Many rodents do not have a claw on every finger. Quite a few possess a flat nail on the first digit - a small thumbnail that changes how their hands work.



A new study links that tiny feature to how rodents feed, where they live, and how they diversified into thousands of species worldwide. 



The research draws on museum collections to map where thumbnails occur and which behaviors are associated with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-small-trait-big-impact">A small trait, big impact</h2>



The study was led by Rafaela Missagia, a research associate at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/">University of São Paulo</a> (USP).



Rodents make up about 40 percent of all mammals, so even small shifts in their hands can echo across the tree of life.



The researchers examined 433 rodent genera and reported that 86 percent included species with thumbnails on the first digit. That pattern is not a one off observation - it spans the rodent family tree.



The analyses identified a nail, not a claw, as the likely ancestral state for that digit. This points to a deep origin for thumbnail equipped hands among rodents.



Lineages that live underground or that feed mostly with the mouth show different paths. Some gained a claw on the first digit, while others lost the structure altogether.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grip-power-in-rodent-hands">Grip power in rodent hands</h2>



The unguis is the hardened tip of a digit, whether nail, claw, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-confirm-that-modern-horses-lost-their-additional-toes/">hoof,</a> and its shape on the first digit shifts what a hand can do. The team paired anatomy with behavior captured in textbooks and videos to test how rodents use their hands while they eat.



“Rodents, as we know today, use their resources very efficiently,” said Missagia. A flat thumbnail offers a broad, blunt surface that steadies small items and supports precise grips.&nbsp;



That grip likely worked alongside specialized incisors and jaw muscles that excel at gnawing hard foods such as nuts. These foods are energy dense, so being able to hold and turn them quickly is a real edge when competition is high.



The study treats the first digit, often labeled D1, as a key part of that story. Changing the unguis on D1 changes the whole hand, which changes the menu an animal can handle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodent-thumbnails-tied-to-lifestyles">Rodent thumbnails tied to lifestyles</h2>



Outside of primates, rodents are the only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-mammals-had-slower-growth-rates-and-lived-longer/">mammals</a> that show a true thumbnail on the first digit. That makes this little structure especially useful for comparing how different groups solve similar problems.



Species that are fossorial, meaning adapted for digging or living underground, tend to carry claws on every digit. Those claws act like pointed tools that cut soil better than a nail would.



Species that are arboreal - meaning they live above ground or in trees - are more likely to keep thumbnails on the first digit. A nail is less likely to snag and more likely to steady food or a twig during a careful climb.



Rodents without thumbs, such as guinea pig relatives, usually do not handle food with their hands. They bring the mouth to the food and skip manual handling altogether.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-clues-in-tiny-thumbs">Fossil clues in tiny thumbs</h2>



The dataset places thumbnails early in the rodent story, present at ancestral nodes across the family tree. Fossil clues stretch back many millions of years, which supports an origin deep in time for first-digit nails in this group.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-early-humans-climbed-trees-and-worked-with-stone/">Thumb bones</a> vary across genera, and that variation aligns with unguis type. Short, wide bones tend to support nails, while narrow, curved bones tend to anchor claws.



That bony scaffolding matters because it influences how much pressure a digit can apply and in what direction. It also limits - or expands - the range of grips an animal can use on seeds, insects, or other foods.



The study used phylogenetic models to test how often thumbnails were gained or lost in different branches. Gains of claws and losses of nails reappeared in lineages that burrow or rely on oral feeding, pointing to repeated solutions to similar ecological tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodent-nails-in-museum-drawers">Rodent nails in museum drawers</h2>



The Field Museum houses one of the largest mammal collections on Earth, which made a broad test like this possible. Old skins and skeletons answered fresh questions because the parts that matter most remain intact.



Researchers could compare a kangaroo rat, a capybara, and a pygmy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-lemurs-of-madagascar-are-threatened-with-extinction/">mouse</a> in the same drawer, then connect those features to field notes and filmed behavior. Museum collections support datasets that would be nearly impossible to assemble in the wild on short timelines.



Large collections also anchor claims with physical evidence. When new tools come around, from micro-imaging to machine learning, those same specimens can be studied again from new angles.



Projects like this remind us that small structures can set big limits. A thumbnail is simple, but it can steer what an animal eats, how it climbs, and where it thrives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-nails-and-claws">The evolution of nails and claws</h2>



Simple anatomical traits can open or close whole ecological doors. A flat nail supports grips that a curved claw makes awkward, so the presence or absence of that small part sets a boundary for behavior.



The research shows how evolutionary changes are not one way streets. Nails can be lost when digging dominates a lifestyle, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shri-rapax-dinosaur-discovered-that-killed-with-potent-thumbs-instead-of-foot-claws/">claws</a> can reappear when the environment rewards them.



The study also demonstrates how anatomy, behavior, and ecology fit together. Hands are not just for climbing or digging. They are for eating too, and what a hand holds can ripple through a lineage for millions of years.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads7926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How rodent thumbnails helped mammals rise to dominance

Many rodents do not have a claw on every finger. Quite a few possess a flat nail on the first digit - a small thumbnail that changes how their hands work. A new study links that tiny feature to how rodents feed, where they live, and how they diversified into thousands of species worldwide. The research draws on museum collections to map where thumbnails occur and which behaviors are associated with them. A small trait, big impact The study was led by Rafaela Missagia, a research associate...

If you look closely at a fruit fly, you’ll notice that they don’t exactly have a nose between their big, bug eyes. So how is it possible for them to use a sense of “smell” to detect where their next meal might be located? 

The answer is in the nanopores located on the cuticle covering sensilla, which are olfactory organs on the antennas of insects. A new study from the <a href="http://www.riken.jp/en/">RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research</a> (BDR) details how these nanopores allow <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-travel-miles/">fruit flies</a> to detect chemicals in the air, as well as the gene behind their development.

An insect’s ability to smell allows it to search for food, find mates, and generally react to the environment around it. The nanopores on the cuticle covering the sensilla are believed to work as filters, allowing odorant molecules to enter but keeping larger airborne particles out so the insect can avoid liquid loss. 

Through observing developing fruit fly pupa in detail using transmission electron microscopy, researchers found that the cuticular nanopores in fruit flies’ olfactory sensilla originate from a curved ultrathin film formed in the outermost envelope layer of the cuticle. This film is secreted from specialized protrusions in the plasma membrane of the hair-forming (trichogen) cell, and the envelope curvature coincides with plasma membrane undulations associated with structures within the cells.

[caption id="attachment_1871462" align="aligncenter" width="373"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/sensilla.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1871462 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/sensilla.jpg" alt="" width="373" height="444" /></a> Microscopic image of fruit fly sensilla. Image Credit: Riken[/caption]

Continuing further, the research team investigated the genetics behind the formation of pores using next-generation genome sequencing. This led to the discovery of a gene called gore-tex, which is responsible for the formation of the pores. 

The gene is a member of the gene family called Osiris, and encodes a protein that is needed for envelope curvature, nanopore formation, and odor receptivity. The Osiris gene family itself is only found in insect genomes, and other genes within this family are expressed in cuticle-secreting cells.

“Our study revealed the elements required for the development of nanopores to allow odor reception, and identified Osiris genes as a platform for investigating the evolution of surface nano-fabrication in insects,” says study leader Shigeo Hayashi. “We hope that studies like this will help us understand how nature builds these fascinating nanostructures that allow living creatures to acquire many specialized functions.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How does a fruit fly smell?

If you look closely at a fruit fly, you’ll notice...

22 million-year-old fossils that were tucked away in a drawer in the <a href="https://www.museums.or.ke/">National Museums of Kenya </a>once belonged to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-mongolian-dinosaur/">new species</a> of a giant mammal that was bigger than a polar bear.

The meat-eating mammal, dubbed Simbakubwa kutokaafrika, had a skull the size of a rhinoceros and large canine teeth. Fossils from Simbakubwa kutokaafrika were first unearthed in Kenya decades ago and stored away.

It wasn’t until paleontologists from <a href="https://www.ohio.edu/">Ohio University</a> recently rediscovered the fossils that it was realized that the bones belonged to an entirely new species of long-extinct giant carnivore.

“Opening a museum drawer, we saw a row of gigantic meat-eating teeth, clearly belonging to a species new to science,” said Mathew Borths, the lead author of a study published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.

The researchers called the species Simbakubwa kutokaafrika because simbakubwa is Swahili for “big lion,” which is fitting since the animal would have ruled the food chain much like Africa’s big cats today.

However, Simbakubwa kutokaafrika is not closely related to lions or other big cats but instead belonged to a group of extinct mammals called hyaenodonts.

Kutokaafrika translates to “coming from Africa” in Swahili because the species was the oldest species of gigantic hyaenodonts and likely originated in Africa before moving north and flourishing for millions of years.

45 million years after the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, hyaenodonts became the first mammal carnivores in Africa.

A rapidly changing global ecosystem coincided with the extinction of hyaenodonts, but researchers are still unsure of what exactly caused the mammals to be wiped out.

The newly described fossil could help researchers uncover more clues to its past and eventual extinction which makes the discovery particularly noteworthy.

“This is a pivotal fossil, demonstrating the significance of museum collections for understanding evolutionary history,” said Nancy Stevens, a co-author of the study. “Simbakubwa is a window into a bygone era. As ecosystems shifted, a key predator disappeared, heralding Cenozoic faunal transitions that eventually led to the evolution of the modern African fauna.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Mauricio Anton

22 million-year-old fossils reveal new species of giant carnivore

22 million-year-old fossils that were tucked away in a drawer...

A shocking new study led by <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a> has found that 73 percent more sharks are caught in the southwest Indian Ocean than what is officially reported. Each year, the total number of sharks, rays, and other fish caught accidentally in the region is estimated to be 2.5 million.

The investigation was focused on small-scale fisheries operating from Kenya, Zanzibar, and Madagascar. The total annual catch, which was predominantly made up of requiem, hammerhead, ground, and hound sharks, totaled around 35,000 tons.

According to the study authors, the research highlights the substantial underreporting of catches by small scale fisheries and the urgent need to expand global efforts to assess the impact on vulnerable species.

“Small scale fisheries account for 95% of fishers globally and around 35% of the total catch and yet despite this, they have received very little attention,” said study lead author Andrew Temple. “The aim of the project was to start to understand the impact these small scale fisheries are having on the environment by recording a baseline of vulnerable megafauna, such as turtles, rays and sharks.”

“And what we found was a huge discrepancy between the numbers being declared and the actual number being caught - in excess of 2.5 million individual sharks and rays annually. This study clearly shows the impact of small scale fisheries on coastal, oceanic and even deepwater species.”

An estimated 40 percent of fish caught worldwide are snagged in lines and nets unintentionally, affecting vulnerable species such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/marine-heat-waves-threaten-dolphins/">dolphins</a>, sharks, and seabirds. The bycatch is usually thrown back out to sea in large-scale commercial fishing. However,  small scale fisheries, such as those examined for the study, were found to often keep the non-target fish and sell them illegally. 

The researchers monitored fisheries in the South West Indian Ocean for 12 months. Overall, they identified 59 non-target species, including three sea turtles and one Dugong dugon, commonly known as a sea cow. Sharks and rays were found to be the most common by-product species.

“We looked at just one region of the world but it's likely that similar underreporting is happening in small scale fisheries globally - which means our 2,500,000 unreported sharks and rays only represent a small portion of the total global catch,” said study senior author Dr. Per Berggren.

“Reducing this figure is essential to protect life in the sea but also to safeguard the future sustainability of small scale fisheries and the communities whose livelihoods are dependent on them. This research is the first step towards doing that.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/biological-conservation">Biological Conservation</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

2.5 million fish are unintentionally caught each year in the Indian Ocean

A shocking new study led by Newcastle University has found...

In the southern Gobi Desert in Mongolia, paleontologists recently unearthed a perfectly preserved complete dinosaur skeleton belonging to a new species closely related to hadrosaurs. 

The discovery is helping to fill in some evolutionary gaps when it comes to Mongolian dinosaurs during the Cretaceous Period.

Hadrosaurs are duck-billed herbivores that were widespread during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-flourishing-killed-off/">Late Cretaceous Period</a>, and little is known about how the family Hadrisauridae evolved.

[caption id="attachment_1871392" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dinosaur.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1871392" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dinosaur.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="704" /></a> Skeletal reconstructions of Gobihadros mongoliensis. Image Credit: Tsogtbaatar et al, 2019.[/caption]

A lack of complete fossils has made it difficult for researchers to piece together the early evolution and origins of the dinosaurs. 

Now, in a new study published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0208480">PLOS ONE</a>, researchers from the <a href="https://www.academy.ac.il/Index7/Entry.aspx?nodeId=864&amp;entryId=18902">Mongolian Academy of Science</a> have described the first non-hadrosaurid taxon from the Early Late Cretaceous. 

The new species, a close relative of hadrosaurs, is called Gobihadros mongoliensis. Several specimens, including a virtually complete and perfectly preserved skeleton, were included in the study. 

After analyzing the fossils, the researchers found that the species didn’t fit in the Hadrisauridae family but instead was a close relative.

The find marks the first known discovery of a complete skeleton in central Asia dating back to the Late Cretaceous.

The new species still leaves much of the early evolution of hadrosaurs a mystery, but the researchers have good reason to believe that hadrosaurs in the region did not directly evolve from Gobihadros mongoliensis, but rather that Asian hadrosaurs migrated from North America. 

Once the new species of hadrosaurs migrated into the region, Gobihadros mongoliensis and other earlier native hadrosaurs went extinct, but the researchers say that more fossil evidence is needed to confirm this theory. 

“The article describes, for the first time, extraordinary well-preserved fossil material of hadrosauroid dinosaur as a new genus and species from the early Late Cretaceous in Mongolia," the researchers write in their study. “We hope that it will be very useful material for further study of the evolution of hadrosauroids, iguanodintians and ornithopods as well.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New species of Mongolian dinosaur found in the Gobi Desert

In the southern Gobi Desert in Mongolia, paleontologists recently unearthed...

A study into one of the world’s oldest types of fish is giving experts new clues about how lobe-finned fishes and land animals evolved. The analysis of the coelacanth, Latimeria chalumnae, is also answering questions about the skull and brain development of vertebrates.

The coelacanth was thought to have vanished with the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-flourishing-killed-off/">dinosaurs</a> over 65 million years ago, until a living specimen was found off the coast of South Africa in 1938. The discovery prompted debate about how this fish fits into our understanding of the evolution of land animals.

The skull of this rare fish was found to be completely split in half a by special “intracranial joint,” and its brain is only one percent the size of the skull. An international team of researchers led by Dr. Hugo Dutel at the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has looked into the biology of this unique skull at different stages of development to determine when it divides and forms a hinge.

“We think that formation of this special joint is probably caused by the unique development of the notochord (a tube extending below the brain and the spinal cord in the early stages of life),” explained study co-author Professor John Long.

“It usually degenerates into a small rod below the brain in some fishes. However, the notochord for Coelacanth expands dramatically to become 50 times bigger than the brain in the adult fish.”

“This process of brain growth is very unusual, especially compared to primates like us in which the brain expands dramatically. A mismatch between the brain and its cavity also exists in some other living and fossil fishes, but what is observed here is totally unequalled among vertebrates.”


Today, the two species of coelacanth that remain are referred to as “living fossils” because they are physically unchanged. To visualize the internal anatomy of the fish, the scientists used advanced imaging techniques. The data was used to create detailed 3D models, which allowed the team to analyze how the shape of the skull, the brain. and the notochord changes from a fetus to an adult.

“Coelacanths are iconic animals thought to be on the line to the first land animals or tetrapods, because of their strange hinged head,” said Professor Long. “This new research shows the peculiar hinge in the skull was caused by persistence of the large cartilaginous rod, or notochord, preventing the skull form ossifying as one solid unit.”

The team noted how these structures are positioned relative to each other throughout development, and compared the observations to the formation of the skull in other vertebrates.


“There are still more questions than answers! Latimeria still holds many clues for our understanding of vertebrate evolution, and it is important to protect this threatened species and its environment,” said Dr. Hutel.


The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Laurent Ballista, Gombessa expeditions, Andromede Oceanology Ltd

‘Living fossils’ reveal how skulls evolved in vertebrates

A study into one of the world’s oldest types of...

As our human-occupied areas extend further beyond their borders into lands once only occupied by nature, wildlife is being pushed together in higher concentrations – especially near the suburbs. According to a new study from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>, this is leading to carnivores like coyotes and bobcats to interact at a higher rate. 

This new research looked at how carnivores interact with each other when they’re sharing space in small suburban forest patches. The study was done with the aid of 557 volunteers and 1,260 remote cameras set up in suburban, exurban, rural, and wild areas – allowing the researchers to document 6,413 carnivores. The carnivore species documented in the study included bobcats, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/spread-coyotes-deer-numbers/">coyotes</a>, and both gray and red foxes.

“We found a lot of animal activity in the suburbs, but it was really concentrated in the remaining green space. We think carnivores are trying to avoid people, so they are moving through the strips of remaining forest, where they are more likely to interact with each other,” explains Arielle Parsons, lead author and researcher with the <a href="https://naturalsciences.org/">North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences</a>. “What we discovered was that preserving green space in our cities is important not only for humans but also for wildlife species. Green space provides cover, it provides food and it’s a good way for carnivores to navigate without being in any danger from people.”

Previously, some had theorized that smaller carnivores might stick closer to people in these situations, in order to use them as “human shields” from larger predators. But this study found the opposite effect. “We found, on the contrary, that gray foxes and coyotes especially – our smallest species and our largest species – actually tended to use the same sites,” says Parsons. “In other words, they didn’t avoid each other, which was pretty surprising.”

This finding is good news for those of us who would prefer to keep our distance from carnivores (our own dogs don’t count). Parsons explains, “Our study is showing that carnivores are trying to stay away from people by using forested areas. If we give them the opportunity to do that through preservation of green space and green space corridors through our urban areas, carnivores are going to continue to live nearby, which is actually a good thing for the ecology of our cities."

It turns out that the animal activity within these green strips closely mimics the methods by which we interact within our own urbanized and suburbanized communities. “Just like roadways and sidewalks focus human movement and increase the potential for interaction, we find the high use of strips of remaining green space by carnivores increases their level of interaction,” says study co-author Roland Kays, a zoologist with NC State and the N.C. Museum of Natural Sciences. “This shows how urban planning can affect the ecology of animals that share cities with people.”

This study further emphasizes the need for careful planning involving the nature and wildlife around us when it comes to expanding our urban and suburban areas. In our quest for continued growth, we often forget that we share our space with other creatures as well.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Squeezed into smaller spaces, carnivores interact more often

As our human-occupied areas extend further beyond their borders into...

Seven new North Atlantic right whale calves have been spotted in Cape Cod Bay off the coast of Massachusetts this year. The sightings are good news for the critically endangered North Atlantic right whales and a much hoped for improvement after no new calves were spotted last year. 

While the new calves are a step in the right direction, experts warn the population is far from fully recovering. 

This month, three pairs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/critically-endangered-right-whale-spotted/">North Atlantic right whale</a> mothers and calves were spotted in the bay, and two of the most recent sightings are credited to an aerial survey team from the <a href="http://coastalstudies.org/">Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies</a>. 

Seven mothers and their calves were spotted by researchers from the <a href="https://myfwc.com/">Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation</a> over that past several months. 

One of the sightings proved for the first time that a whale tagged as whale #4180 was female when previously, the sex of #4180 was unknown. 

Currently, only 450 right whales are what remain from a dwindling species that was hunted to near extinction by whalers in the 1800s. 

Despite conservation efforts, the North Atlantic right whale continues to suffer from pollution, shipping collisions, and other human activities like fishing. 

One of the new mothers, #4180, has wounds on her back from getting caught up in fishing gear.

Researchers who spotted the calves warn that too much media coverage and hype surrounding the calves can lead to a false impression that the whales are recovering successfully, but this is not the case. 

For the population to be on track to recovery, around 17 new calves would have to be born per year. 

“The signs are better than they were last year or the year before, but we're not out of the woods yet,” Philip Hamilton, New England Aquarium research scientist, told <a href="https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/seven-north-atlantic-right-whale-calves-spotted-so-far-this-year-65561">The Scientist</a> last month. 

Besides a decline in overall calf births, there have also been 20 recorded right whale deaths since 2017. 

“We haven't even broken even on number of dead whales with new births, and that is what the last decade or so has been trending towards,” said Jen Jakush, a biologist from the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. “The population is definitely in decline.” 

It is currently projected that right whales will go extinct within the next two decades.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

New hope for North Atlantic right whales after 7 calves are spotted

Seven new North Atlantic right whale calves have been spotted...

The best places to observe wild bats in the United States. Of the flying animals, birds certainly get the most attention.  People set out food and housing for the feathered denizens of the sky.  Large non-profits and clubs are dedicated to watching birds for fun and to their conservation.  It seems that bird research, conservation, and management are - compared to work with other organisms- relatively well funded.  Bats, on the other hand, are the bad boys of the sky, skulking past the moon at night and connected to the literature and film of our darkest fears and desires.  

Bats do have a lot in common with birds, as both are a pleasure to view and both can be attracted into a yard if things are arranged to suit their needs.  When I was conducting hummingbird research in Ecuador, I noticed something. If I left hummingbird feeders out into the evening, bats would visit them for the artificial nectar.  Depending on location, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bat-friendly-tequila-species-recovery/#.XKEQ_RplChA">pollinator bats</a> visit the United States as well.  If you already have hummingbird feeders hanging outside on a warm summer night in the southwestern part of the US, it might be worth watching it for nocturnal visitors.  

According to the <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/animals/bats.shtml">United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)</a>, two bats play an important role in pollinating the saguaro cactus and agave in the US.  The Lesser Long-nosed Bat (Leptonycteris curasoae yerbabuena) and the Mexican Long-tongued Bat (Choeronycteris mexicana) migrate from Mexico to Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas where they feed on plant nectar.  

Mangos, bananas and guavas all depend on bats for pollination.  Planting flowers that these bats like may very well attract them to your yard, the bats also sometimes eat insects found on plants, helping the plant out in another way.  According to the USDA, flowers bats visit tend to be white, green or purple, emit strong odors, and are open at night. <a href="https://batslive.pwnet.org">Bats Live</a> suggests planting evening primrose, Phlox and <a href="https://batslive.pwnet.org/pdf/Bat_Garden.pdf">other night blooming plants</a> to attract pollinating bats.  These bats pollinate much of the native plant life of the desert southwest, keeping cacti and the animals and plants dependent on them healthy.  However, the majority of bats in the US eat insects. Like birds, different bats occupy different niches in different environments and many even migrate depending on the season.         

The main difference between birds and bats, for the casual observer, is that it is inevitably harder to view bats that are small and nocturnal compared to many birds that can be brightly colored and active during the day.  Bats like their feathery, diurnal neighbors fill the night with noises, just not always noises human ears can easily pick up. 

Besides communication, bats also vocalizations to navigate in the dark.  Different bat species emit echolocation clicks at different frequencies, and because of this, bat researchers can use recordings to tease out how many bats of what species are in an area.  Sophisticated software analyzes high frequency recordings, reliably identifying bats. There are now apps combined with special speakers for sale that can be used to turn smartphones and tablets into bat detecting and identifying devices.  

Since the technology is relatively new, it can be pricey. <a href="https://www.echometertouch.com/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIqfejl5Ot4QIV4SCtBh345AL-EAAYASAAEgIgJ_D_BwE">Echo Meter Touch</a>, a bat detector for phones and tablets, costs $179 for the recreational version and $349 for the professional.  Much less expensive kits that allow you to make a less sophisticated bat detector sell on <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Franzis-Make-your-Detector-Manual/dp/3645652760/ref=asc_df_3645652760/?tag=hyprod-20&amp;linkCode=df0&amp;hvadid=312021238077&amp;hvpos=1o1&amp;hvnetw=g&amp;hvrand=5753394855355597857&amp;hvpone=&amp;hvptwo=&amp;hvqmt=&amp;hvdev=t&amp;hvdvcmdl=&amp;hvlocint=&amp;hvlocphy=9030237&amp;hvtargid=pla-474438108892&amp;psc=1">Amazon</a> for around $30.  Simple <a href="https://batmanagement.com/collections/bat-detector-buyers-guide-active-detectors">detectors</a> usually just convert the bat’s ultrasonic noises into a frequency the human ear can hear, giving you the joy of ‘hearing’ bat echolocation without knowing what species is making the noise.  Besides observing the quiet lives of bats flitting around everyone’s neighborhood, there are also a few places to visit known for their spectacular abundance of bats.

Austin, Texas, is a place with a famous colony of bats.  According to <a href="https://freefuninaustin.com/how-to-see-bats-in-austin/">Free Fun in Austin</a>, 1.5 million Mexican Free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) roost under the Ann W. Richards Congress Avenue Bridge, claiming to be the largest urban colony of bats in the world.  The Mexican Free-tailed bats are claimed to have the fastest horizontal speed of any animal (as opposed to the diving speed of animals like the peregrine falcon) flying as fast as 60 mph, according to <a href="http://www.batcon.org/resources/media-education/bats-magazine/bat_article/656">batcon.org</a>.  At night in the summer, tourists flock to this bridge to watch the speeding flurry of wings as the bats leave their day time sleeping areas to hunt for insects.  Boat tours pass under the bridge allowing good views of the bats and kayaks and can be rented to explore the bat bridge on your own. 

<a href="http://www.batcon.org/index.php/our-work/regions/usa-canada/protect-mega-populations/bracken-cave">Bracken Cave</a>, not far from downtown San Antonio, Texas, is home to an even larger colony of bats.  With a population of more than 15 million Mexican Free-tailed bats, it’s one of the larger colonies.  Bat Conservation International now owns Bracken Cave, protecting it from development and allowing visitors to see the spectacular eruptive emergence of bats on summer nights.  As in Austin, Bracken Cave is a maternity colony, a place where female bats have their pups. In June, the mother bat will give birth to one pup, by mid-August the baby bats can fly, which is when you see the largest number of bats flying out of their resting spots.  

Texas might bring a large number of tourists, but it’s not the only place to see bats.  <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carlsbad-caverns-new-mexico/#.XKEkIBplChA">Carlsbad Caverns</a> is home to an impressive subterranean national park in New Mexico.  The National Park Service runs a <a href="https://www.nps.gov/cave/planyourvisit/bat_flight_program.htm">bat flight program</a> at Carlsbad that starts on May 25 and runs into October.  Although Carlsbad Caverns is home to 17 species of bats, it’s the Mexican Free-tailed Bats that again live in such spectacular numbers.  

Tucson, Arizona has its own bat bridges, as do many lesser known towns in the American Southwest.  According to the <a href="https://www.library.pima.gov/content/bats-in-tucson/">Pima County Library</a>, a colony under Pantano Wash Bridge was estimated to have a population of 20,000 Mexican Free-tailed bats.  <a href="https://www.nps.gov/maca/learn/news/bat-night2013.htm">Mammoth Cave National Park</a> in Kentucky hosts a celebration of national bat night on August 31.  According to <a href="http://www.batcon.org/resources/media-education/news-room/the-echo/1104-bat-tourism-the-surprising-power-of-bat-watching-holidaymakers">Bat Conservation International</a>, visitors are also drawn to see bats in Africa, Australia, Asia and Europe.  If none of these places are within your means to visit and you don’t have a green thumb, it’s always possible to build a <a href="http://free.woodworking-plans.org/bat-house-plans.html">bat house</a> and see who takes up residence.  I’ve even seen bats living in numbers even in Alaska in an abandoned building.       

--                    

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The best places to observe wild bats in the United States

The best places to observe wild bats in the United...

A new study from the <a href="http://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a> is warning that some species of sparrows will vanish before the end of this century, as their natural habitats are wiped out. The seaside and saltmarsh sparrows both depend almost entirely on coastal salt marshes, yet their projected responses to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-iguanas-struggling-climate-change/">climate change</a> were found to be different.

Salt marshes cover only about 30,000 square miles worldwide, with one-third of them located along the coast of North America. Overall, 15 of the 25 species of sparrows that are limited to tidal wetlands are found solely on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. These groups are particularly threatened by changing climatic conditions and other threats to salt marsh ecosystems.

The breeding range of the saltmarsh sparrow extends from Virginia to Maine, with a population of about 60,000 birds. As the sea levels rise, the amount of available habitat for seaside and saltmarsh sparrows will decline and nests will be flooded more frequently. In addition, growing human populations on the coast are putting increasing pressure on the birds.

The current study was focused on the fate of seaside and saltmarsh sparrows within the Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge in New Jersey based on various scenarios. The researchers also set out to explore potential management strategies to prevent population declines.


Under the condition of a one-foot or a 2.5-foot rise in sea levels, seaside sparrows survived. The saltmarsh sparrows, however, were projected to become locally extinct in about 30 years under both conditions. 

“Given the projected increases in sea level over the next few decades and threats from predators, we will need to implement timely and creative actions to avoid extinction of saltmarsh sparrows,” said study lead author Samuel Griffith Roberts.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.americanornithology.org/content/condor-ornithological-applications">The Condor: Ornithological Applications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Endangered sparrows are facing extinction with future sea-level rise

A new study from the Oxford University Press is warning...

It may seem hard to find two animals more different than a hummingbird and an crocodile  But as strange as it may be, birds and crocodilians (the group containing alligators, crocodiles and gharials) are each other’s closest relatives.  In fact, crocodilians and birds are the sole survivors of a much larger and more diverse group called the archosaurs. Archosaurs translates into ‘ruling reptiles’ which explains why it contains all extinct dinosaurs and pterosaurs (flying reptiles).  Archosaurs actually were ruling reptiles for a while, at least in a certain sense. 

One large division among vertebrates is synapsids vs. diapsids.  This division is named for holes in the skull. Diapsids have one more hole in their skulls (to lighten them) than do synapsids; ‘di’ meaning ‘two’.  Synapsids include all mammals and the ancestors of mammals, the ‘mammal-like reptiles’. During the Permian Period, the mammal-like reptiles were doing very well, occupying a large amount of niches available.  

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/permian-mass-extinction/">Permian-Triassic extinction</a> changed the balance though.  Enough mammal-like reptiles died off that it left the door open to the archosaurs, which is why we see the beginnings of true dinosaurs appear in the Triassic.  200 million years ago toward the end of the Triassic is when the first crocodilian fossils show up. Of course, it was a while later before modern birds arrived.  

[caption id="attachment_1871271" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/archosaur.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1871271" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/archosaur.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="488" /></a> Computer illustration of an Archosaur, Image Credit: Michael Rosskothen/Shutterstock[/caption]

Modern birds eventually evolved from dinosaurs.  The similarities between today’s birds and extinct dinosaurs are numerous – they have similar hip sockets (different from any other animals), they both have feathers, the feet of some dinosaurs were eerily similar to those of modern birds.  Looking at dinosaur trackways drives home the last point; the <a href="http://www.thetrustees.org/what-we-care-about/history-culture/tracking-time-place.html">first scientifically described dinosaur tracks</a> were hypothesized to be bird prints.  Given the thinking of the time, it was even suggested that the tracks were those of the ravens Noah released from the ark.  It’s easy to see the similarities between extinct dinosaurs and modern birds – they even nest in similar patterns. But you still have to dig a little harder to find the connections between crocodilians and birds.  

Of course, dinosaurs (birds) split from crocodiles at some point in the distant past, specifically sometime in the Triassic.  Interestingly, there is a fossil animal that showed up around when this split should’ve occurred. Carnufex was discovered in North Carolina in 2003, according to <a href="https://blogs.plos.org/paleocomm/2016/08/01/the-first-crocodile-ancestors/">PLOS</a>.  <a href="https://news.ncsu.edu/2015/03/zanno-carnufex/">North Carolina State University</a> reports that researchers led by Lindsay Zanno reconstructed Carnufex and found the creature to have a combination of crocodile and bird traits.  Carnufex seems to represent the beginning of a split between what would one day become modern birds and those that would become modern crocodilians.

Carnufex was about nine feet long, which shows that at that early time, land dwelling crocodile-like animals were competing directly with early dinosaurs for niches as top predators.  Eventually dinosaurs pushed those that would become crocodilians into their own niches but for a while, there were eerie similarities between the two. 

For anyone who’s watched a sea turtle pulling itself laboriously across a night time beach to dig a hole with her back flippers and lay eggs, only to leave them, it’s obvious reptiles aren’t good parents.  As soon as the turtle has filled in her hole, she crawls back to the ocean, leaving only an odd trackway and her hidden eggs to mark her passage. I’ve even watched sea turtles dig holes too low in the tide where water fills their nests and lay their doomed eggs anyway.  Birds, on the other hand, are great parents. 

For three months I helped collect data on nesting sea birds, especially black-legged kittiwakes.  The parent kittiwakes dutifully take turns sitting on eggs while the other is out hunting the sea for fish and other food.  There were variations in the parenting care for sure. When it was time to measure the eggs or chicks, most of the parents would simply fly from their nests, returning an hour later to resume parenting.  Some birds were relentless, like angry soccer moms out for blood. These birds would scream and circle, diving at the head of whoever was collecting data on their baby. Either way, the kittiwakes all put in a lot of time caring for chicks despite squabbles over prime nest platforms.  

Sometimes a pair would be pushed from their nest and replaced by a new ruthless pair of parents hungry for prime real estate.  Once I watched a new pair take over a nest with a chick. Instead of killing the chick or letting her die, the new pair simply adopted her, feeding her fish until she could fly away.  These are some of the more anthropocentric reasons that many people look more kindly on birds than other reptiles – they’re good parents, they perhaps even show something we could call empathy.  Interestingly, this is one trait shared between birds and crocodilians. 

When I interviewed for a position as a kayak naturalist guide in the Everglades, the head guide told me he’s only been rushed by an alligator once – when someone on a trip knocked baby alligators off a log without him noticing.  Crocodilians are better parents than sea turtles, and mother crocodilians can be similar to mother bears; if you mess with their babies you better watch out! All crocodilians put a bit of effort into building nests, digging a hole or mounding vegetation depending.  Rotting vegetation can actually warm the nest, incubating it. Some species depend on specific temperatures to determine the gender of the young. When the infant crocodilians are hatched, they’re carried in their mother’s mouth when danger is around. According to the <a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/crocodilian">San Diego Zoo</a>, the only species that doesn’t carry her young this way is the gharial with a mouth too narrow for its young.  Crocodilians stay with their mothers for about a year, riding on her back and learning to swim. But it isn’t just behavior, either.  

According to the <a href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2010/11/bird-meet-cousin-alligator/">Harvard Gazette</a>, researcher, Arkhat Abzhanov has been looking at genes involved in bird and crocodile development.  Unsurprisingly there are some very similar genes expressed in very different ways between the two groups.  After all, birds and crocodilians are just two small pieces of the mystery and science of evolution that connects us to all life on Earth.       

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Crocodiles and birds have more in common than you might think

It may seem hard to find two animals more different...

Researchers from the <a href="http://english.kiz.cas.cn/">Kunming Institute of Zoology</a> injected rhesus monkeys with human genes creating transgenic monkeys in a controversial new study. 

The study, published in the Beijing journal National Science Review, was meant to help shed light on the evolution of human intelligence.

Human intelligence is a mystery and researchers are unsure how the human brain evolved so quickly. By comparing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-early-human-evolution/">chimpanzee or bonobo brains to human brains,</a> researchers can get a better idea of what genes might be behind human intelligence.

The researchers saw a unique opportunity to examine how the human gene MCPH1 influences intelligence in 11 rhesus monkeys.

The transgenic monkeys had slower brain development comparable to human brain development and performed better on short-term memory tests involving colors and shapes.

The researchers say there was no difference in brain size though, and the study does little to identify the driving mechanisms behind human intelligence.

Only five of the monkeys survived the tests which have led to questions about lab conditions and how the monkeys were cared for. 

The study has made waves among researchers who are concerned about the ethical ramifications of such experiments. 

“The use of transgenic monkeys to study human genes linked to brain evolution is a very risky road to take,” James Sikela, a researcher from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado</a>, told<a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/613277/chinese-scientists-have-put-human-brain-genes-in-monkeysand-yes-they-may-be-smarter/"> MIT Technology Review</a>. “It is a classic slippery slope issue, and one that we can expect to recur as this type of research is pursued.” 

This is not the first time that Chinese scientists have raised ethical concerns when it comes to genetically modified monkeys. 

Earlier in January researchers cloned five macaques from a single genetically engineered monkey that had a sleep disorder. All five of the clones developed mental problems as a result. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists inject monkeys with human brain genes in controversial study

Researchers from the Kunming Institute of Zoology injected rhesus monkeys...

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How jellyfish break free from the seafloor. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a> (OIST) have recently identified the genes that allow jellyfish to break free and swim away from the ocean floor, which they are anchored to in the earliest stage of life. The specialized genes enable the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-chips-crunchy-snack/">jellyfish</a> to transform from stalk-like structures rooted in sediment to the bell-shaped creatures that glide through the sea. 

While anthozoans such as anemones and corals live out their lives in an immobile polyp state, jellyfish are able to advance into the medusa stage. The researchers set out to investigate what gives jellyfish this ability by analyzing the genomes of a moon jellyfish and a giant box jellyfish.

“By comparing two different types of jellyfish we expected to identify some universal rules on how to make a medusa stage,” said study first author Dr. Konstantin Khalturin. How jellyfish break free from the seafloor

As a jellyfish exits its polyp stage and leaves the ocean floor, different genes are activated to assist in its development. To pinpoint these specialized genes, the researchers compared the complete gene sequences of a moon jellyfish from the Baltic Sea and a giant box jellyfish from Japan to the gene sequences of corals and anemones.

[caption id="attachment_1871261" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/moon-jellyfish.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1871261" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/moon-jellyfish.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="503" /></a> Moon jellyfish, Image Credit: OIST[/caption]

“We expected that the genome organization in the two jellyfish would be more similar to each other than to the genomes of sea anemones or corals,” said Dr. Khalturin. By contrast, the genetic composition of the two jellyfish was drastically different, while the moon jelly was found to closely resemble anthozoans.

Ultimately, the team discovered that coral and anemones contain about two-thirds of the genes active in the medusa stage of the moon jellyfish. However, an additional arsenal of genes was found in moon jellyfish that were absent in the anthozoans. 

Corals and anemones lack the genes to grow certain organs and tissues, such as eyes and specialized swimming muscles. Both types of jellyfish had species-specific genes that only switch on during their jellyfish stages. The experts hope that future research could give scientists a better understanding of how jellyfish evolve.

The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Dr. Sho Toshino

How jellyfish break free from the seafloor

How jellyfish break free from the seafloor. Researchers at the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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