s important to note that the flowers and leaves of jasmine are not edible, so you shouldn’t simply brew the plant directly in water to make tea.

With that said, jasmine tea is a popular beverage in China, India, and many countries in the Middle East.

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1869298 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/jasminebasket.jpg" alt="jasmine flowers basket" width="1000" height="750" /></h3>
<h2>Culture</h2>
People in the Middle East and Asia hold jasmine to such high regard that they consistently feature the flowers in traditional ceremonies. Even the origin of the scientific name Jasminum has significance. The name comes from the Persian word “yasamin” which means “gift from God.” Only one of the most beautiful flowers could boast a name like that.

In many countries, jasmines evoke love and peace, so it often takes part in wedding ceremonies. It also symbolizes modesty; although jasmine flowers are small and simple, they produce a strong, delectable fragrance.

In 1993, Arabian jasmine was declared the national flower of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-new-species-beetle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Indonesia</a>. Although this decision was made relatively recently, the plant had been sacred in Indonesian culture since ancient times. Indonesian wedding ceremonies have traditionally used the flower buds in garlands and headdresses.

Like in Indonesia, jasmines are used in wedding ceremonies in Pakistan. The bride and groom wear garlands made of white jasmines and red roses to symbolize love and harmony. In Thailand, jasmine is a common symbol of motherhood. The Syrian city of Damascus is also called the <a href="http://peacockplume.fr/food-travel/damascus-city-jasmine" target="_blank" rel="noopener">City of Jasmine</a> and uses the flower as its symbol.

As you can see, people all over the world revere jasmine, and for very similar reasons.

&nbsp;
<h2>Cultivation</h2>
Because of its international popularity, jasmines have been cultivated for generations. While most types of the plant can only survive in tropical climates, there are a few cultivated varieties more suited for temperate regions.

So, if you’re dying to have one of the sweetest smelling flowers in your garden at home, there’s bound to be a type of jasmine that’s right for you!

&nbsp;

What's So Great About the Jasmine Flower?

Jasmine has been cultivated and prized by humans for millennia....

Any animal that thrives in the harsh desert environment is pretty hardcore. Though we think of endless sand and blazing sunlight, some of the world’s harshest deserts are actually cold and windy. The main characteristic of a desert is that it’s very, very dry.

But what about desert animals? What allows these hardcore animals to succeed?

&nbsp;
<h2>Special Adaptations of Desert Animals</h2>
Most desert animals employ at least a few tricks to help them succeed in these extreme environments. Common special adaptations of desert animals include:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Large ears to help disperse heat.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Smaller organs that require less oxygen and therefore lead to less evaporation during breathing.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Behavioral adaptations, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-are-some-animals-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">becoming nocturnal</a>.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Light colors that reflect rather than absorb the heat from the sun.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Burrowing helps animals escape the heat of the day.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Fat stores for emergency food and water storage.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Reducing (or eliminating) water wasted in urination, sweat, and tears. One species of gazelle (the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/dorcas-gazelle-gazella-dorcas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dorcas Gazelle</a>) actually excretes solid uric acid instead of liquid urine!</li>
</ul>
All desert animals have some special adaptations that help them succeed in this difficult environment. Most desert animals have adaptations that specifically help them reduce water loss. 

Here are some of the most hardcore animals that live in the desert.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869152 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/wilderness-1806943_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="gazelle" width="1024" height="682" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Hardcore Desert Animals</h2>
&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/desert-lark-ammomanes-deserti/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1. Desert Larks</a></h2>
These little birds don’t look like much, but they’re extremely tough. They enter burrows to cool themselves off with sand. The females often only lay one egg per year, to help reduce spent energy on chick-raising. Most surprisingly, though, these birds are able to allow their body temperature to soar to 45 degrees Celsius, much hotter than most other birds!

The Desert Lark is found in the deserts between Morocco and India. It largely eats seeds and insects.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_sand_gazelle" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2. Arabian Sand Gazelles</a></h2>
These gazelles have taken their desert adaptations to the extreme. Breathing is a great way to lose water. If you can reduce how much you exhale, you’ll reduce water loss. These gazelles shrink their hearts, livers, and stomachs during times of drought. This way, they need less oxygen and are able to lower respiratory rate. These gazelles are also unusual because they store fat in their brains, helping them get through lean times.

Arabian Sand Gazelles are native to the Arabian and Syrian Deserts. They’re quite endangered.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandgrouse" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">3. Sandgrouse</a></h2>
Male sandgrouses sure make dedicated parents! These birds have special belly feathers that are well-suited to soak up water. The males will fly up to 50 miles in a single day to soak their feathers, then carry water back to their mate and chicks. 

There are 16 different species of sandgrouse, which can be found primarily in central Asia.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869153 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/thorny-dragon-387217_640.jpg" alt="thorny devil hardcore desert animal" width="640" height="480" />
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/thorny-devil-moloch-horridus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">4. Thorny Devils</a></h2>
These little lizards are armed to the teeth - they’re covered in thick spines. The gaps between these thick spines actually help draw water in from the air, directing it with capillary action towards the eyes and mouth. 

These lizards are tough, surviving on nothing but ants in the brutal Australian Outback.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/dorcas-gazelle-gazella-dorcas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">5. Dorcas Gazelle</a></h2>
As we mentioned earlier, the Dorcas Gazelle has some pretty hardcore desert adaptations. These little gazelles don’t actually urinate. Rather than wasting water with liquid urine, their excretory systems have modified enough that they produce solid white pellets of uric acid, rather than giving up on water. As far as we know, this species is actually capable of living its whole life without drinking!

The Dorcas Gazelle can be found in the deserts of northern Africa. They are classified as endangered.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869154 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/pigeons-3268990_640.jpg" alt="pigeon most adaptable animal on earth" width="640" height="440" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What are the most adaptable animals?</h2>
While the above desert animals are specialists, there are other hardcore animals - the generalists. Sure, it’s tough to survive on the Himalayan Steppes or in Death Valley. But it’s also an incredible feat to survive and thrive around the world in a variety of different environments.

Adaptability isn’t about being a specialist - it’s about being able to make do. You’re probably already familiar with the world’s most adaptable animals because they’re the animals we see most around the world. We’ll focus this list on animals with spines, rather than the many insects and microbes that are also exceptionally tough.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/black-rat-rattus-rattus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rats</a></h2>
It’s hard to out-survive a rat. These critters are the ultimate survivalists, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-infested-worlds-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">invading the world’s islands</a> and succeeding in incredibly tough conditions. Rats are incredibly adaptable, making them potential<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/invasive-species-plants-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> invasive species</a> as well.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-pigeon-columba-livia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pigeons</a></h2>
The common pigeon is truly tough. These birds survive well in cities, farmland, and rocky outcroppings. They do well everywhere from the equator to the nearctic and palearctic. As an introduced species, pigeons are incredibly adaptable.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-climates-homo-sapiens-thrive/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Humans</a></h2>
That’s right - humans are probably the most adaptable beings on the planet. Sure, we need to use technology to survive. But we have that technology thanks to our incredibly adaptive brain (and opposable thumbs). Even before we had down jackets and air conditioning, humans could be found from the Amazon to the Himalaya, the Sahara to Patagonia.

&nbsp;

5 Hardcore Animals that Live in the Desert

Any animal that thrives in the harsh desert environment is...

When we’re first learning about evolution, we always hear about it the same way - survival of the fittest. But there’s also another pressure on the evolution of a species: sexual selection. So what happens when sexual selection and environmental pressure aren’t compatible?

Generally, most classroom examples focus on times when sexual selection and environmental pressure can dovetail into the same explanation. For example, female birds prefer to mate with brightly colored males because healthy feathers mean the male’s diet is good, which means he’s got good genes, which means his genes will help her offspring survive. Simple enough, right?

But, especially when we’re looking at birds, things quickly start to get more complicated. What about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/indian-peafowl-pavo-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">peacock’s</a> tail? Surely all that tail isn’t really necessary to signal environmental fitness, right? While the vibrant colors of a peacock <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peacock-feathers-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">aren’t actually that obvious</a> to its dichromat predators, the tail still seems like an awful lot of energetic effort.
<h2>The Club-Winged Manakin and Decadence</h2>
For an even murkier example, let’s look at the club-winged manakin. I first heard about this bird thanks to an excellent Radiolab episode called <a href="https://www.wnycstudios.org/story/beauty-puzzle" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Beauty Puzzle</a>, which got me thinking about this topic.

The male club-winged manakin courts the female by whacking his wings together at an astonishing 107 times per second. Apparently, the females like the sound and will mate with males who can do it well. The problem? In order to effectively make that sound, the club-winged manakins need solid wingbones.

<iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tSHjhCN6NC0" width="560" height="315" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe>

Let that sink in - a flighted bird with solid wingbones.

The club-winged manakin now has slow, clumsy flight. While the trees in the Amazon Rainforest are dense enough to allow some hopping, these birds are at a serious disadvantage. Since the bones become solid while the birds are tiny embryos (before they’re male or female), both males and females have this disadvantage.

According to scientists, this phenomenon is known as “decadence” - the females are choosing beauty that actually harms the survival prospects of their own young.

But this flies in the face of the basic tenet of evolution: evolution is about survival of the fittest. And yet, these birds are evolving a handicap in the name of sexual selection.

There’s nothing, in theory, to stop this trend from pushing the club-winged manakin to extinction.

Many high school biology teachers just tell you about adaptive evolution - pretty feathers and showy colors exist because they signal that the showy male is extra-healthy.

But in the club-winged manakin, we have at least one clear counter-example. Biologists seem uncomfortable with the concept that some aspects of evolution can be driven by pleasure rather than function.
<h2>Survival of the Sexiest?</h2>
It is arguably impossible to know if the peacock’s tail really is a great signal of health, or if the<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/archbolds-bowerbird-archboldia-papuensis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> bower bird’s</a> bower-building signals his fitness. 

We can’t ask the females if they like the looks of a male because of his beauty or because he seems fit. And even if we could, perhaps the females perceive something as pretty because it signals fitness. 

We don't know for sure.

But we can say that there is at least one example where something that the females find “sexy” is a downright disadvantage. There is seemingly no defense to the claim that the solid wingbones of a club-winged manakin resulted from survival of the fittest - it appears to be survival of the sexiest.

Evolution: Survival of the Fittest Versus "Decadence"

When we’re first learning about evolution, we always hear about...

Have you ever spent too much time in the sun, only to find yourself as red as a lobster the next day? The discomfort of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunscreen-protectio/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">bad sunburn</a> can last days and might be one of the worst setbacks to enjoying a relaxing weekend at the beach.

Luckily for us, there’s a plant that can help! That plant is aloe vera, one of the most widely used medicinal plants out there. Before we dive into how to use it, let’s go over the basics and learn some info about the plant itself.

The aloe vera plant shares its common name with its scientific name. The genus Aloe actually contains over 500 species! We’re going to be talking about the species Aloe vera, which is probably the best known and widely used species in the group. Aloe vera is a succulent, meaning it holds water in its leaves that it uses to stay hydrated. This is important in the dry climates of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saudi-arabia-solar-power-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sunny Arabian peninsula</a> where it's native. The spiny plant stores its water in a gooey Jell-O-like substance in the leaves. This gel is the medicine that’s used by humans. The gel is 96% water, with the rest consisting of beneficial vitamins and minerals.

People have been using aloe vera for millennia. It’s one of the most important medicinal plants. It's used in traditional treatments, modern cosmetics, and even food! Here’s how to use the “wonder plant.”

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1868565 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/aloe-gel.jpg" alt="Aloe vera leaf gel" width="1000" height="666" /></h3>
<h2>Medicine</h2>
To get rid of that painful sunburn, aloe vera gel is the go-to treatment. Simply spreading the gel on your skin provides instant relief, and reduces the amount of time it takes to heal. There are loads of over-the-counter aloe vera based lotions you can buy at a store, but nothing beats using the gel straight from the plant.

If you have a plant handy and don’t mind removing an entire leaf (don’t kill the plant!), you can use the gel directly from the plant.
<ol>
 	<li>Cut the leaf open and you’ll have more aloe vera gel than you can handle.</li>
 	<li>Once opened, let the yellow latex ooze out of the plant. This latex isn’t normally used.</li>
 	<li>Remove the gel from the outside of the leaf with a knife or your hands, being careful of the spines on the leaves.</li>
 	<li>Cut the gel into cubes that are easier to work with.</li>
 	<li>Afterward, rub the gel on your burnt skin and feel the soothing sensation of the plant.</li>
 	<li>Save the rest in a container for later, preferably in the fridge. Cold aloe vera gel soothes burnt skin even better.</li>
</ol>
There are plenty of recipes that can teach you how to make different types of lotions and cosmetics with aloe vera gel. When used in different ways, aloe vera not only helps with burns but can help clear acne, heal rashes, and improve general skin health!

&nbsp;
<h2>Food</h2>
Some juices and smoothies use <a href="https://helloglow.co/edible-aloe-recipes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">aloe vera gel as an ingredient</a>. The taste of the plant is incredibly bitter, so make sure you use enough sugar to balance out the taste! Many stores carry pure, pre-sweetened aloe vera juice that can be incredibly refreshing on a hot day.

Warning! If you have an allergy to onions or garlic, it’s probably not a good idea to consume aloe vera. You should ask a doctor before eating it.

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1868566 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Aloe_vera_A.jpg" alt="Aloe vera ornamental garden" width="800" height="532" /></h3>
<h2>Ornament</h2>
Aloe vera plants are incredibly hardy, heat and drought resistance plants! They make <a href="https://www.almanac.com/plant/aloe-vera" target="_blank" rel="noopener">great ornamentals</a> for homes and gardens, largely thanks to their tall flowering structures. Plus, they come in a variety of shapes and colors. Although not all of them are the species Aloe vera, most make great potted plants.

When grown in the right conditions, aloe vera will thrive and constantly put out new leaves which can eventually be harvested. Good care combined with managing the harvesting means a potted aloe vera plant can provide you with gel-filled leaves for multiple years.

Do you use the aloe vera plant? Let us know how below!

&nbsp;

How To Use the Aloe Vera Plant

Have you ever spent too much time in the sun,...

Elephants are the largest land animal on earth. They’re also incredibly intelligent, caring, and have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-unique-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">distinct personalities</a>. Many can even recognize our faces! We know some of them by name: Horton, Dumbo, and Tarzan’s friend Tantor. In the real world, elephants are colossal, charismatic animals that are vital to the savannas of Africa and the dense jungles of India and Indonesia.

Although they seem to be untouchable by other animals because of their sheer size, elephants face many threats on a day-to-day basis. Perhaps the most significant of these threats is habitat loss. Big animals need a lot of space, and these massive mammals are no exception. While humans expand development and cut down forests, elephants have less and less space to roam around in.

Another grave threat to elephants is poaching. Elephant ivory is prized in certain parts of the world, and some people go through great lengths to harvest the valuable material. Unfortunately for the elephants, this means hunting. More often than not, poachers strip the animal of its tusks and leave it for dead.

With such huge threats to this animal, we have to ask:

&nbsp;
<h3>Are elephants endangered?</h3>
<h3>Short answer: Yes.</h3>
&nbsp;

Of course, the answer to this question is much more complex than a simple yes or no. So, let’s break it down by species. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), There are 2 distinct species: the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). We’ll use information from the IUCN’s “<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Red List</a>.” They are the world’s leading authority on determining whether or not an animal or plant is considered endangered.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868321 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/African-Elephant.jpg" alt="african elephant" width="1000" height="750" />
<h2>African Elephants:</h2>
The African elephant is listed as “Vulnerable” by the IUCN in 2019. What does “vulnerable” really mean here? This classification is one step in the right direction from being endangered. Technically speaking, as of right now the African elephant is not "endangered." However, a little over 20 years ago in 1996, the African elephant was considered endangered by the IUCN. Since then, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-recovering-poaching/#" target="_blank" rel="noopener">its population has been increasing</a>, causing the animal to come out of endangerment.

This is, of course, great news! African elephant populations are slowly growing, thanks to successful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/safe-place-elephants-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">conservation initiatives in Africa</a>. Lots of parks and reserves have been established, and many governments have cracked down on poaching.

However, we shouldn’t be complacent just because African elephants are doing better now than they were 20 years ago. They constantly face increasing pressure from illegal hunting and other conflicts with humans.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868322 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Asian-Elephant.jpg" alt="asian elephant" width="1000" height="663" />
<h2>Asian Elephants:</h2>
Unlike its African relative, the Asian elephant is "endangered" according to the IUCN in 2019. The threats that face this elephant are pretty much the same as those of the African species. However, deforestation and harvesting timber are both more rampant in Asian countries than in Africa. This leads to <a href="https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/human-impacts/habitat-fragmentation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">habitat fragmentation</a>, which is when one large forest becomes several smaller, unconnected patches. If you’re an elephant, it’s nearly impossible to travel from patch to patch.

Aside from the threats of habitat loss, Asain elephant populations are declining. Unfortunately, it’s really hard to track populations and we don't know much about them. What we do know is that they occupy only about 10% of their historic range, and each population is small and isolated.

&nbsp;
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
You don’t have to be the next Jane Goodall or David Attenborough to help save animals. There are a couple simple things any average Joe (or Jane!) can do to help elephant conservation.

First, don’t buy ivory. This seems like a no-brainer, but it's surprising how much ivory makes it into the hands of ill-informed tourists. Don’t buy any products from stores or street vendors that sell ivory. Sometimes sellers claim that a souvenir is from an old stash or an antique - but this is usually false. Purchasing any ivory, antique or not, adds more fuel to the fire and strengthens the market for the illegal material.

Second, if you buy products sourced from Africa like coffee or wood, make sure they are fair-trade. The <a href="https://us.fsc.org/en-us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Forest Stewardship Council</a> certifies products from Africa and Asia that don’t negatively impact elephants.

Third, you can donate directly to conservation organizations! <a href="https://www.earth.com/take-action-save-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Check out our top picks.</a>

What else can we do to help save elephants? If you have any ideas, or other thoughts about elephants, let us know in the comments!

&nbsp;

Are Elephants Endangered?

Elephants are the largest land animal on earth. They’re also...

&nbsp;

Staying awake at night and sleeping during the day is relatively common in the animal world. While this seems pretty strange to most humans (except for some of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ancient ancestors</a>), there are plenty of advantages that make being nocturnal a smart evolutionary move.

Of course, it’s not that animals decide one day to switch their sleeping patterns. And truthfully, it’s almost impossible to truly say why a given trait arose. Here are some of our best theories for why some animals are nocturnal.

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Are Some Animals Nocturnal?</h2>
<ul>
 	<li>There are fewer predators out at night. The vast majority of nocturnal animals are birds, insects, and mammals, not reptiles. A leading theory for why animals are nocturnal is that this trait evolved as a way to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammals-nocturnal-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">avoid being eaten by dinosaurs</a> and other top predators back when mammals and birds started to expand as groups.</li>
 	<li>It’s easier to avoid detection at night. While many nocturnal animals have heightened senses of smell and hearing, it’s still a bit easier to avoid detection at night. The darkness helps both predators and prey move around a bit more stealthily. Prey animals use the cover of night to forage more safely, while predators capitalize on the same darkness to ambush prey more easily. </li>
 	<li>There are prey animals out at night. If you’re a predator who specializes in eating small mammals, there’s no better time to be outside than nighttime. Predators are generally more successful if they hunt while their prey is awake and mobile - so many predators hunt at night to match their prey’s schedule. </li>
 	<li>There’s less competition at night. Some nocturnal species likely developed this schedule as a way to reduce conflict over food sources. If everyone else in the neighborhood heads to the watering hole and the grazing field in the morning, perhaps it’s helpful for you to go during the off times.</li>
 	<li>Nighttime is cooler. Many desert animals are nocturnal for the evident reason that this helps them avoid the heat of midday. In scorching-hot parts of the world, being nocturnal is simply a good move. Water conservation is also an important aspect of avoiding the heat of the day. Moving around when it’s cool and dark avoids overheating and wasting precious water.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Many nocturnal animals are probably active at night for a combination of these reasons. Evolution is a slow process, and it’s almost impossible to say exactly which pressures caused each species to evolve in a given direction.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="wp-image-1867876 alignnone" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/tree-736877_640-300x200.jpg" alt="nocturnal cat" width="200" height="133" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Special Adaptations of Nocturnal Animals</h2>
Nocturnal animals also have special adaptations to help them get around in the dark. Unlike humans, they generally don’t rely on their sight as their primary sense. Instead, they get around thanks to sensitive ears, whiskers (to sense nearby objects), and smell. 

Of course, many nocturnal animals also have large eyes that are specially adapted to excel in low-light conditions. This is especially true for birds and nocturnal primates, which need to be able to see branches to land. Some animals, like cats, can see well both in daytime and at nighttime. Others, such as bushbabies and bats, have poor eyesight in the light.

&nbsp;
<h2>Threats to Nocturnal Animals</h2>
Light pollution is a huge threat to nocturnal animals. Lights from cities cause changes in migration patterns and can confuse animals. Light pollution is a major problem for sea turtles and nocturnal migratory birds because they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nocturnal-creatures-starlight-compass/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">use starlight as a compass</a>.

Human activity and disturbance are also pushing some animals to become more nocturnal. Read more about that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-mammals-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.

Climate change is also making some areas of the world much hotter and drier than they used to be, potentially pressuring some animals to become more nocturnal or crepuscular (preferring to be active at dawn and dusk) than they are currently.

&nbsp;

Why Are Some Animals Nocturnal?

&nbsp; Staying awake at night and sleeping during the day...

The jade plant, otherwise known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/crassula-ovata-crosbys-compact/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cassula Ovata</a>, is a popular <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=2547" target="_blank" rel="noopener">succulent shrub</a> native to South Africa. 

In their native habitat or other similarly arid environments, they can grow to up to 10 feet tall. Similar to cactus and aloe plants, jade has evolved to retain water, acting as a reservoir. 

&nbsp;

[gallery size="medium" ids="1868062,1868063,1868061"]

&nbsp;

Along with a few other species, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/crassula-ovata-sunset-jade/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">jade plant</a> is often referred to as a “money plant” and is seen as an emblem of good luck, prosperity, and wealth. These plants (if taken care of properly) also live for delightfully long periods of time. Because <a href="https://www.almanac.com/plant/jade-plants#" target="_blank" rel="noopener">they are so resilient</a>, they make for great gifts, often handed down from family members or friends for years to come. 

Other popular names for an already-popular plant include Dollar Plant, Friendship Tree, Pink Joy or Lucky Plant. It is also considered a traditional gift for businesses, and many businesses place these plants in an entrance, in order to <a href="https://worldofsucculents.com/jade-plant-for-good-luck-prosperity-and-friendship/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">usher in prosperity and luck</a>. While it is usually cultivated for its beauty, there are <a href="https://www.leaf.tv/articles/medicinal-properties-of-the-jade-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">folk remedies </a>that enlist the jade plant for wart removal, naussa, epilepsy, diarrhea and intestinal purges, though these uses are marginal. What’s not to love?

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868064 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/jade-476900_960_720.jpg" alt="jade plant" width="960" height="638" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Growing a Jade Plant</h2>
Jade plants aren’t hard to find in garden shops, boutique stores or even online. But like many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/succulents-efficient-water/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">succulents</a>, jade plants are easy to propagate from an already established jade plant, which can be a fun way to extend the impact of this already <a href="https://www.almanac.com/plant/jade-plants#" target="_blank" rel="noopener">long-lived</a> plant. All you need is a leaf or a cutting to get started.

Ideally, you will cut a 2-3 inch stem from a plant. It’s best if the cutting you select has at least two leaves. Leave the cutting in a warm place for a couple days. You’ll notice <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/crassula-ovata-sunset-jade/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a callous</a> forming around the cut end - this is a good thing! It will protect your new jade plant from rot while encouraging rooting.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868065 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/jade-plant-1671461_960_720.jpg" alt="jade plant" width="960" height="637" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Potting</h2>
Find (or buy) some well-draining potting mix and a friendly, appropriately sized pot for your jade baby to call home. It’s best if the soil is slightly moist, but too much water might cause problems. Then:
<ul>
 	<li>Take your leaf cutting and place it horizontally upon the soil. </li>
 	<li>Be sure to cover the cut end of the stem with some soil. </li>
 	<li>If you’re working with a taller stem, you can place it vertically and use items like toothpicks and string to prop the stem up. </li>
 	<li>Find a warm, sunny, comfortable place for the newly potted jade, but HOT TIP, do not water the plant quite yet. </li>
</ul>
After a week or two, your jade plant will start sending out roots. You can gently poke and prod the plant to make sure the process is taking place. Once the plant appears to be firmly rooted, water your jade plant generously. Do so carefully - you don’t want to disturb the new roots! As days and weeks pass, let the soil dry out between waterings and make sure the plant is well established before placing the pot in intense, direct sunlight.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868066 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/jade-plant-1633675_960_720.jpg" alt="jade plant" width="946" height="720" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Care</h2>
Jade plants need at least 4 hours of sun each day to be healthy. Once they’re established, they can handle direct sunlight well. With this in mind, scope out a sunny spot in a south-facing window if you can. Your jade plant will thrive. Consider fertilizing it 3-4 time a year. Be sure to move it away from frozen windowsills or drafty areas in the winter. 

When watering your jade plant, make sure the top layer of soil is dry to the touch. Then, water the base of the plant’s stem, as excessive splashes on the leaves might cause rot. 

And remember, jade plants are resilient. Often, people make the mistake of watering this succulent way too much and then wonder why the plant shriveled up and died. In some ways, low-maintenance plants are harder as we convince ourselves we should be doing more. Even in winter, with the dry environment of heated homes, the jade plant may start to drop leaves, but this is because the plant is going dormant, not because the plant is dying. 

This low-maintenance approach should be applied to re-potting as well. It turns out jade plants sort of enjoy a tight tuck into their pot. No need to stress about finding bigger, better pots for the plant too often. Just be sure to change the soil <a href="https://www.gardenista.com/posts/gardening-101-crassula-ovata-jade-plant-care-growing-guide/">every three years or so</a> (and remember to fertilize!)

Have any wisdom to share on how best to care for a jade plant? Opinions on why people love the jade plant so much? Please let us know below.

&nbsp;

Why Do People Love The Jade Plant?

The jade plant, otherwise known as Cassula Ovata, is a...

The History of Earth in Exactly 2000 Words

The history of Earth is obviously a ginormous topic. Really,...

If you’re looking for a unique and interesting houseplant, it’s hard to get more unique than a carnivorous plant. Unlike other plants, carnivorous plants need to “digest” animal or insect matter to get all of their nutrients. Most carnivorous plants are native to areas with extremely poor soil where they can’t get all the nutrients that they need.

Carnivorous plants attract insects with bright colors and sweet nectars. When the unsuspecting insect lands in the plant, the plant is able to slowly digest it and extract nutrients.

But keeping a carnivorous plant alive is about more than providing it with so-so soil and a few bits of hamburger. Let’s look through the logistics of keeping a carnivorous plant at home.

&nbsp;
<h2>Can carnivorous plants survive indoors?</h2>
Yes, carnivorous plants can survive indoors. But they’re a bit more challenging than your average houseplant. If you’re a beginner or tend to kill your plants quickly, you might want to get a bit more practice before attempting to keep a carnivorous plant alive.

Most carnivorous plants evolved in humid, boggy environments with low-quality soil. You’ll need to provide them with:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Unique, moist soil that’s highly acidic - not just normal potting soil. Make your own by combining sand and peat moss in equal parts.
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Well-draining but moist soil is a must. Gravel at the base of the pot or terrarium can help keep your plant well-drained.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">High humidity. You’ll be most successful if you provide a humid environment by putting the plant inside of a terrarium with some air flow via a gap in the lid.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Bright but indirect sunlight. Be careful to avoid overheating the plants if you keep them inside a terrarium.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Purified water to avoid giving the plant water that’s too alkaline or full of minerals.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Food - usually in the form of insects. Your carnivorous plant should get a variety of insects to balance out the nutrients. Hamburger and animal meat is too high in protein. You can release crickets or other store-bought insects into the terrarium.</li>
</ul>
It might seem odd that soil can be too rich for a plant. But because carnivorous plants evolved to deal with acidic, nutrient-deficient soils, that’s what they need today! Fertilizer or rich soil can kill your plant.

Some carnivorous plants are easier to grow indoors than others. It’s best to start with the easy ones first, then add the more challenging ones to your greenhouse as you go.

&nbsp;
<h2>Which carnivorous plant is the easiest to grow?</h2>
Most beginners start out with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/dionaea-muscipula/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Venus flytrap</a>. This plant is the best-known carnivorous plant, with distinctive “jaws” that clamp shut on insects when they try to sample the plant’s nectar.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869913 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/venus-flytrap-595235_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="venus flytrap carnivorous plants to keep at home" width="1024" height="682" />

&nbsp;

The problem is, Venus flytraps aren’t actually all that easy. That’s because in order to stay healthy, they need to go through dormancy ever year. Venus flytraps evolved in a temperate climate where they basically hibernate for several months per year.

If you’re keeping your Venus flytraps indoors and don’t let them go dormant during the year, they’ll die much younger (2-3 years in general). If you have a cool area of the house that stays between 35 and 55 degrees Fahrenheit, you can put your plants there for the winter. Be sure to introduce them to dormancy gradually, just like if they were in the wild. They’ll still need some sunlight. If you don’t have a space for that, it’s hard to properly care for the Venus flytrap.

Instead of trying to work through dormancy as a first-time carnivorous plant owner, consider bringing home one of these easy carnivorous plants instead:

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869916 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/pitcher-plant-362370_640.jpg" alt="pitcher plant carnivorous plant you can keep at home" width="640" height="436" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Asian Pitcher Plants</h3>
These plants do best with warm daytime temperatures, so they often do best on patios or other toasty parts of the house. 70 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit is perfect. They like bright, indirect light and do very well in hanging baskets.

&nbsp;
<h3>Bladderworts</h3>
These gorgeous little carnivorous plants are perfect for your home. <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/utricularia-chrysantha/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bladderworts</a> have delicate white flowers and can happily grow inside teacups. You can get terrestrial or aquatic bladderworts, whichever you prefer! These hardy little plants aren’t picky about soil or drainage - they just like to have plenty of light. 

These plants have some of the most complex feeding systems of all plants, so you won’t actually be feeding them like other carnivorous plants. They eat microscopic nematodes in their soil.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869917 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/butterwort-54175_640.jpg" alt="butterwort carnivorous plant" width="640" height="480" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Butterworts</h3>
These small plants look like succulents but are actually carnivorous plants. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/pinguicula-orchidioides/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mexican butterwort</a> is the most common species around. It actually does go through dormancy, but it doesn’t need much special care during that time - you just have to stop watering and feeding it during the winter, and it will be fine.

Butterworts like indirect sunlight and very well-draining soil. Your potting mix should be closer to ¾ sand or lava rock to ¼ peat, rather than the usual 50/50 mix for other carnivorous plants.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869918 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/plant-142084_640.jpg" alt="sundew carnivorous plant" width="640" height="426" />

&nbsp;
<h3>Tropical Sundews</h3>
Tropical sundew species don’t need to go through dormancy (the temperate species do need dormancy, so steer clear if you’re not equipped for that). <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/drosera-aliciae/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Alice sundews</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/plants/drosera-capensis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cape sundews</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/drosera-binata/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">fork-leaved sundews</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/drosera-spatulata/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">spoon-leaf sundews</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/drosera-adelae/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lance-leaf sundews</a> all require the same, easy-growing conditions. You can even grow several different species in the same container!

Sundews love bright light and lots of clean water. Feed no more than two branches once per week. Feed them spiders, ants, crickets, and flies. Some carnivorous plant growers also feed their plants with wet betta fish pellets with great results. Read more about <a href="http://thecarnivoregirl.com/carnivorous-plants-for-beginners-unkillable-sundews" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sundew care here</a>.

These carnivorous plants are perfect for keeping at home. They're easy, they don't require dormancy, and they're beautiful.

&nbsp;

Carnivorous Plants You Can Keep at Home

If you’re looking for a unique and interesting houseplant, it’s...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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