<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you’ve ever tried to chase frogs, you’ve probably noticed that they can breathe on air and seemingly don’t need to resurface for air if they’re underwater. But is that really true? How do amphibians breathe - and can they breathe underwater?</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Let’s start out with the basics of amphibian biology, then dig into how their bodies support their unusual lifestyles.</span>

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<h2><strong>What is an amphibian?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The term “amphibian” actually describes a class of animals. They’re in the same domain (Animalia) and phylum (Chordata, meaning they have a backbone) as you and me, but that’s about where the taxonomic similarities end.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The Class Amphibia includes three extant orders (which are groups of families, which are in turn groups of genera, which are groups of species):</span>

&nbsp;
<ul>
 	<li><b>Anura. <span style="font-weight: 400;">This order includes all of our modern frogs and toads. Frogs and toads are short-bodied, tailless, carnivorous, four-legged, and “cold-blooded.” Frogs and toads are most numerous in tropical parts of the world.</span></b></li>
 	<li><strong>Urodela.</strong> <span style="font-weight: 400;">This order includes all of the world’s salamanders and newts. Salamanders and newts have long bodies, short noses, and short limbs that project out at right angles from their bodies. They’re most common in the northern hemisphere.</span></li>
 	<li><strong>Apoda.</strong> <span style="font-weight: 400;">This class includes the caecilians. Whereas you probably can picture a frog and a newt, you’ve probably never seen a caecilian. These blind, limbless amphibians look a lot like giant earthworms. These bizarre creatures live in the undergrowth and detritus of tropical forests.</span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-weight: 400;">There are probably about 7,000 species of amphibians currently alive. 85-90% of these species are frogs. <strong>That number is, sadly, dropping quickly because amphibians are so vulnerable to pollution.</strong> Because amphibians breathe partially through their skin (and their eggs don’t have shells), they are very susceptible to pollutants. Amphibians are often considered an “indicator” group, as they often drop in numbers before other species start to struggle to survive.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Amphibians require water to reproduce because, unlike reptiles and birds, their eggs lack an impervious shell. Some species of amphibians have adaptations that allow them to lay their eggs elsewhere, but the vast majority of amphibians require freshwater for their eggs. Amphibians are hatched into a larval stage that is quite different from their adult form. They must go through metamorphosis to reach adulthood.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Adult amphibians need to keep their skin moist even when they’re on land, so they’re limited to moist environments. Likewise, amphibians generally don’t survive in saltwater. A few species can live in brackish water, but otherwise, amphibians are creatures of fresh water.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Because amphibians are cold-blooded (ectothermic), their metabolic rates are low and they don’t need to eat much. Many amphibian species have ears that can detect vibrations in the air or water, helping them find prey and avoid being eaten. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Many amphibians have mucous glands on their skin - some of which are poisonous. This special skin is our main topic for the day because amphibians can also breathe through their skin. Let’s talk about the lungs and skin of amphibians and how they work together.</span>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870255 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/axolotl-38317_640.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" />

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<h2><strong>What type of respiratory system do amphibians have?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most adult amphibians can breathe both through cutaneous respiration (through their skin) and </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/buccal-pumping" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">buccal pumping</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> - though some also retain gills as adults. Amphibians have primitive lungs compared to reptiles, birds, or mammals. This means that they deal with slow diffusion of oxygen through their blood.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Buccal pumping works by having the amphibian draw in air through its nostrils. The animal then closes its nostrils and pushes air through the lungs by contracting their throat (not using a diaphragm). </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Amphibians like the </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/titicaca-water-frog-telmatobius-culeus/#.XJlOLVNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Titicaca water frog</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/hellbender-cryptobranchus-alleganiensis/#.XJlOXlNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">hellbender salamander</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> that live in cold, fast-moving streams may be able to breathe through mainly cutaneous respiration. Cutaneous respiration allows the animal to absorb water through their skin directly into their bloodstream. Wrinkles in the skin help some species absorb more oxygen because they simply have more skin to use.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Famously, the lungless salamanders have neither lungs nor gills - they just breathe through their skin!</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Some aquatic salamanders (and all tadpoles) have gills and can breathe underwater thanks to them. The </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/axolotl-ambystoma-mexicanum/#.XJlMQVNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Mexican axolotl</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, for example, never loses its gills.</span>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870256 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/tadpole-2243032_640.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Can all amphibians breathe underwater?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">As larvae (tadpoles), all species of amphibian can breathe underwater. As they go through metamorphosis, though, some species of amphibian lose their ability to breathe entirely underwater. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Breathing underwater isn’t easy for many species of amphibians, so they might need to surface for air if they’re working hard (escaping a predator, for example) whereas they can meet their oxygen needs underwater if they’re at rest. Many frogs and toads can even breathe through thick mud during hibernation.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Some species of terrestrial amphibian cannot breathe underwater, though they can hold their breath for hours as needed.</span>

&nbsp;

How Do Amphibians Breathe?

If you’ve ever tried to chase frogs, you’ve probably noticed...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The alpine zone is a region or biome of that world with <a href="http://w3.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/alpine.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">high-altitude conditions</a>.</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> It is an incredible ecozone to explore and learn from. However, anyone who has been caught in an unexpected wind gust or summer storm in the region knows that these environments can be super harsh places to live. While it might not be ideal for most <em>Homo sapiens</em> to call home, there are plenty of plants that survive and thrive under these conditions. <strong>Here are some alpine plants to look for when hiking through the region:</strong></span>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870195 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/primula-catchfly-117427_960_720.jpg" alt="moss campion" width="960" height="720" />
<h2><b>Moss Campion</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">While hiking along your chosen high-country trail, you might come across what looks to be a soft, green cushion. Peppered with small, pink flowers, Moss Campion is an alpine plant found in the sandy, rocky mountains of the Rocky Mountains as well as the Alps of Switzerland. Moss cushion’s round shape protects the plant from harsh, drying winds. It only grows from about 5 - 15 cm tall. With the plant’s small stature, it is able to hug the ground for warmth and survive the freezings temps found in the alpine biome.</span>

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&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870197 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/wildflower-2578730_960_720.jpg" alt="columbine" width="960" height="640" />
<h2><b>Rocky Mountain Columbine</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Find yourself hiking in Colorado? Well, the state’s official state flower (and an alpine plant) won’t be far away. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/rocky-mountain-columbine/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rocky Mountain Columbine’s</a> white and lavender flower’s petals pop out along the trails of Alpine country. Inside the flower’s white cup, you’ll see a splash of yellow color. This flower is especially attractive to hummingbirds, bees, and butterflies because of its strong aroma. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">However, as you pass this enchanting flower, you’ll have to leave it behind. Uprooting the plant while on public land </span><a href="https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol/colorado/state-flower/rocky-mountain-columbine" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">is illegal</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. And leaving the beautiful landscape (that you’re lucky enough to hike through) just as it is is pretty as you found it is hiking tip #1. Do the right thing, you know?  </span>

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&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1870199 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bristlecone-pine-1044189_960_720.jpg" alt="bristlecone pine" width="960" height="642" /></h3>
<h2><b>Bristlecone Pine</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The Bristlecone Pine, or Pinus longaeva is the oldest known tree species in the world. Found in the arid mountainous regions of the American West, the oldest trees can be found in the White Mountains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-california-mountain-lions-extinction/#.XJfHJGRKgy4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">California</a>. Their age? </span><a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Almost 5,000 years.</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> This ancient alpine tree can survive up to elevations of 11,000 - 12,000 feet. Living in such an extreme, harsh climate, it is free from competition from other plants, insects and disease. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">These pine trees are multi-trunked. Their appearance is twisted and rugged. The tree’s needles are a deep-yellow green with a blunt end and purple-red flowers.</span>

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&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870203" align="alignnone" width="683"]<img class="wp-image-1870203 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Phacelia_sericea_4793-683x1024.jpg" alt="silky phacelia" width="683" height="1024" /> Photo by: Walter Siegmund[/caption]
<h2><b>Silky Phacelia</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Silky Phacelia, or Phacelia sericae, is an easy-to-spot perennial species in Western North America. An upright stem of purple flowers grows out of a woody base. They look similar to a paintbrush. Its leaves are silvery green. You’ll see this alpine plant’s blooms from early May to the end of August.</span>

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&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870200 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bluebells-669490_960_720.png" alt="Bluebells" width="560" height="720" />
<h2><b>Mountain Bluebells</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Mountain Bluebells, also known as Mertensia ciliata, are a mountainous perennial alpine plant that prefers almost </span><a href="https://extension.usu.edu/rangeplants/forbsherbaceous/mountain-bluebells" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">constant moisture</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and elevations of 5,000-12,000 feet. You’ll be able to identify the plant by its bell-like blossoms that bounce in the wind. These bell flowers are blue and often tinged with pink. The flowers grow in clusters and the plant itself can get up to 3 feet tall. Because of this plant’s love of water, you’re most likely to see it along streambanks, meadows and wet cliffs. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The bluebell flowers are also edible. The plant is a favorite snack of sheep and goats - but it works for humans, too. you can delight in a taste whether cooked or raw. Cheyanne Indians used the plant to make a tea that </span><a href="https://extension.usu.edu/rangeplants/forbsherbaceous/mountain-bluebells" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">increases milk flow</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of nursing mothers. They also used the powdered root to relieve the itching symptoms of diseases like measles and smallpox, just one aspect of the many horrors that Europeans brought to the Americas. </span>

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&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870204" align="alignnone" width="442"]<img class="wp-image-1870204 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/CO_Plants_alpine_willow.jpg" alt="alpine willow " width="442" height="333" /> Photo by: <a href="http://shelledy.mesa.k12.co.us/">shelledy.mesa.k12.co.us</a>[/caption]
<h2><b>Alpine Willow</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Alpine Willow, or Salix petrophilia, is a tiny, creeping willow found throughout the world. It has been identified on the northern coast of greenland, the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevadas </span><a href="https://calscape.org/Salix-petrophila-(Alpine-Willow)" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">and parts of China</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. This shrub thrives in rocky moorlands with tundra conditions and you can spot its shiny green leaves.</span>

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&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1870201" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870201 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/1024px-Polylepis_rugulosa_A._Yates.jpg" alt="Polylepsis " width="1024" height="768" /> photo by Alexander Yates[/caption]
<h2><b>Polylepsis Forest</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Located in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/winter-paints-andes-mountains-snow-ice/#.XJfHTWRKgy4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andes Mountains</a>, polylepsis forests can be found in sheltered areas at elevations of up to 4,500 meters. They are evergreen trees with knarled-looking roots and actually belong to the rose family. The original forest can be found in the cold corners of Bolivia’s Western Cordillera, though less than </span><a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">10% of the original forest survives today</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. This is particularly bad news since the loss of high-mountain forests such as these is considered the main cause of water scarcity. These forests are also home to three of South America's beloved, and endangered birds: Parrots, Toucans, and Royal Cinclodes. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Communities native to the Andean mountains use the trees for medicine, food, rituals, and building materials. While the forests began disappearing as early as the time of Incan civilization, even more forest was lost when the conquistadores arrived with sheep and cattle. There are on-going efforts to purchase swaths of land back and restore these ancient forests. Doing so would <a href="http://armoniabolivia.org/programs/polylepis-forest-program/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">preserve this unique habitat</a> and help to alleviate water erosion.  </span>

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&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870202 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Wild_Potato-vine-1024x683.jpg" alt="wild potato " width="1024" height="683" />
<h2><b>Wild Potato</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Long before the Yukon Gold took over the world via McDonald’s french fry, wild potatoes stubbornly flourished in the Andean mountains. It was first cultivated by indigenous peoples near Lake Titicaca in Peru </span><a href="http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine_plant_page.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">over 8,000 years ago</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.  </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you spot one while hiking now - count yourself lucky. These delicious tubers are <a href="https://www.bioversityinternational.org/news/detail/conservation-concerns-for-endemic-potato-species-in-bolivia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">endangered</a> and can be tricky to find, preferring thickets and waste areas. A member of the nightshade family, there are over 199 species of wild potato. Scientists and activists work to register as many varieties as they can before these ancient strains are cross-cultivated and lost to time.  </span>

Alpine Plants To Look For When Hiking

The alpine zone is a region or biome of that...

Organisms in the jungle are in intense competition with each other. Natural selection from that competition has lead to the creation of some pretty wild plants and animals. It’s no wonder that you find the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mating-routines-birds-paradise/#.XJVgUhNKjOQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener">bizarre and colorful birds</a>, the biggest trees, and some of the most ferocious predators tucked away deep in Earth’s jungles. Along with some of the most beautiful and weirdest organisms in the world, jungles hide some of the most dangerous species too.

For example, jungles of Central and South America are home to the two most painful insect stings known to man: the bullet ant and the tarantula hawk. Tropical forests in India and Australia boast some of the deadliest snakes in the world. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taller-older-rainforests-drought/#.XJVgpxNKjOQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Amazon Rainforest</a> is home to notoriously scary animals like electric eels and piranhas. Of course, environments all over the world have their own dangers. But, jungles certainly seem to have more than their fair share of dangerous organisms.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What about dangerous jungle plants?</strong></h2>
Some of the scariest, most dangerous plants in the world are found in jungles. These plants will give any animal a run for their money in the battle for the most dangerous organism in the jungle.

Plants, like all living things, need to defend themselves from potential threats. Some of the more common defenses are sharp thorns, being covered in irritating oils, and getting a hungry animal (or human) sick from eating its leaves or fruits. These physical and chemical features plants use to ward off animals have become so extreme that humans should stay far, far away. So, here are the top 3 most dangerous jungle plants you should definitely look out for!

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<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1870150 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/castor-oil-plant.jpg" alt="castor oil plant fruit" width="1000" height="666" /></h3>
<h2><strong>Castor Bean (<em>Ricinus communis</em>)</strong></h2>
Castor bean is a common roadside plant that’s widespread throughout the tropics these days, but it’s originally from Eastern Africa. The weedy shrub can grow to be up to 12 meters (39 feet) tall and covers riverbanks and roadsides throughout its range.

A common product extracted from the seeds of this plant is castor oil. The liquid is used in food production as a preservative, as well as in medicine for a <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/castor-oil#section1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">variety of benefits</a>. Castor oil is derived from the seed of the castor bean plant, which ironically also <strong>contains one of the most deadly poisons known to man.</strong>

The toxin hidden inside castor bean seeds, called ricin, is notoriously dangerous. You may recognize the poison’s name from its infamous use in the TV series Breaking Bad. In the real world, this poison was successfully used in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi_Markov#Assassination" target="_blank" rel="noopener">assassination of a Bulgarian journalist</a>.

It goes without saying that one should avoid eating castor bean. Any part of the plant can potentially contain ricin, so consumption of the stem, leaves, and of course the fruit, is a no-go. Castor bean is a common ornamental plant. If you have curious children or pets, it’s best to keep this plant out of your garden, as just one seed is enough to kill a small child.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870151 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Couroupita_guianensis_fruits.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="600" />
<h2><strong>Cannonball Tree (<em>Couroupita guianensis</em>)</strong></h2>
In some jungles of Central and South America, a huge tree bears a fruit that could easily kill a human. The fruit isn’t poisonous, though. In fact, it’s perfectly edible and even has a variety of medicinal properties. The fruit is only dangerous when you combine it with gravity.

Cannonball tree has fruits that hang off the side of the trunk. Their size and weight make it easy to understand how this plant got its name! The heavy fruits disperse themselves by falling to the ground and breaking open which exposes the seeds inside. The outer shell is incredibly tough and thick, so a fruit needs to hit the ground with enough force to crack open. This is what makes the tree so dangerous. If you’re unlucky enough to be right under a cannonball tree when a fruit falls on your head, you’ll be out like a light.

This tree is in the same family as the <a href="https://forestsnews.cifor.org/51293/brazil-nuts-savior-seeds-of-the-amazon-basin?fnl=en" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Brazil nut tree</a> (Lecythidaceae). Brazil nuts trees have a very similar fruit, with similar dangers facing those who harvest the nuts from these trees. People who work with Brazil nuts and the cannonball tree like to wear hardhats when out in the forest, as to not get knocked out from the very plants they work with.

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[caption id="attachment_1870148" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img class="wp-image-1870148 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/5-theworstkind.jpg" alt="suicide plant researcher dendrocnide moroides" width="1000" height="772" /> Photo by: Marina Hurley[/caption]
<h2><strong>Gympie-Gympie, or the Suicide Plant (<em>Dendrocnide </em><em>moroides</em>)</strong></h2>
If a plant has the common name “suicide plant,” you should probably stay as far away as possible. It’s in the same plant family as stinging nettle, Urticaceae. This plant is basically the bigger, badder sibling of stinging nettle. The aptly named suicide plant defends itself in the exact same way as nettles do. It’s covered in tiny hollow hairs that, when touched, pierce the skin. As if that wasn’t enough, it's actually able to inject a toxin underneath the skin.<strong> It's hairs work very similar to how a hypodermic needle works.</strong>

After contact with the plant, the pain that ensues is apparently one of the most excruciating experiences one can endure. Instant stinging and burning are the first two symptoms and become more intense as time goes on. The pain of a sting can last for hours, or even days. One man allegedly had to be tied to a hospital bed for three weeks due to the pain!

One of the worst things about this formidable plant is that the hairs are so fine and light that they often become airborne. Floating, stinging hairs can come into contact with the skin even if you’re standing far away. Worse yet, they can be inhaled and can really damage your throat and lungs. <a href="https://phys.org/news/2018-09-worst-kind-pain-stung-tree.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Researchers who study Gympie-Gympie</a> (yes, there are actually people who seek this plant out) opt to wear respirators and special rubber gloves to study it.

&nbsp;

Top 3 Dangerous Jungle Plants

Organisms in the jungle are in intense competition with each...

You may think of bees as annoying, stinging pests or cute, fluffy balls, but their most important role is as pollinators of food plants. There are <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">almost 20,000 different species of bees</a>, many of which provide essential services to humans and ecosystems. In the United States alone there are around 3,500 species.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What Is a Bee?</strong></h2>
Bees are a <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">group of animals</a> that include a handful of different families. The best-known group, <i>Apidae, </i>includes honey-bees and bumblebees and have a shared “hivemind.” These collective bees dominate most peoples image of bees.<strong> <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">However, 98% of bee species are naturally solitary</a>, living without a queen or hive.</strong> Many nest in the ground, others form biological plastics to keep their homes dry. The many adaptations of bees are impressive and contain an amazing amount of diversity.

Another common misconception <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/group/wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">is that wasps are bees</a>. Wasps share many characteristics with bees. Both wasps and bees are classified in the order <i>Hymenoptera </i>(along with ants.) There are 30,000 unique species of wasps. You can tell wasps from bees by their narrow waist that connects their abdomen to their thorax. Wasp nests are papery and made from wood fiber, compared to the waxy hives of bees.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Are Bees Endangered?</strong></h2>
In recent years, bee populations have been declining globally. Increased rates of colony collapse disorder, climate change, and other factors have contributed to these changes. These changes have sparked fear that bees may go extinct, leaving us without essential pollination services. As a result, researchers are even exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-robots-electronic-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">creating robotic replacements for bees</a>.

The American Fish and Wildlife Service has recognized the severe decline in some threatened wild bee populations. In 2016, seven species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-bee-species-put-endangered-species-list/">Hawaiian yellow-faced bees were placed on the endangered species list</a>. In 2017 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rusty-patched-bumble-bee-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the rusty patch bumble bee (<i>Bombus affinis</i>) was designated as an endangered species</a>. This was the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/u-s-lists-a-bumble-bee-species-as-endangered-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">first bumblebee species to receive this classification</a>. This provides these species some protection under the endangered species act.

In addition, <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=135293&amp;searchType=species" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists</a> 16 species of bees as vulnerable, 18 as endangered and 9 as critically endangered globally. However, these endangered species include American native bee species that are not on the endangered species list. Groups in California are <a href="https://newsroom.defenders.org/conservation-organizations-seek-protection-for-californias-endangered-bumble-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pushing to protect these species.</a>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869701 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bee-170551_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bee on a yellow flower" width="1024" height="680" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Why Do Bees Matter?</strong></h2>
The great diversity among species of bees means that there is a great risk of losing species before we understand them. Many bee species have developed extremely complex and intricate relationships with plant species. These relationships provide pollination for plants that could otherwise never reproduce. <strong>With the loss of bees comes the loss of many plants.</strong>

The diversity and evolution of insects likely played a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollination-insects-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">major role in the evolution of flowering plants</a>. We could lose this diversity that has developed over hundreds of millions of years in just decades.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Humans and Bees</strong></h2>
Humans rely upon bees to pollinate our food, as well as the many flowering plants we grow for all sorts of uses. In the wild, bees play an essential role in keeping our natural lands healthy.

<strong>However, human impacts are a serious threat to many species of bees.</strong>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>The Biggest Bee in the Business</strong></h2>
The western honey bee (<i>Apis mellifera) </i>is the most important pollinator for agriculture. These bees are cultivated on every continent except Antarctica. This species plays a huge role in the food supply. As a result, they are domesticated and bred at a large scale.

In recent years, colony collapse disorder has risen for unknown reasons, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-native-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">harming many apiarists and farmers</a>. Though honey bee populations have experienced substantial changes over the last few decades, they are not endangered.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Are Pesticides Killing Bees?</strong></h2>
One of the most likely culprits harming bee colonies is a common insecticide used on crops. <strong>Neonicotinoids are synthetic compounds derived from nicotine, a natural insecticide.</strong> These chemicals are often sprayed on seeds to prevent insects from eating them before they begin to grow. Studies have shown that these compounds may affect bees at extremely low concentrations. Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-pesticides-bee-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">these insecticides are neurotoxic to bees </a>and cause harm to colonies even in non-deadly doses.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>How Agriculture Harms Bee Diversity</strong></h2>
The loss of bees is not enough to fully explain changes in pollination. Decreasing bee diversity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-losses-pollination-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">due to habitat fragmentation from agriculture may play a role</a>. In addition, many pesticides have non-lethal effects on bee behavior. This may cause bees to pollinate less effectively, and has the potential to change how our forests and grasslands are pollinated.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Climate Change and Bees</strong></h2>
Climate change also plays a significant role in threatening populations of bees and other pollinators. Changing seasonal trends in temperature, water availability, and season length can have significant impacts on flowering plants. Many of these species rely on these seasonal cues to know when to flower. Historically, pollinators have been in sync with these cycles. But when climate change disturbs these cycles, pollinators may emerge to find that all of the flowers have already bloomed, or that none are open yet. These complex relationships are difficult to predict, and changes to them ripple throughout the ecosystem.

&nbsp;

There are only a few bee species classified as endangered. However, the many sudden changes to their environment pose a real threat. The incredible importance of bees makes it essential that we find ways to protect them.

&nbsp;

Are Bees Endangered?

You may think of bees as annoying, stinging pests or...

Jasmine has been cultivated and prized by humans for millennia. The showy plant is famous for its beautiful white flowers and rich fragrance. Many people have heard of the flower, or maybe even have a friend named Jasmine. But, not many people know of the importance of this simple looking white bloom. We’ll go over some facts about jasmine and why this plant has so much significance in many different cultures.

Jasmine is a genus of plants we call <em>Jasminum.</em> There are actually well over 200 species of the plant, and they come in a variety of shapes, colors, and sizes. You can find them all over tropical and subtropical regions of Europe, Asia, and Oceania. But, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/species-diversity-greater-tropics-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">highest diversity</a> of jasmine is in southern and southeast Asia.

Although there is only one species of jasmine native to Europe, many different species now grow naturally in Meditteranean countries. Likewise, horticulturists and home gardeners alike cultivate the flowers throughout the Americas. It seems like everyone wants to fill their gardens with the delicate, scented flowers. <strong>W</strong><strong>hat makes this plant so great?</strong>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Fragrance</strong></h2>
The main reason jasmine is so famous is its <a href="https://www.quora.com/Which-is-the-best-jasmine-perfume" target="_blank" rel="noopener">strong fragrance</a>. People adore the flower for its strong, sweet smell. Countless cultures worldwide include it in aromatic products like candles, perfumes, soaps, and lotions. You can even infuse your own products at home with the lovely scent of the white bloom.

Some types of jasmines are grown commercially, strictly for use in cosmetics and aromatherapy. Because it’s such a highly sought after scent, jasmine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/essential-oils-mosquito-repellent/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential oil</a> is one of the most expensive commodities in fragrance-based industries!

One common gardening practice is to <strong>plant jasmine close to windows</strong>, to allow the scented air to drift into your home during the day. It’s basically like having a natural air freshener right outside your house.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869299 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/jasminebuds.jpg" alt="jasmine buds tea" width="1000" height="594" />
<h2><strong>Jasmine Tea</strong></h2>
In many countries, <a href="https://www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/beverage/health-benefits-of-jasmine-tea.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">jasmine tea</a> is a popular drink. Tea makers start with a base of green or white tea. The flower buds of Arabian jasmine, <em>Jasminum sambac,</em> are steeped in the tea inside a special machine for up to six hours to flavor the beverage. Sometimes, brewers repeat this process multiple times to get the most flavor from the plant.

It’s important to note that <strong>the flowers and leaves of jasmine are not edible</strong>, so you shouldn’t simply brew the plant directly in water to make tea.

With that said, jasmine tea is a popular beverage in China, India, and many countries in the Middle East.

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1869298 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/jasminebasket.jpg" alt="jasmine flowers basket" width="1000" height="750" /></h3>
<h2><strong>Culture</strong></h2>
People in the Middle East and Asia hold jasmine to such high regard that they consistently feature the flowers in traditional ceremonies. Even the origin of the scientific name <em>Jasminum</em> has significance. <strong>The name comes from the Persian word “yasamin” which means “gift from God.”</strong> Only one of the most beautiful flowers could boast a name like that.

In many countries, jasmines evoke love and peace, so it often takes part in wedding ceremonies. It also symbolizes modesty; although jasmine flowers are small and simple, they produce a strong, delectable fragrance.

In 1993, Arabian jasmine was declared the national flower of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-new-species-beetle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Indonesia</a>. Although this decision was made relatively recently, the plant had been sacred in Indonesian culture since ancient times. Indonesian wedding ceremonies have traditionally used the flower buds in garlands and headdresses.

Like in Indonesia, jasmines are used in wedding ceremonies in Pakistan. The bride and groom wear garlands made of white jasmines and red roses to symbolize love and harmony. In Thailand, jasmine is a common symbol of motherhood. The Syrian city of Damascus is also called the <a href="http://peacockplume.fr/food-travel/damascus-city-jasmine" target="_blank" rel="noopener">City of Jasmine</a> and uses the flower as its symbol.

As you can see, <strong>people all over the world revere jasmine</strong>, and for very similar reasons.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Cultivation</strong></h2>
Because of its international popularity, jasmines have been cultivated for generations. While most types of the plant can only survive in tropical climates, there are a few cultivated varieties more suited for temperate regions.

So, if you’re dying to have one of the sweetest smelling flowers in your garden at home, there’s bound to be a type of jasmine that’s right for you!

&nbsp;

What's So Great About the Jasmine Flower?

Jasmine has been cultivated and prized by humans for millennia....

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Any animal that thrives in the harsh desert environment is pretty hardcore. Though we think of endless sand and blazing sunlight, some of the world’s harshest deserts are actually cold and windy. The main characteristic of a desert is that it’s very, very dry.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">But what about desert animals? What allows these hardcore animals to succeed?</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Special Adaptations of Desert Animals</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most desert animals employ at least a few tricks to help them succeed in these extreme environments. Common special adaptations of desert animals include:</span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Large ears to help disperse heat.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Smaller organs that require less oxygen and therefore lead to less evaporation during breathing.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Behavioral adaptations, such as </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-are-some-animals-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">becoming nocturnal</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Light colors that reflect rather than absorb the heat from the sun.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Burrowing helps animals escape the heat of the day.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Fat stores for emergency food and water storage.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Reducing (or eliminating) water wasted in urination, sweat, and tears. One species of gazelle (the </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/dorcas-gazelle-gazella-dorcas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Dorcas Gazelle</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">) actually excretes solid uric acid instead of liquid urine!</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">All desert animals have some special adaptations that help them succeed in this difficult environment. Most desert animals have adaptations that specifically help them reduce water loss. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Here are some of the most hardcore animals that live in the desert.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869152 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/wilderness-1806943_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="gazelle" width="1024" height="682" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Hardcore Desert Animals</strong></h2>
&nbsp;
<h2><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/desert-lark-ammomanes-deserti/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1. Desert Larks</a></strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">These little birds don’t look like much, but they’re extremely tough. They enter burrows to cool themselves off with sand. The females often only lay one egg per year, to help reduce spent energy on chick-raising. Most surprisingly, though, these birds are able to allow their body temperature to soar to 45 degrees Celsius, much hotter than most other birds!</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The Desert Lark is found in the deserts between Morocco and India. It largely eats seeds and insects.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_sand_gazelle" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2. Arabian Sand Gazelles</a></strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">These gazelles have taken their desert adaptations to the extreme. Breathing is a great way to lose water. If you can reduce how much you exhale, you’ll reduce water loss. <strong>These gazelles shrink their hearts, livers, and stomachs during times of drought.</strong> This way, they need less oxygen and are able to lower respiratory rate. These gazelles are also unusual because they store fat in their brains, helping them get through lean times.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Arabian Sand Gazelles are native to the Arabian and Syrian Deserts. They’re quite endangered.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandgrouse" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">3. Sandgrouse</a></strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Male sandgrouses sure make dedicated parents! These birds have special belly feathers that are well-suited to soak up water. The males will fly up to 50 miles in a single day to soak their feathers, then carry water back to their mate and chicks. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">There are 16 different species of sandgrouse, which can be found primarily in central Asia.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869153 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/thorny-dragon-387217_640.jpg" alt="thorny devil hardcore desert animal" width="640" height="480" />
<h2><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/thorny-devil-moloch-horridus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">4. Thorny Devils</a></strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">These little lizards are armed to the teeth - they’re covered in thick spines. The gaps between these thick spines actually help draw water in from the air, directing it with capillary action towards the eyes and mouth. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">These lizards are tough, surviving on nothing but ants in the brutal Australian Outback.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/dorcas-gazelle-gazella-dorcas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">5. Dorcas Gazelle</a></strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">As we mentioned earlier, the Dorcas Gazelle has some pretty hardcore desert adaptations. These little gazelles don’t actually urinate. Rather than wasting water with liquid urine, their excretory systems have modified enough that they produce solid white pellets of uric acid, rather than giving up on water. As far as we know, this species is actually capable of living its whole life without drinking!</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The Dorcas Gazelle can be found in the deserts of northern Africa. They are classified as endangered.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869154 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/pigeons-3268990_640.jpg" alt="pigeon most adaptable animal on earth" width="640" height="440" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What are the most adaptable animals?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">While the above desert animals are specialists, there are other hardcore animals - the generalists. Sure, it’s tough to survive on the Himalayan Steppes or in Death Valley. But it’s also an incredible feat to survive and thrive around the world in a variety of different environments.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Adaptability isn’t about being a specialist - it’s about being able to make do. You’re probably already familiar with the world’s most adaptable animals because they’re the animals we see most around the world. We’ll focus this list on animals with spines, rather than the many insects and microbes that are also exceptionally tough.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/black-rat-rattus-rattus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rats</a></strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">It’s hard to out-survive a rat. These critters are the ultimate survivalists, </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-infested-worlds-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">invading the world’s islands</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and succeeding in incredibly tough conditions. Rats are incredibly adaptable, making them potential</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/invasive-species-plants-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;"> invasive species</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> as well.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-pigeon-columba-livia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pigeons</a></strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The common pigeon is truly tough. These birds survive well in cities, farmland, and rocky outcroppings. They do well everywhere from the equator to the nearctic and palearctic. As an introduced species, pigeons are incredibly adaptable.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-climates-homo-sapiens-thrive/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Humans</a></strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">That’s right - humans are probably the most adaptable beings on the planet. Sure, we need to use technology to survive. But we have that technology thanks to our incredibly adaptive brain (and opposable thumbs). Even before we had down jackets and air conditioning, humans could be found from the Amazon to the Himalaya, the Sahara to Patagonia.</span>

&nbsp;

5 Hardcore Animals that Live in the Desert

Any animal that thrives in the harsh desert environment is...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">When we’re first learning about evolution, we always hear about it the same way - survival of the fittest. But there’s also another pressure on the evolution of a species: sexual selection. So what happens when sexual selection and environmental pressure aren’t compatible?</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Generally, most classroom examples focus on times when sexual selection and environmental pressure can dovetail into the same explanation. For example, female birds prefer to mate with brightly colored males because healthy feathers mean the male’s diet is good, which means he’s got good genes, which means his genes will help her offspring survive. Simple enough, right?</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">But, especially when we’re looking at birds, things quickly start to get more complicated. What about the </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/indian-peafowl-pavo-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">peacock’s</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> tail? Surely all that tail isn’t really necessary to signal environmental fitness, right? While the vibrant colors of a peacock </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peacock-feathers-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">aren’t actually that obvious</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to its dichromat predators, the tail still seems like an awful lot of energetic effort.</span>
<h2><strong>The Club-Winged Manakin and Decadence</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">For an even murkier example, let’s look at the club-winged manakin. I first heard about this bird thanks to an excellent Radiolab episode called </span><a href="https://www.wnycstudios.org/story/beauty-puzzle" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">The Beauty Puzzle</span></i></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, which got me thinking about this topic.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The male club-winged manakin courts the female by whacking his wings together at an astonishing 107 times per second. Apparently, the females like the sound and will mate with males who can do it well. The problem? In order to effectively make that sound,<strong> the club-winged manakins need </strong></span><strong>solid wingbones.</strong>

<iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tSHjhCN6NC0" width="560" height="315" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Let that sink in - a flighted bird with solid wingbones.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The club-winged manakin now has slow, clumsy flight. While the trees in the Amazon Rainforest are dense enough to allow some hopping, these birds are at a serious disadvantage. Since the bones become solid while the birds are tiny embryos (before they’re male or female), both males and females have this disadvantage.</span>

<b>According to scientists, this phenomenon is known as “decadence” - the females are choosing beauty that actually harms the survival prospects of their own young.</b>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">But this flies in the face of the basic tenet of evolution: evolution is about survival of the fittest. And yet, these birds are evolving a handicap in the name of sexual selection.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">There’s nothing, in theory, to stop this trend from pushing the club-winged manakin to extinction.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Many high school biology teachers just tell you about adaptive evolution - </span><b>pretty feathers and showy colors exist because they signal that the showy male is extra-healthy.</b>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">But in the club-winged manakin, we have at least one clear counter-example. Biologists seem uncomfortable with the concept that some aspects of evolution can be driven by pleasure rather than function.</span>
<h2>Survival of the Sexiest?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">It is arguably impossible to know if the peacock’s tail really is a great signal of health, or if the</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/archbolds-bowerbird-archboldia-papuensis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;"> bower bird’s</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> bower-building signals his fitness. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">We can’t ask the females if they like the looks of a male because of his beauty or because he seems fit. And even if we could, perhaps the females perceive something as pretty because it signals fitness. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">We don't know for sure.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">But we can say that there is at least one example where something that the females find “sexy” is a downright disadvantage. There is seemingly no defense to the claim that the solid wingbones of a club-winged manakin resulted from survival of the fittest - it appears to be survival of the sexiest.</span>

Evolution: Survival of the Fittest Versus "Decadence"

When we’re first learning about evolution, we always hear about...

Have you ever spent too much time in the sun, only to find yourself as red as a lobster the next day? The discomfort of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunscreen-protectio/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">bad sunburn</a> can last days and might be one of the worst setbacks to enjoying a relaxing weekend at the beach.

Luckily for us, there’s a plant that can help! That plant is <strong>aloe vera</strong>, one of the most widely used medicinal plants out there. Before we dive into how to use it, let’s go over the basics and learn some info about the plant itself.

The aloe vera plant shares its common name with its scientific name. The genus <em>Aloe</em> actually contains over 500 species! We’re going to be talking about the species <em>Aloe vera</em>, which is probably the best known and widely used species in the group. Aloe vera is a succulent, meaning it holds water in its leaves that it uses to stay hydrated. This is important in the dry climates of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saudi-arabia-solar-power-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sunny Arabian peninsula</a> where it's native. The spiny plant stores its water in a gooey Jell-O-like substance in the leaves. This gel is the medicine that’s used by humans.<strong> The gel is 96% water, with the rest consisting of beneficial vitamins and minerals.</strong>

People have been using aloe vera for millennia. It’s one of the most important medicinal plants. It's used in traditional treatments, modern cosmetics, and even food! Here’s how to use the “wonder plant.”

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1868565 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/aloe-gel.jpg" alt="Aloe vera leaf gel" width="1000" height="666" /></h3>
<h2>Medicine</h2>
To get rid of that painful sunburn, aloe vera gel is the go-to treatment. Simply spreading the gel on your skin provides instant relief, and reduces the amount of time it takes to heal. There are loads of over-the-counter aloe vera based lotions you can buy at a store, but nothing beats using the gel straight from the plant.

If you have a plant handy and don’t mind removing an entire leaf (don’t kill the plant!), you can use the gel directly from the plant.
<ol>
 	<li>Cut the leaf open and you’ll have more aloe vera gel than you can handle.</li>
 	<li>Once opened, let the yellow latex ooze out of the plant. This latex isn’t normally used.</li>
 	<li>Remove the gel from the outside of the leaf with a knife or your hands, being careful of the spines on the leaves.</li>
 	<li>Cut the gel into cubes that are easier to work with.</li>
 	<li>Afterward, rub the gel on your burnt skin and feel the soothing sensation of the plant.</li>
 	<li>Save the rest in a container for later, preferably in the fridge. <em>Cold aloe vera gel soothes burnt skin even better.</em></li>
</ol>
There are plenty of recipes that can teach you how to make different types of lotions and cosmetics with aloe vera gel. When used in different ways,<strong> aloe vera not only helps with burns but can help clear acne, heal rashes, and improve general skin health!</strong>

&nbsp;
<h2>Food</h2>
Some juices and smoothies use <a href="https://helloglow.co/edible-aloe-recipes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">aloe vera gel as an ingredient</a>. The taste of the plant is incredibly bitter, so make sure you use enough sugar to balance out the taste! Many stores carry pure, pre-sweetened aloe vera juice that can be incredibly refreshing on a hot day.

<strong>Warning! If you have an allergy to onions or garlic, it’s probably not a good idea to consume aloe vera.</strong> You should ask a doctor before eating it.

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1868566 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Aloe_vera_A.jpg" alt="Aloe vera ornamental garden" width="800" height="532" /></h3>
<h2>Ornament</h2>
Aloe vera plants are incredibly hardy, heat and drought resistance plants! They make <a href="https://www.almanac.com/plant/aloe-vera" target="_blank" rel="noopener">great ornamentals</a> for homes and gardens, largely thanks to their tall flowering structures. Plus, they come in a variety of shapes and colors. Although not all of them are the species <em>Aloe vera</em>, most make great potted plants.

When grown in the right conditions, aloe vera will thrive and constantly put out new leaves which can eventually be harvested. Good care combined with managing the harvesting means a potted aloe vera plant can provide you with gel-filled leaves for multiple years.

Do you use the aloe vera plant? Let us know how below!

&nbsp;

How To Use the Aloe Vera Plant

Have you ever spent too much time in the sun,...

Elephants are the largest land animal on earth. They’re also incredibly intelligent, caring, and have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-unique-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">distinct personalities</a>. Many can even recognize our faces! We know some of them by name: Horton, Dumbo, and Tarzan’s friend Tantor. In the real world, elephants are colossal, charismatic animals that are vital to the savannas of Africa and the dense jungles of India and Indonesia.

Although they seem to be untouchable by other animals because of their sheer size, elephants face many threats on a day-to-day basis. Perhaps the most significant of these threats is habitat loss. Big animals need a lot of space, and these massive mammals are no exception. While humans expand development and cut down forests, elephants have less and less space to roam around in.

Another grave threat to elephants is poaching. Elephant ivory is prized in certain parts of the world, and some people go through great lengths to harvest the valuable material. Unfortunately for the elephants, this means hunting. More often than not, poachers strip the animal of its tusks and leave it for dead.

With such huge threats to this animal, we have to ask:

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Are elephants endangered?</strong></h3>
<h3><strong>Short answer: Yes.</strong></h3>
&nbsp;

Of course, the answer to this question is much more complex than a simple yes or no. So, let’s break it down by species. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), There are 2 distinct species: the African elephant (<em>Loxodonta africana</em>), and the Asian elephant (<em>Elephas maximus</em>). We’ll use information from the IUCN’s “<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Red List</a>.” They are the world’s leading authority on determining whether or not an animal or plant is considered endangered.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868321 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/African-Elephant.jpg" alt="african elephant" width="1000" height="750" />
<h2>African Elephants:</h2>
The African elephant is listed as “Vulnerable” by the IUCN in 2019. What does “vulnerable” really mean here? This classification is one step in the right direction from being endangered. Technically speaking, as of right now <strong>the African elephant is not "endangered</strong>." However, a little over 20 years ago in 1996, the African elephant was considered endangered by the IUCN. Since then, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-recovering-poaching/#" target="_blank" rel="noopener">its population has been increasing</a>, causing the animal to come out of endangerment.

This is, of course, great news! African elephant populations are slowly growing, thanks to successful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/safe-place-elephants-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">conservation initiatives in Africa</a>. Lots of parks and reserves have been established, and many governments have cracked down on poaching.

However, we shouldn’t be complacent just because African elephants are doing better now than they were 20 years ago. They constantly face increasing pressure from illegal hunting and other conflicts with humans.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868322 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Asian-Elephant.jpg" alt="asian elephant" width="1000" height="663" />
<h2><strong>Asian Elephants:</strong></h2>
Unlike its African relative, <strong>the Asian elephant is "endangered"</strong> according to the IUCN in 2019. The threats that face this elephant are pretty much the same as those of the African species. However, deforestation and harvesting timber are both more rampant in Asian countries than in Africa. This leads to <a href="https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/human-impacts/habitat-fragmentation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">habitat fragmentation</a>, which is when one large forest becomes several smaller, unconnected patches. If you’re an elephant, it’s nearly impossible to travel from patch to patch.

Aside from the threats of habitat loss, Asain elephant populations are declining. Unfortunately, it’s really hard to track populations and we don't know much about them. What we do know is that they occupy only about 10% of their historic range, and each population is small and isolated.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What can we do?</strong></h2>
You don’t have to be the next Jane Goodall or David Attenborough to help save animals. There are a couple simple things any average Joe (or Jane!) can do to help elephant conservation.

<strong>First, don’t buy ivory.</strong> This seems like a no-brainer, but it's surprising how much ivory makes it into the hands of ill-informed tourists. Don’t buy any products from stores or street vendors that sell ivory. Sometimes sellers claim that a souvenir is from an old stash or an antique - but this is usually false. Purchasing any ivory, antique or not, adds more fuel to the fire and strengthens the market for the illegal material.

<strong>Second, if you buy products sourced from Africa like coffee or wood, make sure they are fair-trade.</strong> The <a href="https://us.fsc.org/en-us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Forest Stewardship Council</a> certifies products from Africa and Asia that don’t negatively impact elephants.

<strong>Third, you can donate directly to conservation organizations!</strong> <a href="https://www.earth.com/take-action-save-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Check out our top picks.</a>

What else can we do to help save elephants? If you have any ideas, or other thoughts about elephants, let us know in the comments!

&nbsp;

Are Elephants Endangered?

Elephants are the largest land animal on earth. They’re also...

&nbsp;

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Staying awake at night and sleeping during the day is relatively common in the animal world. While this seems pretty strange to most humans (except for some of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ancient ancestors</a>), there are plenty of advantages that make being nocturnal a smart evolutionary move.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Of course, it’s not that animals decide one day to switch their sleeping patterns. And truthfully, it’s almost impossible to truly say </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">why</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> a given trait arose. Here are some of our best theories for why some animals are nocturnal.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Why Are Some Animals Nocturnal?</strong></h2>
<ul>
 	<li><b>There are fewer predators out at night.<span style="font-weight: 400;"> The vast majority of nocturnal animals are birds, insects, and mammals, not reptiles. A leading theory for why animals are nocturnal is that this trait evolved as a way to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammals-nocturnal-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">avoid being eaten by dinosaurs</a> and other top predators back when mammals and birds started to expand as groups.</span></b></li>
 	<li><b>It’s easier to avoid detection at night.<span style="font-weight: 400;"> While many nocturnal animals have heightened senses of smell and hearing, it’s still a bit easier to avoid detection at night. The darkness helps both predators and prey move around a bit more stealthily. Prey animals use the cover of night to forage more safely, while predators capitalize on the same darkness to ambush prey more easily. </span></b></li>
 	<li><strong>There are prey animals out at night.</strong> <span style="font-weight: 400;">If you’re a predator who specializes in eating small mammals, there’s no better time to be outside than nighttime. Predators are generally more successful if they hunt while their prey is awake and mobile - so many predators hunt at night to match their prey’s schedule. </span></li>
 	<li><strong>There’s less competition at night.</strong><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Some nocturnal species likely developed this schedule as a way to reduce conflict over food sources. If everyone else in the neighborhood heads to the watering hole and the grazing field in the morning, perhaps it’s helpful for you to go during the off times.</span></li>
 	<li><strong>Nighttime is cooler.</strong><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Many desert animals are nocturnal for the evident reason that this helps them avoid the heat of midday. In scorching-hot parts of the world, being nocturnal is simply a good move. Water conservation is also an important aspect of avoiding the heat of the day. Moving around when it’s cool and dark avoids overheating and wasting precious water.</span></li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Many nocturnal animals are probably active at night for a combination of these reasons. Evolution is a slow process, and it’s almost impossible to say exactly which pressures caused each species to evolve in a given direction.</span>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="wp-image-1867876 alignnone" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/tree-736877_640-300x200.jpg" alt="nocturnal cat" width="200" height="133" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Special Adaptations of Nocturnal Animals</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Nocturnal animals also have special adaptations to help them get around in the dark. Unlike humans, they generally don’t rely on their sight as their primary sense. Instead, they get around thanks to sensitive ears, whiskers (to sense nearby objects), and smell. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Of course, many nocturnal animals also have large eyes that are specially adapted to excel in low-light conditions. This is especially true for birds and nocturnal primates, which need to be able to see branches to land. Some animals, like cats, can see well both in daytime and at nighttime. Others, such as bushbabies and bats, have poor eyesight in the light.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Threats to Nocturnal Animals</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Light pollution is a huge threat to nocturnal animals. Lights from cities cause changes in migration patterns and can confuse animals. Light pollution is a major problem for sea turtles and nocturnal migratory birds because they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nocturnal-creatures-starlight-compass/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">use starlight as a compass</a>.</span>

Human activity and disturbance are also pushing some animals to become more nocturnal. Read more about that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-mammals-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Climate change is also making some areas of the world much hotter and drier than they used to be, potentially pressuring some animals to become more nocturnal or crepuscular (preferring to be active at dawn and dusk) than they are currently.</span>

&nbsp;

Why Are Some Animals Nocturnal?

&nbsp; Staying awake at night and sleeping during the day...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The jade plant, otherwise known as </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/crassula-ovata-crosbys-compact/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Cassula Ovata</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, is a popular </span><a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=2547" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">succulent shrub</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> native to South Africa. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">In their native habitat or other similarly arid environments, <strong>they can grow to up to </strong></span><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>10 feet tall.</strong> </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">Similar to cactus and aloe plants, jade has evolved to retain water, acting as a reservoir. </span>

&nbsp;

[gallery size="medium" ids="1868062,1868063,1868061"]

&nbsp;

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Along with a few other species, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/crassula-ovata-sunset-jade/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">jade plant</a> is often referred to as a “money plant” and is seen as an emblem of good luck, prosperity, and wealth. These plants (if taken care of properly) also live for delightfully long periods of time. Because </span><a href="https://www.almanac.com/plant/jade-plants#" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">they are so resilient</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">,<strong> they make for great gifts</strong>, often handed down from family members or friends for years to come. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Other popular names for an already-popular plant include Dollar Plant, Friendship Tree, Pink Joy or Lucky Plant. It is also considered a traditional gift for businesses, and many businesses place these plants in an entrance, in order to </span><a href="https://worldofsucculents.com/jade-plant-for-good-luck-prosperity-and-friendship/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">usher in prosperity and luck</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. While it is usually cultivated for its beauty, there are </span><a href="https://www.leaf.tv/articles/medicinal-properties-of-the-jade-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">folk remedies </span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">that enlist the jade plant for wart removal, naussa, epilepsy, diarrhea and intestinal purges, though these uses are marginal. What’s not to love?</span>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868064 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/jade-476900_960_720.jpg" alt="jade plant" width="960" height="638" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Growing a Jade Plant</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Jade plants aren’t hard to find in garden shops, boutique stores or even online. But like many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/succulents-efficient-water/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">succulents</a>, jade plants are easy to propagate from an already established jade plant, which can be a fun way to extend the impact of this already </span><a href="https://www.almanac.com/plant/jade-plants#" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">long-lived</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> plant. All you need is a leaf or a cutting to get started.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Ideally, you will cut a 2-3 inch stem from a plant. It’s best if the cutting you select has at least two leaves. Leave the cutting in a warm place for a couple days. You’ll notice <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/crassula-ovata-sunset-jade/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a callous</a> forming around the cut end - this is a good thing! It will protect your new jade plant from rot while encouraging rooting.</span>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868065 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/jade-plant-1671461_960_720.jpg" alt="jade plant" width="960" height="637" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Potting</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Find (or buy) some well-draining potting mix and a friendly, appropriately sized pot for your jade baby to call home. It’s best if the soil is slightly moist, but too much water might cause problems. Then:</span>
<ul>
 	<li><span style="font-weight: 400;">Take your leaf cutting and place it horizontally upon the soil. </span></li>
 	<li><span style="font-weight: 400;">Be sure to cover the cut end of the stem with some soil. </span></li>
 	<li><span style="font-weight: 400;">If you’re working with a taller stem, you can place it vertically and use items like toothpicks and string to prop the stem up. </span></li>
 	<li><span style="font-weight: 400;">Find a warm, sunny, comfortable place for the newly potted jade, but HOT TIP, do not water the plant quite yet. </span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">After a week or two, your jade plant will start sending out roots. You can gently poke and prod the plant to make sure the process is taking place. Once the plant appears to be firmly rooted, water your jade plant generously. Do so carefully - you don’t want to disturb the new roots! As days and weeks pass, let the soil dry out between waterings and make sure the plant is well established before placing the pot in intense, direct sunlight.</span>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868066 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/jade-plant-1633675_960_720.jpg" alt="jade plant" width="946" height="720" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Care</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Jade plants need at least 4 hours of sun each day to be healthy. Once they’re established, they can handle direct sunlight well. With this in mind, scope out a sunny spot in a south-facing window if you can. Your jade plant will thrive. Consider fertilizing it 3-4 time a year. <strong>Be sure to move it away from frozen windowsills or drafty areas in the winter. </strong></span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">When watering your jade plant, make sure the top layer of soil is dry to the touch. Then, water the base of the plant’s stem, as excessive splashes on the leaves might cause rot. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">And remember, <strong>jade plants are resilient.</strong> Often, people make the mistake of watering this succulent </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">way too much</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> and then wonder why the plant shriveled up and died. In some ways, low-maintenance plants are harder as we convince ourselves we should be doing more. Even in winter, with the dry environment of heated homes, the jade plant may start to drop leaves, but this is because the plant is going dormant, not because the plant is dying. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">This low-maintenance approach should be applied to re-potting as well. It turns out jade plants sort of </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">enjoy</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> a tight tuck into their pot. No need to stress about finding bigger, better pots for the plant too often. Just be sure to change the soil </span><a href="https://www.gardenista.com/posts/gardening-101-crassula-ovata-jade-plant-care-growing-guide/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">every three years or so</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (and remember to fertilize!)</span>

Have any wisdom to share on how best to care for a jade plant? Opinions on why people love the jade plant so much? Please let us know below.

&nbsp;

Why Do People Love The Jade Plant?

The jade plant, otherwise known as Cassula Ovata, is a...

The History of Earth in Exactly 2000 Words

The history of Earth is obviously a ginormous topic. Really,...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you’re looking for a unique and interesting houseplant, it’s hard to get more unique than a carnivorous plant. Unlike other plants, carnivorous plants need to “digest” animal or insect matter to </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">get all of their nutrients</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Most carnivorous plants are native to areas with extremely poor soil where they can’t get all the nutrients that they need.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Carnivorous plants attract insects with bright colors and sweet nectars. When the unsuspecting insect lands in the plant, the plant is able to slowly digest it and extract nutrients.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">But keeping a carnivorous plant alive is about more than providing it with so-so soil and a few bits of hamburger. Let’s look through the logistics of keeping a carnivorous plant at home.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Can carnivorous plants survive indoors?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Yes, carnivorous plants can survive indoors. But they’re a bit more challenging than your average houseplant. If you’re a beginner or tend to kill your plants quickly, you might want to get a bit more practice before attempting to keep a carnivorous plant alive.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most carnivorous plants evolved in humid, boggy environments with low-quality soil. You’ll need to provide them with:</span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Unique, moist soil that’s highly acidic - not just normal potting soil. Make your own by combining sand and peat moss in equal parts.</span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Well-draining but moist soil is a must. Gravel at the base of the pot or terrarium can help keep your plant well-drained.</span></li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">High humidity. You’ll be most successful if you provide a humid environment by putting the plant inside of a terrarium with some air flow via a gap in the lid.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Bright but indirect sunlight. Be careful to avoid overheating the plants if you keep them inside a terrarium.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Purified water to avoid giving the plant water that’s too alkaline or full of minerals.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Food - usually in the form of insects. Your carnivorous plant should get a variety of insects to balance out the nutrients. Hamburger and animal meat is too high in protein. You can release crickets or other store-bought insects into the terrarium.</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">It might seem odd that soil can be too rich for a plant. But because carnivorous plants evolved to deal with acidic, nutrient-deficient soils, that’s what they need today! Fertilizer or rich soil can kill your plant.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Some carnivorous plants are easier to grow indoors than others. It’s best to start with the easy ones first, then add the more challenging ones to your greenhouse as you go.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Which carnivorous plant is the easiest to grow?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most beginners start out with a </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/dionaea-muscipula/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Venus flytrap</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. This plant is the best-known carnivorous plant, with distinctive “jaws” that clamp shut on insects when they try to sample the plant’s nectar.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869913 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/venus-flytrap-595235_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="venus flytrap carnivorous plants to keep at home" width="1024" height="682" />

&nbsp;

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The problem is, Venus flytraps aren’t actually all that easy. That’s because in order to stay healthy, they need to go through </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">dormancy</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> ever year. Venus flytraps evolved in a temperate climate where they basically hibernate for several months per year.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you’re keeping your Venus flytraps indoors and don’t let them go dormant during the year, they’ll die much younger (2-3 years in general). If you have a cool area of the house that stays between 35 and 55 degrees Fahrenheit, you can put your plants there for the winter. Be sure to introduce them to dormancy gradually, just like if they were in the wild. They’ll still need some sunlight. If you don’t have a space for that, it’s hard to properly care for the Venus flytrap.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Instead of trying to work through dormancy as a first-time carnivorous plant owner, consider bringing home one of these easy carnivorous plants instead:</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869916 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/pitcher-plant-362370_640.jpg" alt="pitcher plant carnivorous plant you can keep at home" width="640" height="436" />

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Asian Pitcher Plants</strong></h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">These plants do best with warm daytime temperatures, so they often do best on patios or other toasty parts of the house. 70 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit is perfect. They like bright, indirect light and do very well in hanging baskets.</span>

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Bladderworts</strong></h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">These gorgeous little carnivorous plants are perfect for your home. <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/utricularia-chrysantha/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bladderworts</a> have delicate white flowers and can happily grow inside teacups. You can get terrestrial or aquatic bladderworts, whichever you prefer! These hardy little plants aren’t picky about soil or drainage - they just like to have plenty of light. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">These plants have some of the most complex feeding systems of all plants, so you won’t actually be feeding them like other carnivorous plants. They eat microscopic nematodes in their soil.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869917 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/butterwort-54175_640.jpg" alt="butterwort carnivorous plant" width="640" height="480" />

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Butterworts</strong></h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">These small plants look like succulents but are actually carnivorous plants. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/pinguicula-orchidioides/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mexican butterwort</a> is the most common species around. It actually does go through dormancy, but it doesn’t need much special care during that time - you just have to stop watering and feeding it during the winter, and it will be fine.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Butterworts like indirect sunlight and very well-draining soil. Your potting mix should be closer to ¾ sand or lava rock to ¼ peat, rather than the usual 50/50 mix for other carnivorous plants.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869918 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/plant-142084_640.jpg" alt="sundew carnivorous plant" width="640" height="426" />

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Tropical Sundews</strong></h3>
<i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Tropical</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> sundew species don’t need to go through dormancy (the temperate species do need dormancy, so steer clear if you’re not equipped for that). <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/drosera-aliciae/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Alice sundews</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/plants/drosera-capensis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cape sundews</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/drosera-binata/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">fork-leaved sundews</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/drosera-spatulata/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">spoon-leaf sundews</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/drosera-adelae/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lance-leaf sundews</a> all require the same, easy-growing conditions. You can even grow several different species in the same container!</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Sundews love bright light and lots of clean water. Feed no more than two branches once per week. Feed them spiders, ants, crickets, and flies. Some carnivorous plant growers also feed their plants with wet betta fish pellets with great results. Read more about </span><a href="http://thecarnivoregirl.com/carnivorous-plants-for-beginners-unkillable-sundews" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span style="font-weight: 400;">sundew care here</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span>

These carnivorous plants are perfect for keeping at home. They're easy, they don't require dormancy, and they're beautiful.

&nbsp;

Carnivorous Plants You Can Keep at Home

If you’re looking for a unique and interesting houseplant, it’s...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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