High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a thumbprint have stepped out of anonymity and into the scientific spotlight. Their world is a maze of wet cliffs, dripping bromeliads, and wind‑scoured ridges where moss carpets the rocks.



“They’re <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">small</a> and unassuming, but these frogs are powerful reminders of how much we still don’t know about the Andes,” said Germán Chávez of the Center for Ornithology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://corbidi.org/">CORBIDI</a>). 



Chávez and his colleagues trekked those ridges between 2021 and 2024, often in freezing rain, to reach calling sites above 9,000 feet.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountains-support-unique-frog-species">Mountains support unique frog species</h2>



The <a href="https://blog.pensoft.net/2025/06/27/hidden-gems-in-the-mist-three-new-frog-species-uncovered-in-northern-peru/cordillera-de-huancabamba-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cordillera de Huancabamba</a> forms a natural break in the Andes, splitting watersheds and isolating species. 



Ecologists classify the region as a <a href="https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/tropicalandes_techsummary.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspot</a>, one of only thirty‑five on Earth where extraordinary endemism collides with severe habitat loss.



"The Cordillera de Huancabamba is not just a remote range - it's a living archive of biodiversity and cultural legacy," said Wilmar Aznaran. "And we've barely scratched the surface."



Isolation breeds novelty, and novelty fills the genus Pristimantis. With 619 described species, Pristimantis is now the most diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whistling-forest-frogs-recently-discovered-may-be-wiped-out-before-we-learn-about-them/">amphibian</a> genus on the planet.



The new frogs, Pristimantis chinguelas, P. nunezcortezi, and P. yonke, occupy different niches along the same ridge. One clings to cliff faces, one prowls leaf litter beside clear streams, and the smallest tucks itself deep inside tank bromeliads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-new-species">Confirming the new species</h2>



Night surveys began after dusk, when temperatures hovered near 50 °F and fog erased headlamp beams. Team members listened for faint “peep” notes that barely rose above dripping leaves. 



Finding a caller did not end the chase. Each frog had to be photographed, swabbed for DNA, measured, and released without harming delicate skin.



Back in Lima, the researchers compared mitochondrial 16S sequences. Genetic distances exceeded the three‑percent threshold herpetologists often use to flag separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">species</a>, clinching the case for formal description.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-amphibians-are-poorly-studied">Many amphibians are poorly studied </h2>



All three newcomers enter the IUCN books as <a href="https://www.thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-bulletin/issue-number-169-autumn-2024/4079-03-how-many-data-deficient-amphibians-are-threatened-iucn-red-list-assessments-for-amphibian-species-previously-classed-as-data-deficient" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Data Deficient</a>, meaning scientists lack enough information to judge extinction risk. 



The label sounds neutral, yet recent reassessments show that roughly half of amphibians that start as Data Deficient later prove threatened.



Formal names unlock funding and legal tools that nameless creatures rarely receive. Conservation plans, environmental‑impact statements, and protected‑area budgets almost always hinge on a taxon’s standing in recognized databases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-climate-shifts">Indicators of climate shifts</h2>



The Cordillera de Huancabamba isn't just a biological goldmine, it’s wrapped in layers of folklore. In nearby villages, frogs are often seen as signs of rain or omens tied to agriculture and spiritual beliefs.



This cultural lens makes local communities key allies for conservation. When researchers name <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/">species</a> after regional icons or traditions, like P. yonke, they honor local identity and encourage stewardship.



Unlike most frogs, species in the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/64811-Pristimantis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pristimantis genus</a> bypass the tadpole stage entirely. They hatch from eggs as fully formed froglets, ready to climb, hop, and call without ever entering water.



This reproductive shortcut allows them to thrive in places where standing water is rare or seasonal. It also makes them sensitive indicators of climate shifts and microhabitat changes in mountain ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frog-species-in-fire-prone-habitats">Frog species in fire-prone habitats</h2>



Each frog occupies an area smaller than four square miles, hemmed in by crop fields and fire scars. Peru recorded about 10,400 wildfires in 2024, more than double its previous record, burning grasslands and cloud‑forest edges alike.



P. chinguelas calls from a road‑cut cliff where charred bamboo still smells of smoke. P. nunezcortezi shares a single stream corridor that now borders new potato plots.



P. yonke lives higher, inside bromeliads at roughly 9,800 feet, in what locals call the <a href="https://lacgeo.com/northern-andean-paramo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">páramo</a>, a chilly grassland‑wetland mosaic perched above the treeline. 



Páramo vegetation stores water like a sponge, so every lost bromeliad weakens both the frogs and the human communities farther down‑slope.



“Exploring this area is more than fieldwork - it’s an immersion into wilderness, culture, and resilience,” said Karen Victoriano‑Cigüeñas.&nbsp;



"Many of these mountain&nbsp;ridges&nbsp;are isolated, with no roads and extreme terrain," noted Ivan Wong. "The weather shifts within minutes, and the steep cliffs make every step a challenge. It's no wonder so few scientists have worked here before. But that's exactly why there's still so much to find."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-new-frog-species">Protecting the new frog species </h2>



No one has recorded the breeding calls of P. nunezcortezi or P. yonke, so females remain unverified. Diet, predators, and lifespan also remain mysteries for all three species.



Future expeditions will test whether the frogs persist on neighboring ridges or whether each ridge hosts its own micro‑endemic. 



Acoustic monitors and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.2353" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eDNA traps</a> could reveal silent populations hiding in moss tunnels or bromeliad tanks beyond the reach of hikers.



For now, the frogs depend on local goodwill. Community fire patrols, low‑impact grazing, and small protected micro‑reserves can buy time while researchers gather the missing data.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://evolsyst.pensoft.net/article/148522/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Systematics</a>.



Image Credit: Germán Chávez et. al



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Three new frog species found in Peru face an uncertain future

High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a thumbprint have stepped out of anonymity and into the scientific spotlight. Their world is a maze of wet cliffs, dripping bromeliads, and wind‑scoured ridges where moss carpets the rocks. “They’re small and unassuming, but these frogs are powerful reminders of how much we still don’t know about the Andes,” said Germán Chávez of the Center for Ornithology and Biodiversity (CORBIDI). Chávez and his colleagues trekked those ridges between 2021 and 2024, often in freezing rain, to reach...

Just a few years ago, there was a significant decline in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/drinking-stations-koala-bears-hydrated/">koala</a> population of Cape Otway in Victoria, Australia. 

“In 2013 the koala population reached very high densities, leading them to defoliate their preferred food tree species, manna gum,” explains Dr. Michaela Blyton of the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, an author on a new study published in <a href="https://animalmicrobiome.biomedcentral.com/">Animal Microbiome</a>. “This led to 70 per cent mortality due to starvation, which was very distressing.”

Blyton noticed that even though the koalas were dying of starvation, many of them refused to start eating their less-preferred tree species, known as messmate. This was made stranger by the fact that some koalas feed only on messmate.

“This led me and colleague Dr. Ben Moore at Western Sydney University to wonder if the microbes present in koalas’ guts - their microbiomes - were limiting which species they could eat, and if we could allow them to expand their diet with fecal inoculations,” says Blyton. 

Thus began Blyton’s messy experiment of catching wild koalas and keeping them in temporary captivity in order to collect the end stage product of their messmate diets – less formally known as “poo.”

“We collected poo from radio-collared wild koalas that ate messmate, concentrated the microorganisms in the poo, packaged it into acid-resistant capsules and gave them to the captive koalas,” explains Dr. Blyton. “We then monitored how much messmate the koalas were willing to eat over an 18-day period and assessed how the microbiomes changed after the inoculations, comparing their diets to those of control koalas that received manna gum microbes.”

The results at the end of this period showed that the fecal inoculations actually changed the koalas’ microbiomes and allowed them to eat messmate. 

“This could affect all aspects of their ecology including nutrition, habitat selection and resource use,” says Blyton. “Koalas may naturally have trouble adapting to new diets when their usual food trees become over browsed or after being moved to a new location. This study provides a proof of concept for the use of encapsulated fecal material to successfully introduce and establish new microbes in koalas’ guts.”

Blyton believes that this procedure could be used to help adjust koalas’ microbiomes before they are moved to environments where they have the habitat and food source to survive. The inoculation may also serve as a source of probiotics during and after antibiotic treatment. So next time you complain about needing to swallow a pill, just be thankful that its contents are bound to be more appetizing than a koala’s fecal inoculation. 

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: The University of Queensland

How fecal inoculations could help save koalas

Just a few years ago, there was a significant decline...

A new study has revealed that Asian tiger mosquitoes are adapting to colder winters and pushing the limits of their northern range by using their eggs as ‘time capsules.’  

The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, first arrived in the US in the 1980s and successfully spread from Houston, Texas to St. Louis, Missouri in just a year. 

Researchers from <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a> have discovered that mosquitoes further north are finding ways to rapidly adapt to the cold, which could impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tick-mosquito-borne-disease-spreading/">disease prevention efforts</a> as the mosquitoes spread beyond their known territory. 

Tiger mosquitoes can spread West Nile virus, dengue fever, and Zika. 

“This all happened within a period of 30 years,” said Kim Medley, the first author of the new study. “This disease vector has evolved rapidly to adapt to the United States. The fact that this has occurred at a range limit may suggest that there is potential for the species to continue to creep farther northward.”

When the days get shorter and winter is on the way, the mosquito responds by laying egg “time capsules” that will hatch later when conditions are right. This kind of delayed development egg is called a diapause egg. 

Mosquito larvae need standing water to hatch, but diapause eggs can survive not only cold conditions but dry periods as well. 

In this new study, the researchers were able to understand how northern eggs perform and hatch when conditions are favorable. 

The researchers collected mosquito eggs and larvae from Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. In a lab setting, the researchers raised the mosquitos and monitored their growth and development through differing generations.  

Next, the mosquitoes were exposed to longer periods of darkness to simulate the oncoming of winter. 

When the mosquitoes in the lab laid diapause eggs, the researchers collected and placed them in different locations in field sites at the northern edge of their typical range, an optimal climate-controlled setting and a site well outside their northern range in Wisconsin. 

The following summer, the researchers returned to the sites to collect new eggs.

“We counted all of the eggs to see how many survived the winter in all of these locations,” said Medley. “What we learned was that the northern mosquitoes’ diapause eggs survived northern winters significantly better than the southern mosquitoes’ eggs did. 

[caption id="attachment_1876802" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/overwintering-and-collection-sites.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1876802" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/overwintering-and-collection-sites.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="503" /></a> Overwintering and collection sites, Image Credit: Journal of Applied Ecology[/caption]

The only eggs that didn’t survive were the mosquitos in Wisconsin. 

Not only are northern mosquitoes laying more diapause eggs, but these eggs perform better through the winter, the researchers found. 

The tiger mosquito may be testing the bounds of what ecologists know about animals adapting to new conditions. 

“Based on theory, we expect that populations at range limits will be small, they will be fragmented and that they will be low in genetic diversity,” said Medley. “It’s thought that these populations will not have the demographic and genetic robustness to adapt, so they remain at this state of maladaptation. That may not be the case with this species.” 

The study findings were published in the Journal of Applied Ecology. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/InsectWorld

Tiger mosquitoes may be quickly adapting to colder climates

A new study has revealed that Asian tiger mosquitoes are...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>, the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, and the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>, have concluded that the brain evolution of anthropoid primates — a diverse family of both modern and extinct monkeys, humans, and their nearest relatives — was much more complex earlier on in history than previously realized. 

By studying a 20-million-year-old Chilean primate skull (the only skull and known specimen of the Chilecebus carrascoensis) the researchers saw that the brain enlarged repeatedly and independently throughout anthropoid history. 

These findings are published in <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

"Human beings have exceptionally enlarged brains, but we know very little about how far back this key trait started to develop," said lead author Xijun Ni, a research associate at the Museum and a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. "This is in part because of the scarcity of well-preserved fossil skulls of much more ancient relatives."

"Through more than three decades of partnership and close collaboration with the National Museum of Chile, we have recovered many remarkable new fossils from unexpected places in the rugged volcanic terrain of the Andes," said John Flynn, the Museum's Frick Curator of Fossil Mammals. "Chilecebus is one of those rare and truly spectacular fossils, revealing new insights and surprising conclusions every time new analytical methods are applied to studying it."

[caption id="attachment_1876798" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/brain-sizes.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1876798" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/brain-sizes.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="672" /></a> Comparing the brain sizes of a variety of primates, Image © Xiaocong Guo/Xijun Ni[/caption]

Flynn, Ni, and their colleagues had previously studied Chilecebus and gathered a rough outline of the species’ encephalization, or the brain size relative to body size. Most primate species have encephalization quotients (EQs) relative to other mammals, however some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-brains-impulsive-behavior/">primates</a> have higher EQs than others, such as humans and their closest kin.

To look deeper into the EQ history of anthropoids, the researchers used Chilecebus to map out patterns across the anthropoid family tree, which resulted in a phylogenetic encephalization quotient (PEQ). Most modern monkeys have PEQs of 0.86 to 3.39, whereas Chilecebus had a PEQ of 0.79. And humans have a PEQ of 13.46.

Using this framework, the researchers were able to confirm that cerebral enlargement happened repeatedly and independently throughout anthropoid evolution, as did occasional cerebral reduction. 

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image © AMNH/N. Wong and M. Ellison

Ancient skull reveals complex brain evolution in apes and monkeys

A team of researchers from the American Museum of Natural...

Increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-booms-oxygen-levels/">oxygen levels</a> in North America gave rise to dinosaurs 215 million years ago, according to a new study.  

Researchers from <a href="https://www.rpi.edu/">Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute</a> in New York created a new method for measuring the compositions of gas trapped in carbonate minerals.  

The researchers were able to measure the oxygen in ancient rocks with this new technique and assess the atmospheric concentrations of oxygen when dinosaurs first started to appear in North America.  

A spike in oxygen over a three million year period correlates with the rise of dinosaurs in the North American fossil record, but the researchers still aren’t sure exactly what sparked this rise in air concentrations.

After analyzing small amounts of gas extracted from rocks from the Colorado Plateau and the Newark Basin with a spectrometer, the researchers found that oxygen levels increased by a third in a relatively short amount of time. 

“Our results show that over a period of around 3 million years - which is very rapid in geological terms - the oxygen levels in the atmosphere jumped from around 15% to around 19%,” said Professor Morgan Schaller, the lead researcher for the study. “For comparison, there is 21% oxygen in today's atmosphere. We really don't know what might have caused this increase, but we also see a drop in CO2 levels at that time.”  

When the gasses were trapped in the rocks, both the Colorado Plateau and the Newark Basin were near the equator and part of the supercontinent Pangea. 

However, despite both regions being close to the equator, the areas were far enough apart that the researchers hypothesize that the increase in oxygen was a worldwide phenomenon. 

“We expect that this change in oxygen concentration would have been global change, and in fact we found the change in samples which were 1000km apart,” said Schaller. “What is remarkable is that right at the oxygen peak we see the first dinosaurs appearing in the North American tropics, the Chindesaurus. The Sauropods followed soon afterwards.” 

It’s important to note that there may be other factors influencing the rise of North American dinosaurs, Schaller added.

“Again, we can't yet say if this was a global development, and the dinosaurs don’t rise to ecological dominance in the tropics until after the End-Triassic extinction,” said Schaller. “What we can say is that this shows that the changing environment 215 M years ago was right for their evolutionary diversification, but of course oxygen levels may not have been the only factor.”  

The researchers presented their findings at the<a href="https://goldschmidt.info/2019/"> Goldschmidt Geochemistry Conference</a> in Barcelona. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/AmeliAU

Increases in oxygen levels helped give rise to the dinosaurs

Increasing oxygen levels in North America gave rise to dinosaurs...

Changes in the young brains of humans and primates cause impulsive behavior. Impulsive decision-making is not a growing phase that is unique to teenagers, but is actually experienced by other <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/demand-commodities-primates-extinction/">primates</a> as well.

This life process is directly influenced by changes in the brain structure, primarily in regions that affect self-control. In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, researchers have compared the adolescent brains of humans and macaque monkeys.

"As is widely known, adolescence is a time of heightened impulsivity and sensation seeking, leading to questionable choices. However, this behavioral tendency is based on an adaptive neurobiological process that is crucial for molding the brain based on gaining new experiences," said study co-author Beatriz Luna.

Structural and functional comparisons have shown that macaque monkeys, like humans, have difficulty controlling their reactive responses during puberty.

"The monkey is really the most powerful animal model that comes closest to the human condition," explained study co-author Christos Constantinidis. "They have a developed prefrontal cortex and follow a similar trajectory with the same patterns of maturation between adolescence and adulthood."

According to the researchers, risk-taking and thrill-seeking during this time is not necessarily a bad thing. 

"You don't have this perfect inhibitory control system in adolescence, but that's happening for a reason. It has survived evolution because it's actually allowing for new experiences to provide information about the environment that is critical form optimal specialization of the brain to occur," said Luna. "Understanding the neural mechanisms that underlie this transitional period in our primate counterparts is critical to informing us about this period of brain and cognitive maturation."

During adolescence in humans, the brain network is undergoing critical changes where redundant and unused neural connections are being pruned, or eliminated. Meanwhile, white matter tracts - which will regulate learning and other functions in the adult brain - are strengthened. Changes in the young brains of humans and primates cause impulsive behavior

As the adolescent brain is refined, one key aspect is the development of neural activity patterns that allow for the preparation of a response.

"Executive function involves not only reflexive responses but actually being prepared ahead of time to create an appropriate plan. This is the change between the adolescent and adult brain and it is strikingly clear both in the human data and animal data," said Constantinidis.

Luna explained that it is necessary for humans and animals to have an exploratory time in adolescence because these new experiences are needed to help shape the adult brain. 

"It's important to have this conversation and comparison between human and animal models so that we can understand the neural mechanisms that underlie vulnerability during this time for impaired development such as in mental illness, which often emerges in adolescence, but importantly to inform us on how to find ways to correct those trajectories."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/neurosciences/home">Trends in Neurosciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Pavel Chagochkin

Changes in the young brains of humans and primates

Changes in the young brains of humans and primates cause...

Washington dam removal is controversial but may be the best chance for salmon. Wheat in Washington State is dependent on dams built and maintained by the federal government, but not for the reasons you may perhaps suspect. 

Wheat farmers in Washington harvested 2.2 million acres of their crop in 2018, bearing 153.2 million bushels of the grain, according to the <a href="http://wagrains.org/all-about-wheat/varieties-of-wheat/">Washington Grain Commission</a>. Washington is ranked number four in the top wheat producing states in the US. Wheat production in Washington represents almost $691 million annually. The only Washington crop that puts more into the economy is apples. 

Of the wheat produced in Washington, 85 to 90 percent is exported per year, much of it to Asia, where it’s made into noodles and other products. The wheat producers in Washington are dependent on dams in the state to transport the wheat by barge down the Snake and Columbia Rivers to Portland and Seattle where the wheat is then loaded onto ships for international export. 

Although some of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rising-co2-levels-wheat-yield/">wheat</a> is moved by rail, over half of it is transported by barge along the rivers. Unfortunately for wheat farmers, they’re not the only ones dependent on the Snake and other rivers. 

Washington is home to all five species of Pacific salmon. According to the <a href="https://www.rco.wa.gov/salmon_recovery/">Washington State Recreation and Conservation Office</a>, salmon in the state have long been in decline. In 1991, the federal government declared the first species of salmon in the Pacific Northwest, the Snake River sockeye, to be endangered. Since that time, 18 varieties of salmonid and salmon in Washington have been declared <a href="https://www.rco.wa.gov/salmon_recovery/listed_species.shtml">threatened or endangered</a>. The decline of salmon isn’t isolated, and like all organisms, salmon are connected to larger ecosystems that affect and are affected by them.      

Traditionally, Washington state has been home to both commercial and sport fishing for salmon. Salmon are also a key ingredient to the marine and freshwater ecosystems. The <a href="https://www.critfc.org/salmon-culture/tribal-salmon-culture/">Columbia River Inter-tribal Fish Commission</a> points out the long history of cultural importance of salmon to native groups in the Pacific Northwest. Today, salmon is still used as an important part of ceremonies, and the fish are also of course still important sources of food. 

The annual return of migrating salmon is still cause for celebration. <a href="https://www.wildsalmoncenter.org/work/why-protect-salmon/">Wild Salmon Center</a> reports that salmon are also the foundation of animal life in river ecosystems. Throughout the United States, salmon give food to bears, seals and orcas. Salmon are also important sources of nutrition for plants growing along stream banks. In Alaska spawning salmon <a href="http://www.biol.wwu.edu/hooper/Helfield%26Naiman2001Ecol_Salmon-derivedN%26ForestGrowth.pdf">provide up to 25% of the nitrogen</a> in trees and other forest plants in the spawning area. <a href="https://www.westcoast.fisheries.noaa.gov/publications/protected_species/marine_mammals/killer_whales/srkw-salmon-sources-factsheet.pdf">NOAA</a> reports that endangered Southern Resident Killer Whales feed primarily on Chinook Salmon. The orcas visit the mouths of the Columbia, Snake, Klamath and Sacramento Rivers in search of their favorite salmon prey. The decline of salmon in Washington is a factor in the decline of the killer whales as well. The potential fate of two iconic Pacific northwestern animals has pushed Washington state salmon recovery programs.

Habitat restoration, like removing dikes and culverts and blocking migrations on some rivers, has helped. But <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/environment/after-20-years-and-1-billion-spent-on-washington-state-salmon-programs-fish-still-declining-new-report-says/">The Seattle Times</a> reports that salmon are still declining. Official reports show some improvement in localized salmon populations but also declines. 

These worrying numbers suggest that more must be done. Part of the problem is that as fast as habitat is restored, other habitat is damaged. Over the last decade, salmon recovery efforts have only received 16% of funding estimated to be required for salmon habitat restoration. Urban development has taken a huge toll as well. Up to 90% of coho salmon in the urban Puget sound watershed have died from toxic storm water run off before they could even spawn. With almost a billion dollars spent in 20 years of work, the salmon are still in trouble. It’s stark realities like these that have pitted the interests of the wheat farmers against what’s best for the salmon and the endangered orcas that eat them. 

Washington State’s operating budget passed earlier this year with $750,000 for a ‘stakeholder group’ to be formed to look at the consequences of removing or altering dams on the lower Snake River, <a href="https://www.opb.org/news/article/washington-budget-snake-river-dam-removal-study/">Oregon Public Broadcast</a> reported. Critics of the move note that the federal government is already undergoing a review process looking at removing the dams. Supporters feel that this will allow Washington residents to have a say in proceedings. Washington dam removal is controversial but may be the best chance for salmon

The removal of dams on the Snake River would undoubtedly benefit salmon. At the moment, salmon are loaded onto trucks and driven past dams only to be released back into the river upstream where they continue to make their way to ancestral spawning grounds. Meanwhile, barges with wheat occupy the river. Some argue that tax payer dollars could be used in a better way to help wheat farmers by improving road and railroad infrastructure and opening rivers for salmon.

Previously, plans have been made to make dams safer for salmon and allow the fish to swim past these obstacles. The federal agencies managing dams on the Snake and Columbia Rivers have lost five lawsuits over their plans for protecting salmon. 

The plans for salmon protection are called a Biological Opinion (BiOp). The BiOp for the dams has changed several times, under Presidents Clinton, George W. Bush and Obama. The lawsuit against the federal government’s 2014 BiOp was brought by conservation organizations, the Nez Perce Tribe, and the state of Oregon, according to <a href="https://www.opb.org/news/article/judge-rejects-latest-federal-plan-for-columbia-river-dams/?_ga=2.268054666.521949485.1556555825-562760037.1556555825?_ga=2.268054666.521949485.1556555825-562760037.1556555825">Oregon Public Broadcasting</a>. The continued failure of the federal government to defend its salmon protection plan in light of federal law, including the Endangered Species Act, makes dam removal one of the few options left open.

For the salmon, the situation is already dire. <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">Natural Resource Defense Coalition</a> reports that in the 1950s, there were as many as 130,000 salmon that swam up the Snake River to spawn. In 2017, there were less than 10,000 salmon spawning in the same river. Trucking salmon hasn’t seemed to work, but returning the river to a more natural state, simply allowing salmon to act as salmon, is perhaps the best option.        

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Bill Perry

Washington dam removal is controversial but may be the best chance for salmon

Washington dam removal is controversial but may be the best...

During the spring and summer, cold water is released from Lake Shasta into the Sacramento River to create favorable spawning conditions for the winter-run chinook salmon. These fish became threatened after being cut off from their historical spawning grounds when Shasta Dam was built. 

But while <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/threatened-salmon-economic-benefits/">salmon</a> eggs need cold water for survival, the influx of colder temperatures can be detrimental to young green sturgeon in the river, who depend on warmer waters to grow and thrive. 

To resolve this conflict, a team of scientists at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a> and the National Marine Fisheries Service have developed a water management strategy that will benefit both species. Using statistical modeling, the experts found that dam releases can be managed - in times without severe drought - to support the fish as well as the needs of agricultural water users downstream.

"It's a win-win-win here in the sense that we're not giving up anything to get an improvement for the green sturgeon," said study co-author Professor Eric Palkovacs. "Currently, the primary management objectives are keeping it cold for the salmon eggs and delivering enough water downstream. As a result, we've been refrigerating the river in regions where historically the green sturgeon have been spawning."

The team found that discharge rates and water temperatures strongly influence the body condition of larval green sturgeon. In years with large cold water releases, egg survival for winter-run chinook salmon was high, yet the condition of juvenile green sturgeon was poor. On the other hand, drought years with low flows and warmer water helped the green sturgeon flourish while salmon egg survival was low. 

Study first author Liam Zarri, who conducted the research as a graduate student, explained that the key to meeting the needs of both species is that they spawn at slightly different times of the year. 

"We're able to suggest a management scenario which uses the differential timing of spawning in these two species. When they overlap, our model gives us the ideal temperature and flow for when both species are present," said Zarri.

He noted that the dam releases can draw either cold water from the bottom of the lake or warmer water from closer to the surface. Under the proposed management solution, low flows of warmer water can be released early in the season to support green sturgeon, and high flows of cold water can be released late in the season to benefit salmon and meet agricultural water needs.

Both salmon and sturgeon are present in the part of the river most affected by the dam releases in June or July, making management more complicated during this overlap period. The researchers pinpointed the ideal conditions of temperature and water flow that dam managers can pursue in an effort to keep the river cool enough for salmon and warm enough for sturgeon.

"Under the current management, there is quite a long period of cold water releases starting very early in the season before the chinook salmon have really started showing up in earnest. We're saying that you can wait until the green sturgeon have matured and moved out of the system," said Professor Palkovacs. "That has a side benefit in drought years, when limiting those early releases saves water for later in the year when it's more valuable, both for salmon and for downstream water demand."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

New strategy will support two fish species with different needs

During the spring and summer, cold water is released from...

During long migrations, birds will risk their safety for a nap when needed. Most <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/metal-pollution-personality-changes/">songbirds</a> have to make rest stops to recharge and build up their energy during long migrations. In a new study, researchers have discovered that the birds essentially risk their lives for some good sleep when they need it the most.

According to the study authors, birds that are low on fat reserves will tuck their heads under their feathers for deeper sleep. Even though this is a more restful sleeping position, it slows their reaction to the sound of danger. 

On the other hand, birds who did not need sleep as badly were found to sleep with their head facing forward, untucked, and more alert.

"We discovered that migratory birds trade off safety for lower energy expenditure," said lead author Leonida Fusani. "If they sleep with their head tucked in the scapular feathers, they enter a sort of deeper sleep that is associated with lower energy consumption but exposes them to a higher predation risk."

"Consequently, birds in good condition sacrifice some energy to sleep more safely with the head untucked, whereas birds in poor condition sacrifice vigilance to save energy while sleeping unsafely tucked in."

The researchers wondered how small migratory songbirds cope with sleep deprivation. To investigate, they analyzed the sleeping patterns of Garden Warblers at a stopover site in the Mediterranean.

At night, the Garden Warblers in poor physical condition slept with their head turned and covered in their feathers. The researchers demonstrated that this behavior is associated with lower respiratory and metabolic rates. By tucking their heads, the birds lose less heat. 

While conserving their energy, however, the birds became much less vigilant. For example, when the sleeping birds were exposed to the sound of crunching leaves, the birds with covered heads were slower to respond than birds whose heads were facing forward.During long migrations, birds will risk their safety for a nap when needed

"We did not expect to find such a strong difference between the two sleeping postures in terms of metabolic rate - the amount of energy required to fuel the bird's physiological functions," said study co-author Andrea Ferretti. 

"Although there was good reason to think that birds reduce heat loss by tucking their heads in their feathers, we were surprised to see that they actually reduce their alertness when sleeping in this position."

The findings suggest that migratory songbirds may benefit from stopover habitats that not only provide sufficient food, but which are also conducive to undisturbed sleep, said Fusani.

The team will continue to study the physiological basis of birds' decision making during migration. "Migratory songbirds appear to be very well suited for studying the role of sleep in both brain and body maintenance," said Ferretti.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/PavlovaSvetlana

During long migrations birds will risk their safety for a nap when needed

During long migrations, birds will risk their safety for a...

At least 228 million years ago, an ancient reptile species roamed the massive southern supercontinent known as Gondwana.

The land mass would someday split to become Africa, India, Australia, South America and Antarctica. The reptiles – known as sphenodontians – would eventually go extinct, for the most part, although one living descendant species still lives in New Zealand.

But a jaw and some skull bones discovered in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil is changing what paleontologists and other scientists thought they knew about the diverse sphenodontians – lizards and snakes that lived during the time of the dinosaurs.

The fossils belonged to a member of Clevosaurus hadroprodon, a newly described species about the size of a gecko. The ancient reptile species lived during the late Triassic and early Jurassic periods, and is now the oldest known member of the Clevosauridae family.

But the fossils held some surprises for researchers.

"Clevosaurus hadroprodon is an important discovery because it combines a relatively primitive sphenodontian-type tooth row with the presence of massive tusk-like teeth that were possibly not for feeding, but rather used for mate competition or defense. If correct, this means that non-feeding dental specializations predated changes in the sphenodontian dentition related to feeding strategies. This is a very exciting discovery." co-author Dr. Randall Nydam of <a href="https://www.midwestern.edu/">Midwestern University</a> said.

Until this discovery, scientists had believed that the tusk-like teeth had developed later.

“This feature is typically observed only in later sphenodontian lineages," lead author Dr. Annie Schmaltz Hsiou of the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/">University of São Paulo</a> said. 

The new fossils from the ancient reptile species also hint that sphenodontians may have seen early diversification in separate areas of Gondwana – one that would become South America, and another that would become India.

The team described the newly discovered species in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-48297-9">Scientific Reports</a>. Funding for the research was provided by the <a href="http://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/index_eng.asp">Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Fossils found in Brazil were from ancient reptile species

At least 228 million years ago, an ancient reptile species...

Enormous cave bears roamed throughout prehistoric Europe for more than 100,000 years, munching on the plant life that grew on the continent.

All that changed when modern humans arrived in the region. A new genetic study hints that humans played a large role in cave bears going extinct.

The cave bears – about the size of a modern grizzly – died off during the last glacial maximum about 26,000 years ago. That led some researchers to suspect the ice age led to their extinction, but new research indicates that humans may have left the population weak and vulnerable.

The clue was in the bears’ DNA. Dr. Verena Schünemann of the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> and a team of researchers studied mitochondrial DNA from 123 different bears. They discovered that, about 40,000 years ago, the genetic diversity of the species dropped drastically, pointing to a declining population.

“There [were] still a few around, but there is this massive loss of diversity,” Schünemann said.

The decline came right around when modern humans moved into Europe, displacing the Neanderthals that lived alongside the cave bears. The researchers suspect that they claimed the caves where the bears hibernated, leaving them homeless. Since the bears preferred caves near the plants they are, this may have also cut them off from abundant food sources.

“If they lose that, they also lose their feeding possibilities,” Schünemann said.

That shrunken population – with fewer opportunities for food and shelter – simply couldn’t survive the frigid climate, even though they’d survived cold periods before, the researchers believe.

“They might have survived if there wasn’t this decline before,” Schünemann said.

The extinction of the cave bears is the clearest European example of modern humans wiping out a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-extinction-megafauna/">megafauna species</a>, the researchers said.

The researchers' work has been published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47073-z">Scientific Reports</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

In prehistoric Europe, cave bears lost out to invading humans

Enormous cave bears roamed throughout prehistoric Europe for more than...

For cats, eating grass is a behavior held over from earlier generations, according to a new study. 

Eating grass can make our four-legged friends throw up. Even though <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-recognize-name/">cats</a> don’t need to purge thanks to modern veterinary care, early on in their evolution, this was a necessary measure to help prevent intestinal parasites. 

The cat’s ancestors used grass to help get rid of parasites contracted from eating infected rodents.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/">University of California School of Veterinary Medicine</a> conducted the study and surveyed 1,021 cat owners. 

The survey was taken online, and the participants observed their cat’s eating habits for at least three hours a day. 

While a majority of the cats, 71 percent, did eat grass at one point or another, nearly 91 percent didn’t throw up after. It appeared that the cats ate grass because they wanted to, not because they were feeling unwell. 

In other words, it may simply be an instinctive behavior. 

For your pet cat, eating grass is likely just a normal part of their routine, like grooming themselves or scratching on a scratching post.

An earlier <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288656215_Why_do_dogs_and_cats_eat_grass">2008 study</a> found that the same was true for dogs who ate grass. While eating grass can induce vomiting, researchers Benjamin Hart found that dogs often ate grass regardless of how they felt.  

“Given that virtually all wild carnivores carry an intestinal parasite load, instinctive plant-eating would have an adaptive role in maintaining a tolerable intestinal parasite load, whether or not the animal senses the parasites,” the study’s authors wrote. 

The findings were published in the journal Science and presented at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.applied-ethology.org/">International Society for Applied Ethology</a> in Norway. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/KDdesignphoto

Why do cats eat grass if it makes them sick?

For cats, eating grass is a behavior held over from...

Experts have genetically reconstructed the history of the cave bear and found that it was likely humans, and not colder climate conditions, that drove the species to extinction about 24,000 years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum.

The scientists analyzed genome data using the bones of 59 cave bears that were uncovered across sites in Italy, France, Spain, Poland, Germany, Serbia, and Switzerland.

The team identified a population decline 50,000 years ago that corresponded with the arrival of ancient humans in eastern Europe. An even sharper decline followed about 10,000 years later, which coincides with the spread of Homo sapiens throughout <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-europe-wetter/">Europe</a>. 

The cave bear, or Ursus spelaeus, lived during the Ice Age alongside animals like the cave lion, woolly rhino, and the woolly mammoth. Even though it was as big as a polar bear, the cave bear was an herbivore. The males weighed an average of 1,000 pounds, while the females weighed about half as much.

The current study may finally settle the long debate of whether the bears were wiped out by a cooling climate that drastically reduced their food supply or if humans were to blame. 

[caption id="attachment_1876621" align="aligncenter" width="633"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/cave-bear.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1876621" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/cave-bear.jpg" alt="" width="633" height="300" /></a> Image Credit: University of Zurich/Matteo Romandini[/caption]

According to paleogeneticist Verena Schuenemann, the steep population decline that was pinpointed by the analysis predated the climate cooling associated with the last Ice Age. In addition, the cave bear population had remained stable for long time periods and had endured many other cooling episodes. 

“There is more and more evidence that modern humans have played a determinant role in the decline and extinction of large mammals once they spread around the planet, starting around 50,000 years ago,” explained biogeologist Hervé Bocherens.

“This happened not just by hunting these mammals to extinction, but by causing demographic decline of keystone species, such as very large herbivores, that led to ecosystems’ collapse and a cascade of further extinctions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: DeAgostini

Humans were likely responsible for the extinction of the European cave bear

Experts have genetically reconstructed the history of the cave bear...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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