Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

Can you imagine a world where the majestic whale sharks would vanish? Well, a new study offers a stark warning for whale sharks: the future for these creatures is uncertain, and it's not just because of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-sharks-and-climate-warming">Whale sharks and climate warming </h2>



As global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-sharks-survived-a-drastic-spike-in-global-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> continue to rise, the ripple effects reach far below the ocean's surface.



A team of researchers led by Dr. Freya Womersley, a postdoctoral research scientist at the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> and the Marine Biological Association (<a href="https://www.mba.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBA</a>), set out to investigate the unseen consequences of our warming planet on whale sharks, the gentle giants of the sea.



The research suggests that by the end of the century, whale sharks may face a higher risk of ship strikes due to a shift in their habitats. 



The anticipation of this harmful synergy is based on wide-ranging projections derived from whale shark satellite-tracking data and global climate models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redistribution-of-whale-sharks">Redistribution of whale sharks </h2>



"Our model projects core habitat area losses of more than 50% within some national waters by 2100, with geographic shifts of over 1,000 kilometers. Greater habitat suitability is predicted in current range-edge areas, increasing the co-occurrence of sharks with large ships," noted the researchers.



"This future increase was&nbsp;∼15,000 times greater under high emissions compared with a sustainable development scenario." 



The future for whale sharks looks ominous, if not outright grim, if the current state of affairs continues unchecked.



Our relentless pursuit of industrial growth, expansion, and transportation has tipped the scales. These giants risk being displaced from their homes, and ironically, we are the ones who have set them sailing on this precarious journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-of-fatal-ship-strikes">Risk of fatal ship strikes</h2>



Why worry about shipping? The answer lies in the paths these steel behemoths carve across the oceans.



As climate change shifts the habitats of whale sharks, the experts predict a significant increase in close encounters between these marine creatures and large vessels.



This increasing intersection of whale shark habitats and shipping routes spells trouble. With this projected scenario, the risk of fatal strikes and disruptions becomes startlingly high, making the seas a dangerous place for the world's largest fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-shark-conservation">Climate change and shark conservation</h2>



The research highlights an urgent need for factoring climate change into discussions concerning endangered species management. The task at hand is not easy, but it is vital for the preservation of our marine biodiversity.



Our actions have set off a chain of events that are challenging the survival of endangered whale sharks. If proactive measures are not taken, the future could be a cruel place for many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-sharks-are-abandoning-their-homes-due-to-ocean-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a> we hold dear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-mitigation-and-adaptation">Strategies for mitigation and adaptation</h2>



In light of these findings, there is an urgent need to explore strategies that can mitigate the impending threats posed by climate change and ship traffic.



Collaborative efforts between scientists, policymakers, and industry leaders are crucial. Implementing marine protected areas (MPAs) could serve as a sanctuary for whale sharks, reducing the probability of ship strikes and allowing their populations to recuperate. 



Additionally, developing and enforcing guidelines to reroute shipping lanes away from critical habitats could significantly minimize collisions, offering a promising solution to preserve these gentle giants for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-united-conservation-efforts-are-needed">United conservation efforts are needed</h2>



The conservation of whale sharks and their habitats is far from being a one-person task; it demands a collective global commitment. 



Public awareness campaigns can play a pivotal role in highlighting the plight of these creatures, turning the tide towards more sustainable marine practices. 



Furthermore, funding and supporting research initiatives that enhance our understanding of whale shark ecology and interactions with changing oceanographic conditions are vital. 



By uniting efforts across sectors, we can create a resilient environment where whale sharks thrive alongside human advancements, ensuring they remain an integral part of our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-sharks-live-up-to-500-years-whats-their-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rich marine tapestry</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-sharks-from-climate-change">Saving sharks from climate change</h2>



Climate change isn’t just about rising temperatures; it disrupts ecosystems and threatens wildlife. As we face these challenges, we must remember that the effects go beyond what we see. 



"Global warming is one of the most pervasive facets of human-driven climate change, with the magnitude of projected temperature rises over the 21st century comparable to that of the largest global changes in the past 65 million years," noted the researchers.



"Biological responses to warming are already apparent across terrestrial, freshwater,&nbsp;and marine taxa. As environments change, species must either adapt, tolerate, move or face extinction."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02129-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Whale sharks move into dangerous territory as the climate warms

Can you imagine a world where the majestic whale sharks...

Celebrated each year on October 8th, World Octopus Day is a time to honor one of the most intelligent animals in the ocean.&nbsp;



World Octopus Day highlights the complexities of protecting marine animals as environmental threats like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-the-distribution-of-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and pollution continue to evolve.



Protecting marine habitats, such as coral reefs and seagrass beds, is crucial for the survival of octopus species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-intelligence-of-octopuses-nbsp">Remarkable intelligence of octopuses&nbsp;</h2>



Research has shown that octopuses have both short-term and long-term memory. They can learn from experience and adapt their behavior to new challenges.



Octopuses have a highly developed nervous system with approximately 500 million neurons. Most of these neurons are located in their arms, which allows for complex motor control and independent movement.



Some octopus species have been observed using tools, such as using coconut shells or rocks for shelter or defense, indicating a level of cognitive sophistication.



Octopuses can rapidly change color and texture to blend into their surroundings. This requires advanced visual processing and environmental awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-octopuses-nbsp">Ecological importance of octopuses&nbsp;</h2>



Octopuses play a vital role in marine ecosystems due to their various ecological functions.



As both predators and prey, octopuses help maintain the balance of marine food webs. They hunt various species, including crabs, fish, and mollusks, which helps control the populations of these organisms. In turn, they are prey for larger marine animals such as sharks, larger fish, and sea birds.



Some octopus species create dens in the ocean floor by using rocks, shells, and other materials. These dens can serve as habitats for other marine organisms, increasing local biodiversity.



Through their feeding and excretion, octopuses help cycle nutrients in the marine ecosystem. Their predation on benthic invertebrates can affect nutrient dynamics and promote a healthy seabed.



Octopuses serve as an indicator species, reflecting the health of their marine environments. Changes in their population or behavior can signal shifts in ecosystem health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-octopuses-nbsp">Threats to octopuses&nbsp;</h2>



Despite their ecological importance and remarkable intelligence, octopuses face an uncertain future due to several interconnected factors.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



Rising ocean temperatures and acidification affect marine ecosystems and can disrupt octopus habitats and prey availability.&nbsp;



A recent study showed that rising ocean temperatures may also cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-seas-impair-octopus-vision-to-a-critical-extent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vision impairment</a> in octopuses - a direct threat to their survival.&nbsp;



The researchers found that warmer ocean water alters the chemistry within their bodies, specifically affecting the proteins essential for proper vision.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overfishing">Overfishing</h3>



Octopuses are targeted for their meat, leading to overfishing in some regions.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Unsustainable fishing</a> also removes large quantities of fish and other marine species from the ecosystem, leading to a decline in the availability of food for octopuses. This can affect their growth, reproduction, and survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat loss</h3>



Overfishing leads to habitat degradation, particularly when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-fishing-method-of-bottom-trawling-harms-both-the-ocean-and-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bottom trawling</a> and other destructive fishing methods are used. This can destroy the environments where octopuses and their prey thrive.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-pollution">Ocean pollution</h3>



Pollutants like heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial chemicals accumulate in the marine environment.&nbsp;



Octopuses, being at the top of the food chain, accumulate these toxins in their bodies, leading to health issues such as weakened immune systems, reproductive problems, and even death.



Octopuses ingest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> either directly or through the consumption of contaminated prey. These tiny plastic particles can cause physical harm and may also release harmful chemicals into their systems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-research">Limited research</h3>



Octopuses are still relatively understudied compared to other marine species, making it challenging to assess their population health and develop effective conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrating-world-octopus-day">Celebrating World Octopus Day</h2>



Today, make an effort to educate yourself and others about marine ecosystems and the threats they face. Share your knowledge with friends and family to raise awareness about marine conservation issues.



You can also honor World Octopus Day by reducing plastic waste. Minimize single-use plastics by using reusable bags, bottles, and containers.&nbsp;



In addition, choose seafood that is sustainably sourced. Look for certifications like the <a href="https://www.msc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Stewardship Council</a> (MSC) or the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) to support responsible fishing and farming practices.



Furthermore, you can contribute to organizations that are working hard to protect marine environments, such as the <a href="https://oceanconservancy.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Conservancy</a>.



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World Octopus Day: The intelligent creatures of the sea

Celebrated each year on October 8th, World Octopus Day is...

Spiders, known for their venomous abilities, utilize a chemical arsenal to capture prey and defend themselves. While small neurotoxins targeting the central nervous system of their victims have been intensively studied, scientists in Germany shifted their focus to the enzymes present in the complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-new-way-to-study-venom-production/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> cocktail.



The experts have discovered a vast, previously overlooked diversity of proteins that facilitate biochemical reactions. According to the researchers, these enzymes could hold significant value for bioeconomic applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-produce-complex-venom">Spiders produce complex venom</h2>



With approximately 52,000 species worldwide, spiders are notably diverse and produce some of the most complex animal venoms. The venom of a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-turn-to-cannibalism-when-food-sources-are-limited/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> can contain over 3,000 molecules, primarily small neurotoxins used to overpower insects.



A team of researchers from the LOEWE Center TBG at the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, branch of <a href="https://www.ime.fraunhofer.de/en/Research_Divisions/bioresources.html">Bioresources (IME-BR)</a> in Giessen, Germany, has investigated these previously neglected components of spider venom and made a surprising discovery.



The experts found that in addition to neurotoxins, spider venom also contains a wide variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enzyme-plant-waste-products/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enzymes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzymes-in-spider-venom-nbsp">Enzymes in spider venom&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Tim Lüddecke is head of the Animal Venomics working group at the IME-BR in Giessen.



“In the past, a few pioneering studies suggested the presence of enzymes in spider venoms, but a targeted search for them has never been carried out,” said Lüddecke.



“We took on this task and systematically screened the raw data of all so far venom-wise analyzed spiders for enzymes. We were able to show that there are in fact more than 140 different enzyme families in their venom.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-diversity-of-spider-venom">Chemical diversity of spider venom</h2>



Lüddecke noted that the chemical diversity of spider venoms has been dramatically underestimated so far, as all calculations of complexity are based on the neurotoxins alone.



According to the experts, the findings not only enable new research approaches to better understand the evolution and function of spider venoms but also open new perspectives for their utilization.



“Enzymes are key building blocks of the bioeconomy. They accelerate chemical reactions and are characterized by very low by-product formation, low energy consumption and biodegradability,” explained study first author Josephine Dresler.



“They can therefore be used to create value in a highly sustainable way. Industry is constantly looking for new sources of enzymes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opening-up-a-new-field-of-research-nbsp">Opening up a new field of research&nbsp;</h2>



Dresler noted that some of the enzymes identified in the study could be used in detergents or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-highlights-desperate-need-for-electronic-waste-management/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waste management</a> because of their fat-splitting or protein-degrading properties. “They could make a significant contribution to a sustainable transformation there.”



“So far, the spider venom community has focused exclusively on medical or agricultural applications. Our discovery opens up the possibility of establishing a completely new field of applied research,” said Lüddecke.



“But we are only at the beginning, as less than 1% of all spider species have been studied for their venoms. I am confident that we will make more exciting discoveries in the remaining 99% of the world's spider fauna.”



According to the researchers, the study revealed extensive discrepancy between public databases and publications with regard to enzyme coverage, which impedes the development of novel spider venom enzyme-based applications.&nbsp;



“Uncovering the previously unrecognized abundance and diversity of venom enzymes will open new avenues for spider venom biodiscovery,” the authors concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-for-spider-venom-enzymes-nbsp">Applications for spider venom enzymes&nbsp;</h2>



Enzymes in spider venom have various potential uses in medicine and biotechnology due to their unique biochemical properties. Some potential applications include:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-painkillers">Painkillers</h3>



Some spider venom enzymes target nerve channels, making them potential candidates for developing non-opioid painkillers. For example, peptides from venom can block pain receptors without addictive side effects.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-treatment">Cancer treatment</h3>



Certain enzymes in spider venom may selectively target cancer cells. Research has shown that these enzymes can break down cell membranes or inhibit cell proliferation, making them potential tools for cancer therapy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuroprotective-agents">Neuroprotective agents</h3>



Some venom enzymes protect nerve cells by blocking toxic proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's, offering a possible therapeutic approach.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antimicrobial-agents">Antimicrobial agents</h3>



Spider venom enzymes can break down bacterial cell walls, which could be harnessed to develop new antibiotics, especially in the fight against antibiotic-resistant bacteria.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-clotting">Blood clotting</h3>



Some spider venom enzymes can either promote or prevent blood clotting. This could be useful for developing treatments for blood disorders, such as hemophilia (promoting clotting) or for anticoagulant drugs to prevent clots.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insecticides">Insecticides</h3>



Since spider venom is highly effective at immobilizing or killing insects, enzymes from venom could be utilized in developing environmentally friendly insecticides for pest control.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44185-024-00058-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Biodiversity</a>.



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Spider venom has hidden biochemical value

Spiders, known for their venomous abilities, utilize a chemical arsenal...

A common investment strategy used in finance may hold the key to protecting an endangered frog species in Puerto Rico. The modern portfolio theory is a tool typically used to balance risk and reward in financial investments.



The research suggests that using this tool to guide natural resource managers in making decisions could help preserve the coquí llanero, Puerto Rico's smallest and most endangered frog species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-habitats-for-endangered-frogs">Limited habitats for endangered frogs</h2>



The coquí frog is an iconic symbol of Puerto Rico, known for its distinct high-pitched chirp. Among the 17 species of coquí, the coquí llanero is the most at risk, with its population limited to just three small freshwater wetlands on the island's northern coast.&nbsp;



This restricted habitat makes it highly vulnerable to environmental threats, including severe storms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-sea-levels-spiked-dramatically-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising sea levels</a>, and the broader impacts of climate change.



“There’s only so much the coquí can do on their own to avoid climate risks,” said Mitch Eaton, lead author of the study and a research ecologist with the <a href="https://secasc.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southeast Climate Adaptation Science Center</a>. 



“So, it’s important that we think about how to manage and mitigate risk within this complex ecosystem.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-risks-by-diversifying-investments-nbsp">Reducing risks by diversifying investments&nbsp;</h2>



Modern portfolio theory, a concept rooted in economics, is widely used to build stable investment portfolios by balancing risks.&nbsp;



The idea is that diversifying investments - mixing high-risk, high-reward stocks with safer, low-return assets like bonds - can reduce overall risk in uncertain markets. The amount invested in each asset is based on how much risk the investor is willing to take.



But how does this financial theory apply to endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a>?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-the-best-decisions-for-endangered-frogs-nbsp">Making the best decisions for endangered frogs&nbsp;</h2>



In natural resource management, managers also face uncertainty about the future - especially when dealing with unpredictable climate conditions.&nbsp;



Like investors balancing a portfolio, managers must decide how to allocate resources by purchasing land for protection, restoring habitats, or relocating species to new environments.&nbsp;



In this study, researchers tested whether modern portfolio theory could be used to help managers make decisions that would best conserve the coquí llanero.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-risks-with-climate-uncertainty-nbsp">Managing risks with climate uncertainty&nbsp;</h2>



“Diversification of investments is kind of a magic bullet for stability under future market uncertainty,” Eaton said.&nbsp;



“The idea behind using modern portfolio theory is to manage risk under future climate uncertainty, and to help managers consider investments more carefully with realistic variables like budget constraints.”



To explore this idea, the researchers created models that incorporated various factors, such as currently protected habitats, projected sea-level rise, and future changes in temperature and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precipitation</a>. 



The experts also accounted for different budget scenarios, simulating various levels of funding available to managers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maximizing-benefits-while-minimizing-risks">Maximizing benefits while minimizing risks</h2>



The models led to two different portfolio strategies. The first strategy aimed to maximize conservation benefits based on budget constraints. 



The second strategy balanced potential benefits with reducing the risk of extinction, also considering available funding.



The results showed that maximizing benefits at the lowest cost often involved relocating frogs to already <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-slow-down-biodiversity-loss-but-they-cant-reverse-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected areas</a>. 



However, a strategy that focused on reducing risk suggested that buying new land to relocate the frogs - despite the higher cost - was a more effective way to minimize the chances of extinction.&nbsp;



The study concluded that relying solely on existing protected areas may not be enough to safeguard the coquí llanero from future climate risks and that investing in additional habitats could be worth the extra cost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-distribution-of-endangered-frogs-nbsp">Expanding the distribution of endangered frogs&nbsp;</h2>



The research also revealed unexpected potential relocation sites for the frogs on Puerto Rico’s eastern side, far from the species’ current range on the northern coast.&nbsp;



This discovery could provide resource managers with more options for protecting the coquí llanero by expanding its geographic distribution.



“Ideally, modern portfolio theory acts as a handy tool for managers that gives them a new way of thinking about how to approach the implementation of management actions over space, in other words, how to pool their investments to manage risk and achieve maximal benefits,” Eaton said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



While the study focuses on the coquí llanero, the researchers believe the approach could be applied to other species and environmental management challenges.&nbsp;



However, they noted two key limitations: the study only considered one species, and high-cost investments would require a more detailed evaluation of local conditions and the specific costs of conservation efforts.



Even with these limitations, the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2024.1444626" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>, shows that modern portfolio theory has the potential to guide resource management for various species, helping managers make smarter, more strategic decisions in an increasingly uncertain world.



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Common economic strategy could help save endangered frogs

A common investment strategy used in finance may hold the...

The white stork has been linked to human society for centuries. Legends and fables have portrayed storks as bringing luck, children, and prosperity, and today these birds are viewed as an emblem of a healthy environment.



So, just how deep does this kinship between humans and white storks run? Where and how did this relationship begin?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-storks-and-humans">Link between storks and humans</h2>



Addressing this puzzle required understanding the historical habitat of the stork. Dr. Ulrich Schmölcke, an esteemed archaeologist from the Leibniz-Zentrum für Archäologie in Schleswig (<a href="https://www.leiza.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LEIZA</a>), and ornithologist Kai-Michael Thomsen from the<a href="https://bergenhusen.nabu.de/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Michael Otto Institute within NABU</a>, set out to investigate.



The experts embarked on a unique quest to explore the range dynamics of the white <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/younger-storks-choose-migration-routes-that-are-social-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stork</a> in Europe since the last ice age using archaeological evidence.



The exploration revealed a curious fact - the north-eastern part of Europe, today brimming with storks, only became part of their range in the recent past. The trailblazing study was recently published in the Journal of Ornithology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stork-s-past-with-humans">Stork's past with humans</h2>



To unravel the stork’s history, Schmölcke and Thomsen evaluated previously published findings of bird bones found near prehistoric or early historic settlements. 



A data set from 1999, for instance, provided information on over 7,500 archaeological sites with animal remains dating from the last ice age to the early modern period all over Europe. 



The two academics also delved into current research literature, thus rounding off an extensive database to make reliable statements about the white stork's distribution over the past millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-puzzle-solved">Historical puzzle solved</h2>



According to their findings, about 1,500 years ago, the white stork was found exclusively in southern and western Europe, notably on the Iberian Peninsula, in the Upper Rhine region, and the southern Balkans.



Intriguingly, the boundary of the stork's distribution at the end of antiquity matched precisely the extent of the Roman Empire. Ancient written sources validate this, showing that the white stork was closely associated with people in the Mediterranean region at the time. 



However, beyond the borders of the Roman Empire, the white stork didn't find suitable habitats. Why? The human population density was substantially lower there, with less open spaces due to less intensive agriculture.



"It was only around 1,000 years ago that the white stork's range expanded rapidly to the north-east. This coincides with the medieval 'Landesausbau,' when many forests were cleared and new agricultural land was created," noted Thomsen.



The adaptable white stork seems to have benefitted long-term from these changes in human landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



This study doesn't just shed light on a fascinating chapter of natural history. It is also instrumental in understanding species distribution and disappearance patterns over time. 



"If we want to understand how species spread or why they disappear from some areas, we can't just look at the current pattern. We need to understand long-term developments," said Thomsen.



Schmölcke noted that understanding past environments and species prevalence is crucial to studying how the relationship between humans and the environment has evolved over time - something that researchers at LEIZA and the ROOTS Cluster of Excellence are already working on.



According to Schmölcke, the study shows the great potential of cooperation between ornithology and archaeology, especially if we include even more&nbsp;analytical methods&nbsp;such as genetics and isotope measurements in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storks-and-human-settlements">Storks and human settlements</h2>



The presence of white storks near human settlements throughout history highlights a remarkable symbiosis that has persisted for centuries. 



Storks, with their preference for open, agricultural landscapes, often chose nesting sites near human habitations, taking advantage of the structures for nesting and the agricultural practices that heightened food availability. 



As these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> fed on rodents, insects, and other pests, they inadvertently provided a form of natural pest control, benefiting human communities by sustaining crops and, thereby, the food supply. 



The gear-driven harmony between storks and humans was not only sustenance-based but also symbolic, as storks became emblematic of good fortune and prosperity in various cultural narratives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-in-a-changing-world">Conservation in a changing world</h2>



As we move further into the 21st century, the challenges posed by climate change and habitat destruction cast a shadow on the once-thriving relationship between humans and white storks. 



Conservation strategies must be informed by the rich historical context provided by studies like that of Schmölcke and Thomsen. 



Future conservation efforts should take an interdisciplinary approach, integrating historical data to inform sustainable land-use practices that accommodate the needs of both humans and stork <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-feeding-pollutes-local-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. 



By focusing on habitat preservation and landscape management, policymakers can ensure that the white stork continues to soar across European skies, embodying the interconnectedness between species and the environments we share.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tale-of-man-and-bird">Tale of man and bird</h2>



The bond between humans and the white stork is older and deeper than we thought, starting from ancient human civilizations and showing a surprising parallel with human expansion and land use changes. 



And it is fascinating discoveries like these that underscore how interconnected we are with the natural world. 



So, the next time you see a white stork, take a moment to appreciate not just its elegance, but also the rich, shared history it symbolizes.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10336-024-02206-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Ornithology</a>.&nbsp; 



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White storks and humans have a long, intertwined history

The white stork has been linked to human society for...

Eurasian,Pygmy,Shrew,(sorex,Minutus),Mouse,In,Natural,Habitat.,This

Do you ever stop to marvel at the tireless beating of your heart, rhythmically pulsating at an average pace of 60 to 100 beats per minute? Now, try to imagine an organism, considerably tinier than our species, whose heart goes on a racing spree at around 1,020 beats per minute. Nope, this isn't a hyperbole; it's the humble shrew, a creature no bigger than your index finger with incredible hearts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigma-of-nature-s-artistry">Enigma of nature's artistry</h2>



The resting heart rate of a shrew reaches up to 17 beats per second, making it about 10-17 times faster than that of us humans. 



This biological marvel has intrigued scientists for years - how does such a tiny creature manage to maintain a heart rate that would be lethal for most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>?



This question has finally found an answer in a recent study published in the prestigious journal, Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-shrew-s-heart">Mystery of shrew's heart</h2>



An international team of researchers, led by postdoc William Joyce during his time at Aarhus University (<a href="https://international.au.dk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AU</a>), and his colleague, Professor Kevin Campbell, previously of AU and currently with the <a href="https://umanitoba.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manitoba</a> (Canada), embarked on this mission to decode the shrew's heart. 



It was during this investigation that they discovered the secret lay in the heart protein called "cardiac troponin I."



"We discovered that a crucial part of the heart protein that regulates heart relaxation time is missing in shrews and closely related moles," explains Joyce, who has shifted his base to The Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC) in Spain.



"This evolutionary loss permanently removes the brakes on heart relaxation, allowing their hearts to beat much faster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-the-protein-chain">Missing link in the protein chain</h2>



The protein cardiac troponin I is integral to the way a heart works. It binds to calcium ions during contraction, a process pivotal for the heart muscle's function. 



In most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, this protein contains two specific serine amino acids that are temporarily modified when the heart gets a burst of adrenaline from stress or physical activity. 



This modification allows the heart to relax faster between beats, providing more time for blood refill, thus setting the pace for the next contraction.



But a remarkable deviation occurs in the case of shrews.



"In an early ancestor of shrews, the DNA region encoding the two serines became inactivated. This means the protein always functions as if it were activated by adrenaline, even when the animal is at rest, allowing shrews to achieve their extreme heart rates," explains Campbell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrews-bats-and-their-heart-rates">Shrews, bats and their heart rates</h2>



To understand how this evolution towards high heart rates has unfolded, the research team studied the heart protein in bats. Like shrews, bats also boast heart rates exceeding 1,000 beats per minute.



"Our analysis shows that some bat species can skip over the part of the gene that codes for the two serine amino acids when the protein is formed," Campbell continued.



Ancient shrews and moles likely had the same ability, and evolution gradually favored their troponin I proteins to completely lose this region. This permitted them to evolve even higher heart rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-humans">Implications for humans</h2>



The findings about the shrew's cardiac adaptations provide intriguing insights into the potential avenues for advancing human health and medicine. 



Understanding how the removal of the regulatory serine amino acids leads to enhanced heart rate capabilities in shrews could inspire new therapeutic strategies aimed at treating heart conditions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-know-far-less-about-four-footed-animals-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>. 



For instance, manipulating similar pathways could help develop treatments that ameliorate conditions marked by slowed or inefficient heartbeats. 



By revealing how nature adapts efficiently under high metabolic demands, these discoveries might pave the way for medical innovations that can mimic these natural developments for human benefit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-shrew-s-heart">Future research on shrew's heart</h2>



This research not only elucidates the evolutionary paths taken by shrews and bats but also opens new frontiers in cardiovascular research. 



Future studies could delve deeper into the genetic and molecular underpinnings that enable such high heart rates, potentially harnessing these mechanisms for translational applications. 



Continued exploration into the genetic coding of cardiac proteins across different species may uncover more evolutionary strategies that have yet to be understood, shedding light on the diversity and adaptability of life on Earth. 



By investigating these natural adaptations, scientists may unlock new strategies for improving heart function, offering unprecedented insights into both human health and evolutionary biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-implications-for-biomedicine">Potential implications for biomedicine</h2>



The findings from this study are not just fascinating trivia about tiny mammals like shrews and their heart rate. They may have far-reaching implications for the field of biomedicine. 



"Our goal is to translate our findings into biomedicine. This means replicating the splicing of troponin I, as observed in bats, in model organisms and potentially -- eventually -- in human hearts to mimic the beneficial effects," Joyce comments.



Indeed, the implications of this research stretch far and wide, from a deeper understanding of the heart's mechanics to possibly revolutionizing biomedical strategies. 



It’s a stark reminder of how much we can learn from the smallest creatures whose hearts have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lessons</a> to teach us far beyond our own human pace.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adi8146" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How shrews and other tiny creatures have superfast heartbeats

Do you ever stop to marvel at the tireless beating...

Long before the skies of the Mesozoic era (252 - 66 million years ago) became the domain of some of history’s most remarkable flyers, pterosaurs were already captivating creatures. These winged vertebrates didn’t just rule the skies; they also thrived on land in unexpected ways.



Yes, you read that right - pterosaurs were adept at terrestrial living. A new study sheds light on a fascinating twist in their evolutionary journey.



The ability of pterosaurs to adapt to life on land was instrumental in their transformation into massive aerial giants, with wingspans reaching up to 10 meters.



This research, carried out by paleontologists at the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/research/centres/cpbe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester’s Centre for Palaeobiology and Biosphere Evolution</a>, closely examines the structure of pterosaurs’ hands and feet to unravel their surprising story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-all-started-with-tree-climbing">It all started with tree climbing</h2>



"Early pterosaurs were highly specialized for climbing, with extreme modifications in their hands and feet, similar to those found in climbing lizards and birds like woodpeckers today," said lead researcher Robert Smyth from the University of Leicester.



"Clinging to vertical surfaces by your fingertips for long periods is hard work - it’s a lot easier for small, lightweight animals.” 



Consequently, these early pterosaurs were likely restricted to arboreal habitats and consequently, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-pterosaurs-were-fierce-competitors-in-the-late-cretaceous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small body sizes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-of-pterosaurs-on-land">Life of pterosaurs on land</h2>



Everything changed during the Middle Jurassic period. The hands and feet of pterosaurs underwent a drastic transformation, resembling more those of ground-dwelling animals.



This shift opened up a whole new world of ecological opportunities, empowering them with a range of feeding strategies.



"These findings underscore the need to examine all aspects of pterosaur locomotion, not just flight, to fully understand their evolution. That <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-park-was-wrong-about-how-fast-pterosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaurs could fly</a> is only one part of their story," said Smyth.



"By exploring how they lived in the trees or on the ground, we can begin to understand the roles that they played in ancient ecosystems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-pterosaur-bones">Evolution of pterosaur bones</h2>



Details of the pterosaur's hands and feet were crucial to this transformative process. Early pterosaurs had short bones at the base of their fingers and toes, ideal for climbing trees.



However, as evolution spun its web, their structural pattern reversed - base bones grew longer, while the farther ones shortened. Their claws also became flatter and less curved, suggesting better adaptation for walking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaurs-mobility-on-land">Pterosaurs' mobility on land</h2>



With the ground already brimming with dinosaurs and other reptiles, it was a clever game of competition avoidance that led pterosaurs to exploit ecological niches that required both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying</a> and walking abilities. 



"In early pterosaurs the hind limbs were connected by a flight membrane which severely impeded walking and running. In later, more advanced pterosaurs, this membrane became separated along the midline, allowing each hind limb to move independently," noted Dr. David Unwin from the University of Leicester.



"This was a key innovation that, combined with changes to their hands and feet, greatly improved pterosaurs’ mobility on the ground."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-ways-of-life">Diverse ways of life</h2>



The ability to adapt ultimately freed pterosaurs from the constraints of climbing, allowing them to grow into massive sky creatures.



At the same time, such evolution brought forth some bizarre feeding strategies. One such feature resulted in hundreds of fine, needle-like teeth for filter-feeding - resembling the feeding method of modern flamingos, a good 120 million years prior to the first flamingos' evolution.



All in all, this exciting discovery provides a more complete picture of the diverse ways of life that pterosaurs enjoyed, from tree-top dwellers to ground explorers and eventually, giants of the sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-pterosaur-evolution">Rethinking pterosaur evolution</h2>



This new understanding of pterosaur terrestrial locomotion sheds light on the broader factors behind their evolutionary success. 



Moving beyond their aerial abilities, it becomes clear that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-jurassic-pterosaur-found-on-the-isle-of-skye/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient reptiles</a> adapted to diverse ecosystems, mastering both the skies and the ground. This dual capability likely contributed to their remarkable resilience and longevity throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic era</a>.



By exploring how pterosaurs thrived across various environments, researchers are beginning to see a more complete picture of their evolutionary journey. 



Such findings also inspire further investigation into other prehistoric creatures that might have displayed similarly unexpected adaptations. 



As we uncover more about these ancient worlds, it’s clear that evolution often involves surprising strategies that help species overcome the challenges of their time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982224012260" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Pterosaurs mastered land before dominating the sky

Long before the skies of the Mesozoic era (252 -...

Dogs are justly famous for their ability to melt the hearts of even the most hardened individuals. This feat is achieved, in a part, through the patented "puppy dog eyes" - an irresistible and expressive manipulation of the eyebrows that can convey an incredible range of emotions. But new research from Baylor University has found that coyotes, wild relatives of man's best friend, share the ability to make "puppy dog eyes."



This revelation rocks the boat of the hypothesis that this expressive facial feature was an evolutionary outcome of dog domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coyotes-and-their-eye-muscles">Coyotes and their eye muscles</h2>



The research, conducted at <a href="https://www.baylor.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor University</a>, highlights an interesting find in the animal kingdom. The team behind this fascinating discovery was led by Patrick Cunningham, a Ph.D. research scholar in Baylor's Department of Biology.



The focus of the study? A tiny little muscle - the levator anguli oculi medialis (LAOM). This muscle plays a key role in producing those expressive "puppy dog <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-and-human-brains-sync-up-during-eye-contact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eyes</a>," by raising the inner eyebrow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coyotes-making-puppy-dog-eyes">Coyotes making puppy dog eyes</h2>



Contrary to pre-existing beliefs, Cunningham and his team discovered that coyotes have a well-developed LAOM, similar to that found in dogs.



This challenges the long-standing notion that the LAOM muscle in dogs evolved exclusively for communication with humans during the process of domestication.



"Our findings suggest that the ability to produce 'puppy dog eyes' is not a unique product of dog domestication but rather an ancestral trait shared by multiple species in the Canis genus," said Cunningham. 



"This raises fascinating questions about the role of facial expressions in communication and survival among wild canids."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coyotes-dogs-and-gray-wolves">Coyotes, dogs, and gray wolves </h2>



Cunningham's team didn't stop at coyotes. They extended their research to encompass facial muscle comparisons between coyotes, dogs, and gray wolves. They found marked differences among these species. While dogs and coyotes share a similarly well-developed LAOM, the situation is quite different in gray wolves.



The gray wolf's LAOM muscle is either modified or altogether absent. This intriguing difference casts doubt on the previous hypothesis that focused entirely on human-driven selection as the be-all-end-all for the development of the inner brow raiser in dogs. 



Instead, the study proposes that the LAOM likely existed in a common ancestor of dogs, coyotes, and gray wolves, but was later lost or reduced in gray wolves.



The study also documented considerable individual variation within coyotes when it comes to facial muscles, particularly those involved in brow and lip movements. 



The experts ruled out significant dog ancestry in their coyote specimens through genetic analysis. This confirms that these traits are not due to crossbreeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolutionary-biology">Implications for evolutionary biology</h2>



The findings indicate a need for a re-examination of evolutionary paradigms concerning canine facial expressions.



The presence of "the LAOM muscle"puppy dog eyes" in both domesticated and wild canids like coyotes suggests that adaptive pressures influencing facial musculature might have been more complex than previously assumed. 



The ability for subtle emotional expression could have been an evolutionary advantage in group living and survival for species like coyotes. Consequently, this compels a broader inquiry into the ecological and behavioral factors that could have preserved this trait across different members of the Canis genus. 



Moreover, it implies a need to reassess how such traits contribute to intraspecies communication and interactions with humans and other species, potentially offering novel insights into the evolutionary biology of canids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The revelations from this research offer numerous avenues for further exploration. For one, it would be valuable to investigate whether environmental or social factors in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-move-into-towns-to-avoid-predators-only-to-be-killed-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild canids</a> contribute to the retention or modification of facial muscles like the LAOM. 



Comparative studies across a broader range of canid species could illuminate how these expressions have evolved and diversified. 



Additionally, integrating genetic research could provide deeper insights into the genetic mechanisms underpinning these anatomical traits. 



Understanding the potential haptic and communicative functions that facial musculature serves in various canid communities could offer exciting revelations about the evolution of non-verbal communication in the animal kingdom. 



Transformative research like Cunningham's lays the groundwork for future scientific exploration, making it imperative to continue unraveling these complex evolutionary stories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-puppy-dog-eyes-in-coyotes">Implications of puppy dog eyes in coyotes</h2>



"Our work reveals that&nbsp;coyotes&nbsp;and dogs share not just behavioral similarities, but also a fascinating evolutionary history that includes the ability to make expressions that we once thought were unique to domesticated animals," said Cunningham.



This transformative discovery gives us more to think about in terms of the evolution of facial expressions in mammals. The LAOM may not have come into being as a tool of communication with humans, as was previously thought. It may have originally evolved for vision-related functions and eye movements.



Looking ahead, Cunningham's team is excited about the prospect of future studies involving other species within the Canidae family, such as red wolves and African wild dogs. 



These studies could shed new light on the role of facial expressions in survival and communication among these species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241046" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Coyotes can make puppy dog eyes too

Dogs are justly famous for their ability to melt the...

What if our Earth, about 800 million years ago, was home to an abundance of diverse lineages of life -- far more than the conventional evolution theories suggested?



This is the conclusion of a group of dedicated Brazilian researchers who meticulously reconstructed the tree of life from amoebozoans, the ancestors of algae, fungi, plants, and animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-life-forms-and-evolution">Diverse life forms and evolution</h2>



Sometimes, you uncover a tale so unexpected, so contrary to what you've always believed that it reshuffles your perception of the world. 



The researchers, in their engaging endeavor, focused on eukaryotes -- organisms made of one or more cells in which the DNA is enclosed within a distinct nucleus.



This encompasses all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-evolution-was-shaped-by-environmental-crises-land-and-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life on Earth</a> except bacteria and archaea. The cornerstone of their study was the intriguing insight that these eukaryotes emerged around 1.5 billion years ago, and established themselves during the Neoproterozoic oxygenation event (850-540 mya). 



This was a point in time when the oxygen levels in the planet's atmosphere and oceans spiked due to changes in Earth's geochemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-against-all-odds">Against all odds</h2>



Unraveling the story further, the researchers also shed light on the resilience of these organisms. These ancestors of plants, algae, fungi, and animals withstood not one but two glaciations of the Cryogenian period (790-635 mya). 



This period, smack in the middle of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-the-first-animals-appear-on-earth-we-are-now-one-step-closer-to-knowing-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neoproterozoic Era</a>, was marked by the Earth's chilling transformation into a 'snowball', with polar ice blanketing the entire planet for around a cool 100 million years.



Now, that's survival on a whole new level!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-the-neoproterozoic-era">Legacy of the Neoproterozoic Era</h2>



Daniel Lahr, the professor at the University of São Paulo’s Institute of Biosciences (<a href="https://ww3.icb.usp.br/ing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IB-USP</a>) and the last author of the study, gives us a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quick reality check</a> on the classical paradigm surrounding the Neoproterozoic Era.



“The classical paradigm for the Neoproterozoic was that there was practically no life on the planet apart from one or two species of bacteria and protists,” he explains. 



However, the last 15 years witnessed the identification of fossils of unicellular, eukaryotic, and heterotrophic organisms, taking us back to about 800 mya.



The study effectively pivots the mass diversification of life on Earth back by a game-changing 260 million years, much before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worm-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-explains-insect-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian explosion</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-tree-of-life">Evolution and tree of life</h2>



Lahr goes on to explain how this research serves as a foundation for further paleoclimate reconstruction research. 



He elaborates on the stark transformation of Arcellinid amoebae, which were originally marine but now inhabit freshwater bodies. The adaptive nature of these organisms is awe-inspiring to say the least!



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/thecamoebians_fossils_800-million-years-old_credit-Luana-Morais_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/thecamoebians_fossils_800-million-years-old_credit-Luana-Morais_1s.webp" alt="Left, a fossilized thecamoebian believed to have lived 720-635 mya. Right, a specimen from a group of modern amoebozoan testate amoebae. Credit: Luana Morais" class="wp-image-1946688" style="width:302px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Left, a fossilized thecamoebian believed to have lived 720-635 mya. Right, a specimen from a group of modern amoebozoan testate amoebae. Credit: Luana Morais</figcaption></figure>



The research hinged on the evolutionary history of amoebozoans, specifically Thecamoebae. 



By reconstructing the phylogenetic tree (a record of the organism's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaw-dropping-mammal-evolution-discovery-fills-in-more-blanks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary history</a>) of this genus, the researchers could then build up the tree of life from there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-tree-of-life-0">Evolution and tree of life</h2>



The research sheds light on an evolutionary leap that defied expectations. These findings propose that the diverse array of life forms we see today stemmed from a rich pool of single-celled organisms, thriving even in the face of harsh climatic conditions. 



This view challenges the traditional narrative of life's history on Earth, which often suggests that significant diversity only emerged post-Cambrian explosion. 



By tapping into the genetic and fossil records, these scientists offer a broader understanding of how primitive life navigated and adapted through ancient Earth's climate upheavals, suggesting that the seeds of complexity were sown much earlier than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-modern-science">Implications for modern science</h2>



The ramifications of this study reach far beyond understanding past life; they provide a crucial framework for modern scientific inquiry. 



This elucidation of ancient climate resilience holds valuable lessons for contemporary climate science, particularly in terms of understanding and predicting how current ecosystems might adapt to ongoing environmental changes. 



Moreover, reconceptualizing the timeline of evolutionary history invites further interdisciplinary research, combining paleontology, geology, and molecular biology to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-hotspots-may-skew-our-view-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life's profound adaptability</a>. 



Through this lens, the study serves as a testament to the complexity and tenacity of life, motivating a re-examination of other periods marked by climatic shifts and the potential for undiscovered diversity within them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-picture">Big picture</h2>



In simple terms, this research is about connecting the dots -- lots and lots of them. By drawing upon previous discoveries and using advanced techniques like single-cell transcriptomics, the researchers have unearthed a treasure of information about life 800 mya.



Under the aegis of the São Paulo Research Foundation (<a href="https://fapesp.br/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAPESP</a>), this research has opened new doors in our understanding of Earth's history, specifically the Neoproterozoic Era. 



“Our analysis of the data showed that a great diversity of lineages began to emerge in the period, one of which was animals and another fungi, possibly alongside plants,” Lahr concludes.



Such important research is proof of humanity's insatiable quest for knowledge, our endless fascination with life, its origins and evolution.



The story of Earth's past continues to be written, pieced together from fragments of data and fossils, a proof of the extraordinary journey of life. Who knows what we may unravel next?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Diverse life forms from 800 million years ago redefine evolution

What if our Earth, about 800 million years ago, was...

Primates, our closest living relatives in the animal kingdom, are under threat due to climate change. In particular, primates are vulnerable to climate change due to their reliance on stable ecosystems, specific habitats, and specialized diets.



In an extensive study, a team of biologists, planetary scientists, and conservationists have mapped out potential extinction risks for primates due to the changing climate.



The research was focused on regions that serve as bustling habitats for primates. The experts also looked closely at specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-primates-struggle-more-with-extreme-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate characteristics</a> for an accurate depiction of what the future could hold for these species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-primates">Climate change and primates</h2>



The impending threats of climate change are not evenly distributed. Different regions are set to experience distinct climate shifts. For example, some areas will witness a dramatic increase in rainfall, while others will see a notable drop in precipitation.



These variable shifts, as the study illustrates, will trigger a domino effect. Changes in vegetation will inevitably affect animals, including primates, that rely on such food sources.



"Identifying the main predictors of species’ extinction risk while accounting for the effects of spatial and phylogenetic structures in the data is key to preventing species loss in tropical forests through adequate conservation practices," noted the study authors. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research </h2>



The researchers analyzed data collected from 22,705 locales where primates live. Spanning multiple continents and islands, the data represented regions including Madagascar, Asia, Africa, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.



The team estimated changes in rainfall amounts and the ensuing shifts in vegetation. They also investigated how rapidly the conditions may shift. 



Furthermore, the experts considered specific attributes of the primates themselves such as body size, range, diurnal or nocturnal habits, predators, and their evolutionary distinctiveness.



"Our goal was to understand how these varying elements could impact primate species at a granular level," explained lead researcher Dr. Janet Goodall of the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variable-impacts-across-primate-species">Variable impacts across primate species</h2>



According to the team's findings, the impacts of climate change on primates will be extremely varied. The study shows that both the region and the primate species can significantly sway the risks associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-loss-is-forcing-endangered-primates-to-interbreed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



An unstable rainfall pattern in the Neotropics, for instance, could put several species at high risk. Conversely, the same weather change may serve as an advantage for primates residing in Madagascar and Africa.



However, our primate friends are likely to face other foes - deforestation, mining, pollution - all of which contribute to their vulnerability. The team discovered 33 primate species with an unacknowledged high risk of extinction.



"These species have a latent extinction risk and should be further evaluated," said Dr. Goodall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-primates-in-a-changing-climate">Future of primates in a changing climate</h2>



The extensive research reveals the potentially colossal risk that primate species around the globe are facing as our planet continues to warm. 



The study highlights the urgent need for concerted efforts towards mitigating the impacts of climate change, alongside improving the conditions of these creatures' habitats.



Is there a way we can halt or reverse the impacts of climate change on these species? Can we afford to lose these extraordinary creatures that share so many traits with us? 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-primates-from-climate-change">Saving primates from climate change</h2>



As we conclude, remember this isn't merely about preserving biodiversity. Saving our primate relatives is instrumental to saving ourselves, for, in their survival, lies many answers to our own existence and survival. 



The work done by Dr. Goodall and her team is an invaluable step in our understanding of the uncertain future facing primates – a future that we have the power to influence.



"Our findings highlight the importance of climate change mitigation and forest protection strategies. Increasing the protection of large primates and reducing hunting are also essential," the researchers concluded. 



The solution starts with awareness, moving on to action. The fate of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> friends, and maybe ours too, hangs in the balance due to climate change. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1905" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.</a>



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Primates face an uncertain future due to climate change

Primates, our closest living relatives in the animal kingdom, are...

Are lobsters the key predators of sea urchins? This is a widely accepted belief that has shaped marine conservation strategies for decades. But, new research suggests there might be a twist in the tale: Sharks, not lobsters, are the real predators of sea urchins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-feeding-on-sea-urchins">Sharks feeding on sea urchins</h2>



A team of researchers, with the hope of understanding how lobsters prey on sea urchins, set up a camera at a lobster den. They placed sea urchins strategically inside the den only to find majority of them being devoured by sharks - not lobsters.



This unique study was published in Frontiers in Marine Science and surely turns the tables on well-established beliefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-sea-urchin-predators">New perspective on sea urchin predators</h2>



So, what does this mean for our understanding of who is eating whom in our vast oceans? The study's lead researcher from the <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Newcastle</a>, Jeremey Day, offers an interesting explanation.



"Sharks are overlooked predators of sea urchins in NSW, while the role of lobsters appears to be less than expected. Importantly, sharks easily handle very large sea urchins."



The initial goal of the research was to monitor lobsters' hunting pattern on sea urchins. However, sharks encroached the scene, eating 45 percent of the sea urchins, while lobsters only consumed 4 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-lobsters-regulate-urchin-populations">Do lobsters regulate urchin populations?</h2>



Tethering was used in this experiment, which means the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-sea-urchin-parasite-has-emerged-on-opposite-sides-of-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urchins</a> were restrained in one place for predation tracking. The experiment ran over 25 nights in a lobster den in Wollongong, and the results were surprising.



It was always assumed that large sea urchins were safe from predation due to their size. However, this latest research revealed Port Jackson sharks and Crested Hornsharks to be the unexpected predators.



This raises an intriguing question; are lobsters as influential in regulating urchin numbers as we thought?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broadening-the-scope">Broadening the scope</h2>



The findings from this study indicate the need for a reevaluation of marine ecosystem management strategies. Understanding the true dynamics of predator-prey relationships in ocean habitats is crucial for conservation efforts.



"These findings, although from only one test location, provide important insights into the species eating urchins and highlight the potential significance of overlooked predators," noted the researchers.



If sharks play a pivotal role in controlling sea urchin populations, particularly large species previously thought invulnerable, this could impact the balance of marine habitats in unforeseen ways.



Resource managers may need to consider shark populations' health and behaviors more closely, integrating these insights into adaptive management plans to maintain ecological equilibrium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This novel discovery opens the door to further research into the intricacies of marine food webs. Future studies could explore the geographic extent of this phenomenon, examining whether other regions experience similar predator-prey dynamics. 



Researchers might also delve into the potential effects of climate change on these interactions, as shifting water temperatures and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchin-larvae-cannot-survive-in-water-polluted-with-plastic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> could alter predator distributions. 



Additionally, the study highlights the value of continuous technological advancements, like underwater cameras, in providing new perspectives on ecosystem behaviors that were previously hidden. 



By embracing these approaches, marine scientists can transform our understanding of oceanic life, ensuring informed decisions that safeguard the future of our seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-conservation-strategies">Rethinking conservation strategies</h2>



The relevance of this research isn't just about predators and their prey; it directly impacts our marine conservation efforts. For over 20 years, strategies to control sea urchin numbers through predator protection have been less effective than hoped. Day's research offers a possible explanation for this.



"The experiment provides one possible answer, since lobsters seemed generally uninterested in eating urchins, and also adds to the complexity of the model since sharks unexpectedly arose as the predator eating most of the urchins," explained Day.



"We confirm that the range of predators that eat urchins is broader than has been traditionally thought."



This comprehensive understanding might just be the key to devising effective conservation strategies in the future. After all, who'd have thought the shark may be the hero (or villain, depending on your perspective) of the urchin story?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1418506/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Sea urchins have some unexpected predators

Are lobsters the key predators of sea urchins? This is...

If you have ever talked to your dog, looked into their eyes, and saw understanding, you may not be just a hopelessly devoted pet owner. Indeed, most of us humans wonder whether our dogs actually understand what they're saying when we talk to them.



Offering an exciting glimpse into this very inquiry, a fascinating study led by the University of Geneva and the Hearing Institute reveals how dogs and their human counterparts break down interspecies communication barriers when people talk to their dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-talking-to-dogs">Humans talking to dogs</h2>



First off, let's acknowledge the elephant in the room or, in this case, the dog. Do you change your voice when speaking to your beloved canine? 



A seemingly whimsical trait, this turns out to be an instrumental facet in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-shrinking-brain-size-was-partially-caused-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interspecies communication</a>, particularly humans talk to their dogs. 



According to Eloïse Déaux, a researcher in animal behavior and neurosciences, this voice modulation helps bridge the gap between the distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-speech-changes-when-we-talk-to-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech rates</a> of dogs and humans.



In layman’s terms, when addressing our dogs, we slow down our speech to replicate their typical speech rate. 



“Humans slow down their speech when addressing their pets; it's a modification that brings them closer to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/typical-american-dog-knows-18-words-and-love-is-at-the-top-of-the-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog's typical speech rate</a> and could facilitate understanding,” explains Eloïse Déaux.



But why is there a difference at all? 



Well, this boils down to not only anatomic differences but also intricate brain mechanisms, specifically neural oscillations, the electrical patterns in the brain resulting from neurons' synchronous activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-brain-waves">Dog brain waves</h2>



Brain waves or neural oscillations are categorized by their frequency. While delta waves operate between 0.5 and 4 Hertz (Hz), theta waves snag a frequency between 4 and 7 Hz. 



Each frequency band plays a unique role in cognitive mechanisms. For instance, in human language comprehension, gamma waves code phonemes, theta waves handle syllabification, and delta waves deal with intonation.



Anne-Lise Giraud, a neuroscience professor and the project's driving force, explains that applying the study of brain oscillations to dogs is truly groundbreaking. 



The research team adapted non-invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-reading-technology-transforms-thoughts-into-text/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electroencephalography (EEG)</a> protocols to study the brain waves of canines and humans in response to auditory stimuli.



Shockingly enough, while the theta waves in humans correlate with the acoustic envelope, in dogs, it's the seemingly sluggish delta waves that take the cake. 



But how does this help us <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-mystery-of-why-dogs-wag-their-tails/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understand what Fido is thinking</a>?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-in-translation">Lost in translation</h2>



Humans can easily report their comprehension of a sound stimulus in either spoken or written form. But when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dog-day-honoring-mans-best-friend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, it's a whole different ballgame. 



The researchers used dog-directed speech consisting of commands, allowing them to measure the stimulus's intelligibility for the dog via its execution of the various commands.



Through this novel approach, the researchers modulated the recorded sentences to slow down or speed up their rate. 



“To get the content-free condition, for example, we reverse the recording of the master’s command. So 'sit' becomes something like ‘tis’. We then reverse back the prosody to match that of the original signal,” Eloïse Déaux describes the method.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-understanding-humans-when-they-talk">Dogs understanding humans when they talk</h2>



The researchers found that dogs fail to respond to commands spoken too quickly. They can process human language but only if it's in the delta band, between 1 and 3 Hz. 



The loss of content also influences comprehension. With prosody alone, command intelligibility drops significantly. 



This study busts the myth that dogs only care about our intonation. Phonological content, it seems, plays a crucial role, although, unlike us, syllables aren't dogs' primary comprehension tools.



Moreover, the results illustrate a deep connection between comprehension and oscillations. The more the theta waves in humans and delta waves in dogs align with the signal’s envelope, the higher the comprehension.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-man-s-best-friend-or-fluke">Man's best friend or fluke?</h2>



This study by <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gen</a><a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/">eva</a> proposes that dogs and humans have coadapted to effectively communicate with one another. 



But is this exclusively a dog-human dynamic? Would other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domesticated animals</a> display this same adaptive communication?



An interesting avenue for future research, the study suggests comparing this phenomenon with other non-domesticated canids like wolves to distinguish which linguistic abilities in dogs are innate and which are socially conditioned.



"A better understanding of the dog's cerebral mechanisms will enable us to gain knowledge about humans and our evolution, as this animal is evolutionarily very distant from us, but also to improve training techniques for our four-legged friends," Eloïse Déaux concludes.



Next time you chat with your puppy pal, remember, there's more going on than just wagging tails and wet noses. 



Whether your discourse is about a walk in the park or a treat for good behavior, know that you're engaging in a communication style thousands of years in the making. Now that's nothing to bark at!



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002789" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS Biology</a>.



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Talking slower helps dogs understand what humans are saying

If you have ever talked to your dog, looked into...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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