Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

A 25-million-year-old eagle fossil from Australia is helping to fill in the blanks of Accipitridae <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bowfin-fish-proves-that-evolution-can-be-flexible/">evolution</a>. The new genus and species, Archaehierax sylvestris, is represented by 63 bones - a significant amount for a group that can very easily escape the fossil record.&nbsp;



Most fossils are found because they can weather millions of years worth of all the punishment Mother Nature can dole out. Usually these are sturdiest of skeletal remains - things that decay quickly like soft tissue are quickly lost. Bird skeletons are lightweight and fragile by design - by lightening the animal’s body mass, they allowed dinosaurs to soar.&nbsp;



Consequently, bird fossils can be hard to find, so piecing together their evolutionary history can be a bit tricky.&nbsp;



“With eagles at the top of the food chain, they are always few in number - and so are infrequently preserved as fossils,” said study co-author Professor Trevor Worthy. 



“The foot span was nearly 15 cm long, which would have allowed it to grasp large prey. The largest marsupial predators at the time were about the size of a small dog or large cat, so Archaehierax was certainly ruling the roost."



The fossil site, Lake Pinpa, is now a dry and barren patch of land in the Australian outback, but was once a lush and productive forest. Other fossils from the site include koalas, opossums, and other birds, which were all likely prey items for Archaehierax.&nbsp;



“I have studied this system for many years now, and this is the most exquisite fossil we have found to date," said Worthy.&nbsp;



“The completeness of the Archaehierax skeleton allowed us to determine where it fits on the eagle family tree. It shows a range of features unlike any seen among modern hawks and eagles,” said study co-author Ellen Mathers.&nbsp;



Through a large dataset of extinct and extant accipitrids, the team found that Archaehierax did not belong to any of the living genera or families. "It seems to have been its own unique branch of the eagle family. It’s unlikely to be a direct ancestor to any species alive today," said Mathers.&nbsp;



Despite millions of specimens and over 200 years of European-style academic study, the fossil record provides only small, precious glimpses into the history of life on our planet. From the most alien looking specimens, to familiar feathered friends, every new discovery has the potential to inform the grand evolutionary story.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2021.1966777">Historical Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Eagle fossil represents a unique branch of the family tree

A 25-million-year-old eagle fossil from Australia is helping to fill...

The digestive systems of humans and other animals are home to dense populations of microbes, including bacteria, archaea and fungi. Scientists are still in the process of learning about the functions of these trillions of microbes – they are known to play an important part in the digestion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-can-be-very-cooperative-until-the-food-gets-scarce/">food</a> and in the efficient functioning of the immune system. We also know that each individual carries a unique combination of microbial species from shortly after birth.



Understanding more about the nature of the gut microbiome in different species can help scientists identify its functions in health and in the ecology of the animals. To this end, biologist Heather Skeen from the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>, along with some colleagues, set out to investigate the gut microbiota of Kirtland’s warblers. These small, migratory birds have very specific distributions in both their wintering and summering locations.



“We’ve seen in other animals that microbiomes can be influenced by the places their hosts live. Lots of birds migrate, and they experience different environments at different points of their migratory cycle. We didn’t know how these different environments affected the birds’ microbiomes,” said Skeen.&nbsp;



The researchers selected Kirtland’s warblers because they spend their winters in the Bahamas and migrate to northern Michigan in the spring. While in Michigan, the tiny warblers breed only in young jack pine forest. This means that individual birds could be tagged with radio trackers and followed on their migratory routes.



“We picked Kirtland’s Warblers because there are very, very few species of birds where you would have been able to track individual birds from their non-breeding grounds and then capture them on their breeding grounds,” said Skeen.&nbsp;



Initially, Kirtland’s warblers were captured on their wintering grounds in the Bahamas, using recorded bird calls to lure them closer. Each bird was fitted with a tiny radio tracking device. The warblers themselves have a mass of only one ounce so the tracing devices had to weigh less than 0.02 oz. Once fitted with a device, each bird was enclosed in a wax paper bag for a few minutes, just enough time to evacuate its bowels. The bird was then released and Skeen and colleagues were left to collect the droppings.



A few months later, once the birds had migrated to Michigan, the researchers managed to locate the same birds using the large network of automated radio towers, known as the Motus Wildlife Tracking System. “There were 12 radio towers spread throughout the birds’ breeding range in Michigan, and when one of our birds’ trackers pinged near a tower, we would drive around the range using a handheld radio antenna, looking for the bird,” said Skeen.&nbsp;



“Once we picked up the signal, we got out of the car and walked around, trying to attract the birds using recordings of their songs.” Once one of the tagged warblers was caught in the nets, it was again placed inside a wax paper bag to make its droppings before being released.&nbsp;



In this way, the researchers collected 200 samples of bird droppings from birds that had been caught both in the Bahamas and in Michigan. They then carried out genetic analysis of the microbial genomes to identify which species were present in the birds’ digestive systems.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that the microbes present in the Michigan samples was different from the microbes in the samples from the Bahamas. More importantly, they found that individual birds had different microbes in their digestive tracts depending on where they were when the sample was collected.



“One of the most important parts about this study is that we were able to recapture birds at different portions of the annual cycle in different locations, and we have this one-to-one comparison of the same population and the same individuals and how their microbiomes changed,” said Skeen.&nbsp;



“If we’d tested different individual birds, we wouldn’t have been able to say for sure if the changes we saw were due to location or if they were just differences between populations. Since we were looking at the exact same birds, these results are much more supported.”



The findings of this study, published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>, indicate that bird microbiomes work differently from those of most mammals. The types of microbes found in mammalian intestines are closely tied to the species of mammal and its evolutionary history. With birds, the gut microbiome is more dependent on where the bird lives than on the species of bird involved. “In our study, we found that there are some groups of bacteria that are probably transient – the birds acquire the bacteria from their food, they poop it out, and it’s gone,” says Skeen. “These bacteria don’t colonize the bird, they go in and out.”



“This study shows how much we can learn about even foundational aspects of bird biology, such as migration, from the combination of new and old technologies – fieldwork and following birds in their breeding, migrating, and wintering habitats, to newer technologies of radiotelemetry and next-generation DNA sequencing,” says Hackett, an associate curator at the Field Museum and co-author of the study.



Skeen also states that climate changes may make gut microbiomes additionally important as animals attempt to survive and adapt to changing environments. “An animal’s gut microbiome is an additional level of molecular diversity, and as global climate change alters ecosystems, the gut microbiome might be one of the avenues in which animals can adapt to the changing environment,” says Skeen. “The gut microbiome has its own unique ecosystem, and it’s ripe for discoveries.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Migratory birds adapt their gut microbes along the journey

The digestive systems of humans and other animals are home...

A species of hawkmoth from Madagascar, whose existence was predicted by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the 19th century, has recently been recognized as a new species. Known as Wallace’s sphinx moth, the unique creature is considered to have the longest tongue of any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-can-smell-dangerous-insects/">insect</a>, measuring up to 30 centimeters. The moth is the only insect that can reach the bottom of the nectar tubes of Madagascar’s star orchid.



In 1862, when Charles Darwin first saw the Madagascan orchid, he speculated that it would take a moth with an extremely long tongue to reach the nectar from the orchid’s tubes. Five years later, Alfred Lord Wallace predicted that this creature would be similar to an already known African hawkmoth with a long proboscis.&nbsp;



Both Darwin and Wallace were proven right when the moth that pollinated these orchids was finally discovered in 1902. Scientists initially categorized it as a subspecies of Morgan’s sphinx moth from the genus Xanthopan (the same one the African hawkmoth also belongs to).



However, a research team led by Joël Minet, a professor of Entomology at <a href="https://isyeb.mnhn.fr/en">Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité</a> (ISYEB), has recently found, through examining its physical and genetic differences, that the Madagascan moth is in fact not a subspecies of Morgan’s sphinx moth, but rather a species on its own, which they named Xanthopan praedicta (in the honor of the fact that Darwin and Wallace predicted its existence).&nbsp;



“The taxonomic change we now propose finally gives long-deserved recognition, at the species level, to one of the most celebrated of all Malagasy endemics,” said study co-author Dr. David Lees, a curator of moths at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a>.



The research team discovered 25 morphological differences between the Madagascan moth and Morgan’s moths, including differences in the shape of male and female genitalia, wing shape, and color patterns. Moreover, significant genetic differences have also been found between the two species.&nbsp;Most strikingly though, the Madagascan moth appeared to have a proboscis 6.6 centimeters longer than any of the studied Morgan’s moths.



“Imagine my excitement as I unrolled and measured the proboscis of a male&nbsp;Xanthopan&nbsp;in the Madagascan rainforest, realizing that it was probably the global record holder,” said Dr. Lees.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/antenor/oclc/44695951">Antenor</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Moth with the longest tongue of any insect is a new species

A species of hawkmoth from Madagascar, whose existence was predicted...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abh0895">Science Advances</a> found that rises in marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-will-intensify-due-to-thinning-ocean-layer/">heatwaves</a> will significantly amplify the impact of climate change on fish and fisheries. According to researchers led by <a href="https://oceans.ubc.ca/">UBC’s Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries</a>, global warming could wipe out thousands of tons of fish from all over the world.



By using complex computer modeling, the scientists predicted that in a worst-case scenario, in which no action is taken to mitigate greenhouse emissions, there will be a six percent annual drop in the amount of potential fish catches, and 77 percent of exploited marine species will decrease in biomass.&nbsp;



Due to the combined influence of extreme marine temperature events and the temperature rises related to climate change, fisheries’ revenues may be cut by an average of three percent globally, and employment by two percent, which would imply the loss of millions of jobs.



“These extreme annual temperatures will be an additional shock to an overloaded system,” explained lead author Dr. William Cheung, the director of UBC’s Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries.&nbsp;



“We see that in the countries where fisheries are already weakened by long-term changes, like ocean warming and deoxygenation, adding the shock of temperature extremes will exacerbate the impacts to a point that will likely exceed the capacity for these fisheries to adapt. It’s not unlike how COVID-19 stresses the healthcare system by adding an extra burden.”



According to study co-author Dr. Thomas Frölicher, a professor at the <a href="https://www.climate.unibe.ch/#:~:text=Climate%20and%20Environmental%20Physics%20is,seasons%20to%20a%20million%20years.">Climate and Environmental Physics Department</a> at the University of Bern, such extreme temperature events are likely to increase in frequency in the near future.&nbsp;



“Today’s marine heatwaves and their severe impacts on fisheries are bellwethers of the future as these events are generating environmental conditions that long-term global warming will not create for decades,” said Dr. Frölicher.



Scientists believe that some areas will be worse hit than others, including the Indo-Pacific region, the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and some countries in the West African region. In order to avoid significant losses, active fisheries management - such as adjusting catch quotas in years when fisheries are affected by extreme temperature events, or even shuttering fisheries in severe cases when stocks need to be rebuilt - will be of vital importance.



“This study really highlights the need to develop ways to deal with marine temperature extremes, and soon,” Dr. Cheung concluded. “We need to have mechanisms in place to deal with it.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Marine heatwaves could severely affect the fishing industry

A new study published in the journal Science Advances found...

Although they are slow, poor swimmers that sometimes even die of exhaustion, seahorses have some surprisingly speedy qualities too. A new study published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/224/17/jeb236430/272030/Elastic-energy-storage-in-seahorses-leads-to-a">Journal of Experimental Biology</a> has found that seahorses are fierce ambush predators which can spring their heads up in 0.002 seconds to snag and devour their unsuspecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-lions-have-mastered-the-timing-to-prey-on-chinook-salmon/">prey</a>.



Seahorses spend most of their time anchoring themselves by their tails to seaweed or corals while keeping their heads down, close to their bodies. When they sense prey passing by, they are able to lift their heads at an extraordinary speed to catch it. This movement, faster than any muscle contraction known to exist in the animal kingdom, is possible due to an elastic tendon which they stretch using their back muscles. The mechanism allows them to achieve a head speed rotation 50 times faster than that of other types of fish.



The amazing discovery was made by a team of researchers from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> who used high-speed cameras and laser-scan technology to record the hunting behavior of seahorses. This method also helped in elucidating how their incredibly fast head motions allow the seahorses to eat. The researchers found that the movements were accompanied by a powerful suction flow (eight times faster than those of similar-sized fish) that enabled the seahorses to suck their prey directly into their mouths.&nbsp;



The scientists have also investigated how different seahorse species proceed in capturing their prey by using their specific anatomical traits. “Our study shows that the speed of head movement and suction currents are determined by the length of a seahorse's nose,” said study lead author Roi Holzman, a professor of Zoology at Tel Aviv University.



“From the evolutionary aspect, seahorses must choose between a short nose for strong suction and moderate head raising, or a long nose for rapid head raising and weaker suction currents. This choice corresponds to the available diet - long-nosed species catch smaller, quicker animals, whereas short-nosed species catch heavier, more ponderous ones,” he explained.



Seahorses are not the only aquatic species to exhibit this fascinating spring mechanism. Other so-called “misfit fish,” including alligator piperfish, cornetfish, and shrimpfish are known to have similar abilities.



“The big question applies to the evolution of the spring mechanism, how it was formed and when it developed. I hope our recent study will lead to further studies designed to help solve the riddle of spring fish,” concluded Professor Holzman.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seahorses may be slow, but they are fierce ambush predators

Although they are slow, poor swimmers that sometimes even die...

Tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) is a subspecies of the large deer endemic to California. By the mid 1800s, the Tule elk was thought to be extinct. The subspecies was only saved by a rancher who found them on his land and preserved the remaining population of possibly less than 30 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-shapeshifting-to-survive-climate-change/">animals</a>.&nbsp;



Ironically, there is now a struggle over the coexistence of ranchers and Tule elk; which have grown in number to a population of 5,700 animals in 22 herds. Starting in the 1970s, the elk were reintroduced to the Point Reyes National Seashore; where historically they were the dominant grazer.&nbsp;



Today, the population of Tule elk has grown and the National Park Service (NPS) plans on culling their number against the outcry from activists. Not only is the NPS planning on culling the elks’ population, but a three-mile long, eight-foot high fence prevents their free ranging. The fence is for the benefit of dairy and cattle ranchers who also use Point Reyes for grazing.



Due to the limiting impact of the fence on movement, activists have been providing water troughs for elk unable to reach the vital resource. NPS employees have been accused of <a href="https://youtu.be/ndXyAbe5rOg">dumping out the water</a> left for the animals. 



Many elk are said to have died without access to water for months. Now, the NPS has reversed its decision and is instead providing new water troughs and mineral supplements. <a href="https://www.idausa.org/">In Defense of Animals</a>, ForELK and the TreeSpirit Project have hailed the decision as a step in the right direction.



However, the management of tule elk is still controversial, with the NPS <a href="https://www.ptreyeslight.com/article/park-finalizes-management-plan-update">recently revising </a>its management plan involving culling elk for the grazing of thousands of cows after it was contested in court.&nbsp;



Miyoko Schinner, founder and owner of California-based Miyoko's Creamery, has an animal sanctuary at her home in Nicasio where she keeps hundreds of rescued animals.&nbsp;



“At some point we have to decide: what is the legacy we want to leave? Do we want to be the species that exterminated every other species on this planet, which does not belong to just the human species? It belongs to all species, including the Tule elk, and every single species deserves to live," said Schinner.



"What we are doing today may or may not make a difference tomorrow, sadly, but we are a microcosm of a movement that is going to ripple across America that will change how we treat all wild animals. We must tell the story to all non-believers, to non-vegans that if they are wildlife and animal lovers they must stop consuming animal products.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Activists win a small battle as the war over Tule elk continues

Tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) is a subspecies of the...

Tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) are highly mobile, widely distributed sharks that feed on a range of vertebrate prey. They live in diverse habitats in tropical and subtropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-losing-oxygen-much-faster-than-oceans/">oceans</a> throughout the world and are expected to mix and interbreed freely due to their ability to travel widely. 



However, a recent analysis of the genomes of 242 tiger sharks from ten localities around the world has revealed that there are two distinct populations of tiger sharks in the world’s oceans. Conducted by Dr. Andrea Bernard from Nova Southeastern University, the research identifies an Atlantic and an Indo-Pacific population that are significantly different from one another.  



“These results mean that Atlantic and Indo-Pacific tiger sharks, despite their ability to travel vast distances, have not intermingled to reproduce for a long time,” explained study co-author Professor Mahmood Shivji, the director of the <a href="https://saveourseas.com/sosf-shark-research-center/">Save Our Seas Shark Research Centre</a> (SOSF-SRC).&nbsp;



“This long-term separation between Atlantic and Indo-Pacific tiger sharks has resulted in them developing into separate populations, each with its own unique genetic diversity."



The study also found that tiger sharks from Hawaii, one of the world’s most geographically isolated archipelagos, are genetically different from those found in the Indian Ocean. 



The scientists made use of genome-scale analysis at the sites of 2,000 different single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which allowed a very detailed look at the differences between tiger shark populations. 



“SNPs repeat across the entire genome,” explained Professor Shivji. “This increases the amount of information for geneticists to work with relative to previous surveys that were limited to small subsections of genetic information.”&nbsp;



The SOSF-SRC uses genetics to gain knowledge and understanding about sharks and rays in the world’s oceans. Its aim is then to apply this knowledge to improve the protection of these species. 



"A guiding principle for our work is to focus primarily on shark species that are of high conservation concern," said Professor Shivji. "We spread our work across both discovery research questions (for instance, understanding how sharks function) and applied conservation research (for instance, understanding interactions between shark migration patterns and fisheries or investigating trade in shark parts). The important point is that all of this information advances our knowledge of sharks and informs conservation.”



Tiger sharks are apex predators and are therefore important in the ecology of ocean systems. Even though they are globally distributed, their populations are threatened by fishing and their ecosystems are impacted by climate change, pollution and habitat destruction.&nbsp;



“Overfishing poses a clear danger to sharks. The genetic diversity in overfished species will inadvertently be diminished and they won’t adapt to the fast pace of environmental change,” said Professor Shivji.&nbsp;



“Compared to other fish species, tiger sharks occupy an unusually wide variety of habitats. Given their influential ecological role and their widespread movements that expose them to a variety of fisheries, science-informed fisheries management of tiger sharks is important to achieve global conservation goals.”



Considering the results of the study, scientists will need to manage the two distinct populations of tiger sharks in specific ways in order to preserve their genetic diversity. This will be particularly important as climate change affects ocean ecosystems and tiger sharks require all their genetic resources in order to adapt rapidly. The study recommends that a targeted conservation plan is devised for Hawaiian tiger sharks as well.&nbsp;



“Tiger sharks are part of not only the ocean’s overall health, but also its beauty and wonder. Our ongoing mission at the SOSF is to know more in order to do better by these species and their ocean home. Improving our insights into tiger sharks is ultimately linked to our health and well-being,” said His Excellency Abdulmohsen Abdulmalik Al-Sheikh, the founder of the SOSF.



If our understanding of tiger sharks had remained that populations are similar wherever they are found across the oceans, we might have stood to lose their true diversity and undermined their resilience as a powerful and ancient species.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhered">Journal of Heredity</a>,



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiger shark genomes reveal two distinct populations

Tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) are highly mobile, widely distributed sharks...

A new study has made the surprising discovery that Australia’s blue-tongue lizard is resistant to the venom of the deadly red-bellied black <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-snakes-evolved-from-just-a-few-surviving-species/">snake</a>. Possibly as interesting, the large monitor lizards that feed on venomous snakes are not resistant. While the effects of venom on humans has been heavily researched, this is not the case with other reptiles.&nbsp;



"It was a shock discovering that the eastern blue-tongue, along with the shingleback, showed resistance specifically to red black snake venom," said Nicholas Young, a PhD candidate at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>.



"Since their resistance was so specific to only this snake species, it seems these lizards have evolved a special plasma component -- known as a serum factor -- in their blood."



"This prevents specific toxins in red-bellied black snake venom from clotting the lizards' plasma, which would lead to a rapid death in most other animals. This resistance doesn't mean they're completely immune, but it would give them a greater chance of survival, allowing them to escape or fight back.”



The scientists tested the venom of seven snakes on the plasma of two species of blue-tongue lizards as well as on the monitor lizards or goanas that hunt snakes. Although it initially seems strange that the blue-tongued lizards were the only animals to show venom resistance, there is an explanation.&nbsp;



"You'd think that a goanna would be significantly resistant to the venom of any snake it was hunting and eating, but that isn't the case," said Dr. Bryan Fry, head of University of Queensland’s venom lab.



"Snake venom can only cause harm to goannas if it's injected into its body by the snake's fangs, it can't be absorbed directly through the skin."



"Goannas are heavily armored and their scales act like medieval chain mail, with each containing a piece of bone, meaning venomous snakes' fangs struggle to pierce this armor."



Each reptile - both the blue-tongue lizard and the goanna - have evolved a response to the snake’s bite. It’s just that in the case of the blue-tongued lizard, there is a direct response to the venom itself, while the goanna never has to worry about the venom at all.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



"These two divergent forms of resistance are fascinating examples of evolutionary novelty," said Dr. Fry.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/toxins">Toxins</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The blue-tongue lizard can resist deadly snake venom

A new study has made the surprising discovery that Australia’s...

New research just published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a> found that starfish, like us, have a chemical signal that tells them to stop eating. Despite this similarity, starfish feed in a very strange way. The animal everts it’s stomach, pushing the organ out of the mouth, to digest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-seafood-has-one-sixth-the-carbon-footprint-of-red-meat/">food</a> outside of the body cavity.&nbsp;



"Starfish exhibit one of the most remarkable feeding behaviors in the animal kingdom – they evert their stomach out of their mouth and digest large prey externally, and once the prey has been digested, the stomach is withdrawn," wrote the study authors.



While it was known that a hormone similar to oxytocin in humans signals the beginning of eating among starfish, it was not known what called for an end to food consumption.&nbsp;



To investigate, the researchers used the common starfish (Asterias rubens) as a research subject. The scientists injected the feeding starfish with SK/CCK-type neuropeptides, a hormone that inhibits appetite in both humans and insects. When the hormone was injected, the starfish retracted their stomachs. Even when offered their favorite food - a mussel - the starfish refrained from eating.&nbsp;



Dr. Ana Tinoco, one of the lead authors of the study, explained why this finding was interesting.



"The unusual way that starfish feed where they evert their stomachs out of their mouths, makes them a good model to study chemicals that regulate feeding processes."&nbsp;



"Whilst we already knew that this type of hormone was important for feeding, what's fascinating is that the important role of these chemicals in feeding in other animals has been preserved in starfish despite their dramatically different feeding behaviour, lack of a brain and unique body plan."



The study shows that the regulation of eating is conserved among animals, as starfish occupy a unique place as an evolutionary stepping stone between invertebrates and vertebrate animals. The researchers hope that this study may help in the development of new drugs to help treat eating disorders.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A chemical signal tells starfish they’re full

New research just published in the journal eLife found that...

In the last few decades, scientists and environmentalists have constantly raised their concerns on the increasing impact of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-ecosystems-are-important-carbon-sinks/">ecosystems</a>. One such concern is the extinction of numerous species of flora and fauna.&nbsp;



"With climate change and natural area loss pushing more and more species to the brink, now is the time to lift up proactive, collaborative, and innovative efforts to save America's wildlife," said Deb Haaland, U.S. Interior Secretary.



A recent proposal by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> intends to declare 23 federally protected species as extinct. The list includes a fruit bat, 11 birds, eight freshwater mussels, two types of fish, and a flowering plant in the mint family.&nbsp;



This would be the largest group of animals and plants to be formally declared extinct under America's main wildlife protection legislation, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) since it was passed in 1973.



Previously, only 11 species listed under the act have been classified as extinct over the years, said Brian Hires, a representative for the Interior Department agency&nbsp;



It is important to note that the Endangered Species Act has achieved a certain level of success as well. According to Hires, "54 species including the American peregrine falcon and bald eagle were removed from protected status due to their recovery, and another 56 species have been 'down-listed' from endangered to threatened."&nbsp;



Scientists have cautioned that the list of extinct species may lengthen in the near future as more species are predicted to become extinct due to human-caused climate change and habitat destruction. Currently, a total of more than 1,600 domestic animal and plant species are listed under the Endangered Species Act.



According to the US Wildlife Service, since 1970, avian populations as a whole have diminished by nearly 3 billion birds in the North American region due to rapid environmental changes linked to human activities.



America's largest woodpecker, the ivory-billed woodpecker most commonly known as the "Lord God Bird," was last sighted in 1944 and will now be officially declared extinct. Experts state that the destruction of its habitat due to logging of old-growth forests in the southern parts of the United States resulted in its extinction.



Bachman's warbler, one of America's rarest songbirds, is also included on the list. Since 1962, it has not been sighted in the wild in the United States. The last reported sighting of the migratory bird occurred in Cuba in 1981.



In 1967, the ivory-billed woodpecker and the warbler were first designated as endangered under the Endangered Species Preservation Act, which served as a forerunner to the ESA.



Eleven of the twenty-three species recommended for classification as extinct are indigenous to Hawaii and the Pacific Islands. Experts believe that heightened risks presented by their very limited geographic range may have caused their extinction.



The wildlife service will accept public comments on the proposal and a final decision will be published on Dec. 29, 2021.&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

23 species to be declared extinct in the United States

In the last few decades, scientists and environmentalists have constantly...

The public is becoming increasingly aware of the impact that climate change is having on endangered species and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/illegal-cannabis-farms-infringe-on-crucial-animal-habitats/">habitats</a>. However, many people do not realize that one of the biggest contributing factors to this conundrum is wildfires, caused by increasing global temperatures.



A key example of this is the Australian native bee family. New research from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> suggests that the number of endangered Australian bee species will rise fivefold after the Black Summer bushfires of 2019-20.



The researchers studied 553 species to assess the long-term damage of the natural disaster. They found that the wildfire, which burned over 24 million hectares of Australian land, had a destructive impact on the habitats of bees, insects, and invertebrates.



“Our research is a call for action, from governments and policymakers, to immediately help these and other native populations most in danger,” stated James Dorey, lead author of the study.&nbsp;



Nine species of Australian bees were assessed as vulnerable, and two were classified as endangered. “In these circumstances, there is a need for government and land managers to respond more rapidly to implement priority conservation management actions for the most-affected species in order to help prevent extinctions,” explained Mr. Dorey.



In addition to highlighting the destruction caused by the natural disaster, the study aimed to provide an assessment foundation for other taxa across the globe in order to help conserve species that have not been registered or widely studied by the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN Red List).



“Climate change is increasing the frequency of natural disasters like wildfire, which impacts our wildlife,” reiterated co-author Dr Stefan Caddy-Retalic. However, the researcher remained optimistic, explaining that the “study shows that we can assess the likely impact of natural disasters on poorly studied species, even when we can’t physically visit the field to do surveys.”



Native bees and their pollination cycles are essential to the ecosystem, but awareness of them is not high. The team believes that contributing to the IUCN Red List will be essential in lobbying governments to take action.



“Most people aren’t aware of just how vulnerable our native bees are because they are not widely studied,” said study co-author Olivia Davies. “The fact that no Australian bees are listed by the IUCN shows just how neglected these important species are.”



Ultimately, the researchers hope that their data collection model can be used by other academics to further understand the impact of natural disasters on key species and their ecosystems. “Being able to collect targeted data will always be the gold standard but we shouldn’t let data gaps stop us from acting to protect species we know are vulnerable,” concluded Dr. Dorey.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Australian bees are struggling to bounce back from wildfires

The public is becoming increasingly aware of the impact that...

A recent study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State University</a> found that corals’ microbiomes (comprising a large array of viruses, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-pick-up-new-gut-bacteria-as-they-travel/">bacteria</a>, and fungi) play a fundamental role in the ability to withstand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/95-percent-of-ocean-could-become-inhospitable-this-century/">rising ocean temperatures</a>. Scientists also identified several coral genes and photosymbionts residing within their tissues which may improve corals’ responses to heat stress.



“Prolonged exposure to heat can cause ‘bleaching’ in which photosymbionts (symbiotic algae) are jettisoned from the coral animal, causing the animal to die,” said study co-author Monica Medina, a professor of Biology at Penn State.&nbsp;



“We found that when some corals become heat stressed, their microbiomes can protect them from bleaching. In addition, we can now pinpoint specific genes in coral animals and their photosymbionts that may be involved in this thermal stress response.”



While previous studies on the mechanisms underlying corals’ heat-stress tolerance tended to focus only on the animals or their photosymbionts, this new study analyzed how the entire holobiont (the coral animal, its photosymbionts, and microbiome) is involved in the stress response.&nbsp;



By performing a heat-stress experiment on three species of corals known to differ in their sensitivities to heat stress and the composition of their holobionts, the researchers investigated the varying contributions of each holobiont member to the corals’ stress tolerance.&nbsp;



“Our goal with this research was to determine if there have been lineage-specific innovations to heat stress in corals and their algal photosymbionts, as well as whether all members, including bacterial communities, differentially contribute to holobiont robustness,”&nbsp;said co-author Viridiana Avila-Magaña, a former doctoral student at Penn State.&nbsp;



The gene-expression data revealed that the three coral holobionts differed in their responses to heat-related stress, and that members of each holobiont had different contributions to the corals’ ability to cope with thermal stress. The scientists concluded that the greater thermal tolerance observed in some coral holobionts, such as the starlet coral, are partly due to the higher number and density of their thermally resistant microbes in their microbiomes.



“We found that some corals harbor a stable and diverse microbiome translating to a vast array of metabolic capabilities that we have shown remain active during the thermal challenge. By contrast, we found that less thermally tolerant species had reduced bacterial activity and diversity,” reported Dr. Avila-Magaña.



“Corals have been highly impacted by climate change, and the methods we developed in our study represent an excellent tool for scientists trying to understand the adaptive potential of populations and species,” the researchers concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Corals depend on their microbiomes to endure heat stress

A recent study led by Penn State University found that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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