Around 3.7 billion years ago, early molecules on the young Earth learned to copy themselves. Over time, this simple act of replication - with help from chance and chemistry - blossomed into the plants and animals we see today.



Charles Darwin later explained how slow, steady change - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> acting on isolated populations - could split one species into two.



Yet in the plant kingdom, an alternative route to diversity exists. It is called autopolyploidy, and a new theoretical study of a woodland herb known as beetleweed (Galax urceolata) shows just how powerful - and complicated - this mechanism can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-mistake-sparks-new-species">DNA mistake sparks new species</h2>



Most organisms, humans included, are diploid: they carry two complete sets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a>, one from each parent.



In autopolyploidy, something unusual happens during the production of sperm or egg cells. Instead of halving the chromosome count, the cell leaves the full complement intact. When such a gamete meets another, the resulting embryo inherits double - or even triple - the usual DNA.



The newcomer may still manage to reproduce with its diploid relatives, but the hybrid offspring generally fare poorly. That mismatch in fertility often pushes the polyploid lineage to mate among its own kind, launching an instant reproductive barrier and, effectively, a new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-types-one-plant">Three types, one plant</h2>



For decades botanists assumed these chromosome copycats were evolutionary curiosities - unlikely to survive, let alone thrive, alongside their diploid parents.



Field surveys later overturned that view: autopolyploids are widespread and resilient. 



The lingering mystery was whether several cytotypes - diploids, triploids, tetraploids - could share the same patch of ground without one eventually eliminating the others through sheer competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-herb-with-three-identities">Mountain herb with three identities</h2>



Beetleweed, a low evergreen that carpets portions of the Appalachian Mountains, provided the perfect natural experiment. Earlier surveys revealed that some stands contain plants with two, three, or four chromosome sets.



“Through my fieldwork, I discovered that a single population could have a mishmash of cytotypes, which fascinated me,” remarked Shelly Gaynor, lead author of the new study that she&nbsp;completed at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



“With this study, I set out to understand if these populations could persist over time. Would one cytotype eventually outcompete the others, or could all three cytotypes persist?”



Answering that required tools beyond the transect tape and microscope. Gaynor and colleagues designed a mathematical framework that treats population change as inherently noisy - subject to random swings in birth, death, climate, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> flow.



Their model tracks how diploids, triploids, and autotetraploids form, spread, and interact when gene flow keeps tossing new genetic combinations into the mix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chromosomes-coexist-in-plants">Chromosomes coexist in plants</h2>



Two ingredients emerged as critical for long-term coexistence. First, self-fertilization rates matter. 



The more often a plant can pollinate itself, the easier it becomes for an odd-ploidy seedling to find a genetically compatible mate - sometimes its own flowers - without relying on scarce partners.



Second, partial reproductive isolation improves balance. If crosses between cytotypes rarely succeed, each form can maintain its numbers without being swamped by unfit hybrids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-favors-the-strongest">Stress favors the strongest</h2>



Environmental hardship then tilts the playing field. Under harsh conditions and intense competition, the model predicts that autotetraploids gain an edge over their diploid ancestors.



Extra chromosome copies may buffer them against stress, confer broader ecological tolerance or fuel faster adaptation. Triploids, by contrast, often act as a genetic bridge, forming when diploids and tetraploids interbreed but typically suffer lower fertility.



Because Gaynor’s simulations embed both demographic randomness and shifting weather, they reveal outcomes conventional equations might miss.



Sometimes all three cytotypes coexist for centuries; other times one prevails after a long stalemate. The key lesson is that stochasticity - the roll of the “evolutionary dice” - cannot be ignored when forecasting which lineages persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-beyond-one-plant">Impacts beyond one plant</h2>



Although the work focuses on a single Appalachia endemic plant, its reach extends far. Crop breeders deliberately create autopolyploids to enlarge fruit, boost resilience, or break <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-disease-experts-discover-how-bacteria-hijack-plant-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a> cycles.



Understanding how mixed-ploidy fields behave over time could help manage gene flow between improved varieties and their wild relatives.



Conservationists, meanwhile, wrestle with how best to protect rare plants that harbor multiple chromosome races within the same reserve; the new model offers a scaffold for predicting viability under climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-evolutionary-assumptions">Challenging evolutionary assumptions</h2>



The research also nudges evolutionary theory. Instant speciation via autopolyploidy sits at one extreme of the continuum of reproductive isolation. 



By showing that such sudden splits can persist even when parents and offspring rub shoulders, the beetleweed study challenges the tidy notion that new species must always occupy distinct niches or territories to survive.



Gaynor’s findings do not close the book on polyploid dynamics; rather, they open new chapters. 



Field experiments that monitor marked plants through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>, fires, and pathogen outbreaks could test whether tetraploids really weather adversity better.



Genetic analyses might uncover which genes, duplicated in extra copies, underpin that resilience. And satellite imagery paired with ecological modelling may reveal whether mixed-cytotype populations correlate with particular microclimates across the Appalachian ridges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-evolutionary-pathways">New evolutionary pathways </h2>



For now, the humble beetleweed stands as living proof that life need not wait for continental drift or glacial cycles to carve new evolutionary pathways.



Sometimes a single cellular hiccup - one missed step in plant chromosome division - is enough to spin off an enduring lineage. 



In the grand narrative that began with rogue molecules self-assembling eons ago, autopolyploidy writes its own rapid-fire chapter, reminding us that the processes that generate biodiversity can be as swift as they are surprising.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/734411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>.



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Plant chromosome glitch fast-tracks evolution

Around 3.7 billion years ago, early molecules on the young Earth learned to copy themselves. Over time, this simple act of replication - with help from chance and chemistry - blossomed into the plants and animals we see today. Charles Darwin later explained how slow, steady change - natural selection acting on isolated populations - could split one species into two. Yet in the plant kingdom, an alternative route to diversity exists. It is called autopolyploidy, and a new theoretical study of a woodland herb known as...

Woman,And,Ai,Robot,Working,Together,In,The,Office,,Automation

Large language models (LLMs) have impressive, yet sometimes confusing capability. These tools have the power to help graduate students draft emails, or guide a clinician in diagnosing cancer. 



Their applications are endless, but so are the questions on how best to evaluate these models.



The research is coming to us from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), a group of researchers has taken a different approach to understand LLM’s better. 



Let's learn about their new perspective, which places <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human beliefs</a> and expectations center stage in the evaluation process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-language-models">Machine learning and language models</h2>



The research team hailing from MIT involved a trio of specialists from diverse fields. 



The study’s co-author Ashesh Rambachan, an assistant professor of economics, and a principal investigator in the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems (LIDS), was a driving force behind this research. 



He was joined by lead author Keyon Vafa, a postdoc at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>, and Sendhil Mullainathan, an MIT professor. 



This unique perspective of their research will be presented at the International Conference on Machine Learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-belief-and-generalization">Human belief and generalization</h2>



The research pivoted around the concept of human generalization - how we form and update our beliefs about an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-outperforms-humans-in-creativity-tests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LLM’s capabilities</a>.



You've probably done it yourself; you see someone ace grammar correction and generalize that they would also be great at sentence construction.



That's precisely what we do with language models. However, Rambachan points out that these LLMs aren’t, in fact, human, which is why our generalizations can lead to unexpected model failures. 



Gearing their research around this, the team introduced a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-perform-better-when-they-think-ai-is-helping-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human generalization</a> function to evaluate the alignment between humans' beliefs and LLM performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-survey-says">The survey says. . .</h2>



So, how did the team approach this exciting endeavor? The researchers designed a survey to measure how people generalize when they interact with LLMs. 



Participants were shown questions that a person or LLM got right or wrong and were asked to predict the performance on a related question. 



As a result, a dataset of nearly 19,000 examples was generated to provide an insight into how humans form beliefs about LLM performance across 79 diverse tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measure-misalignment-in-language-models">Measure misalignment in language models</h2>



The survey results unfolded a fascinating pattern. Participants did pretty well at predicting a human's performance but fumbled when it came to foreseeing the LLM’s performance. 



"Human generalization gets applied to language models, but that breaks down because these language models don’t show patterns of expertise like people would," Rambachan rightly pointed out.



Another interesting finding was that humans were more likely to update their beliefs about an LLM's performance when it got a question wrong. 



Simpler models seemed to outperform very large models, like GPT-4, in such scenarios. The researchers speculate that this could be because we are not as accustomed to interacting with LLMs as we are with humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-model-development">Implications for model development</h2>



The findings from this research hold significant implications for the future development of language models. 



As the researchers highlight, understanding how human beliefs shape our expectations of LLMs can inform model design and training methodologies. 



By incorporating insights into human generalization patterns, developers can create models that are not only more robust but also align more closely with user expectations. 



This could lead to enhanced transparency in model capabilities, facilitating better integration of LLMs into real-world applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-language-models">Future research on language models</h2>



As this investigation underscores the complex relationship between human belief systems and LLM performance, a wealth of opportunities for future research emerges. 



Questions surrounding how different demographics interact with LLMs, or how context affects human generalization, remain largely unexplored. 



Additional studies could focus on refining the human generalization function to improve alignment measures or delving deeper into the psychological aspects of belief formation and adjustment in response to LLM capabilities. 



Exploring these avenues could ultimately lead to more effective and user-friendly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-boosts-creativity-but-reduces-variety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence technologies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead">The road ahead</h2>



Armed with these insights, the researchers are excited to conduct further studies on how people's beliefs about LLMs evolve over time as they interact with a model more frequently. 



They also aim to understand how human generalization could be incorporated into the development of LLMs right from the start.



In the meantime, they hope that their dataset could be used as a benchmark to measure the LLM's performance related to the human generalization function. This could indeed revolutionize the performance of models deployed in real-world situations.



"When we are training these algorithms in the first place, or trying to update them with human feedback, we need to account for the human generalization function in how we think about measuring performance," the researchers remind us.



This research was funded, in part, by the Harvard Data Science Initiative and the Center for Applied AI at the <a href="https://www.chicagobooth.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago Booth School of Business</a>.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2406.01382" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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Humans often misjudge and place too much trust in AI performance

Large language models (LLMs) have impressive, yet sometimes confusing capability....

Climate change brings numerous challenges, with 'managed retreat' emerging as a crucial strategy for adaptation. 



As communities worldwide face escalating&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-ways-to-prevent-flooding-caused-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a>&nbsp;risks, many are considering or being advised to relocate to safer, more resilient areas.&nbsp;



This proactive approach to managing risk is already in action. Flood-prone regions like Louisiana and Alaska are leading the way. Communities are taking decisive steps to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect their futures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-retreat-from-risk">Strategic retreat from risk</h2>



The concept of managed retreat focuses on strategically retreating from areas at high risk of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aral-sea-dust-emissions-have-doubled-with-major-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate impacts</a>.



“It's retreating from risk, and we hope to provide decision support for the equitable implementation of retreat to build climate resilience,” said Elaina Sutley, associate professor of civil, environmental &amp; architectural engineering at the&nbsp;<a href="https://ku.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-partnership">Global partnership</h2>



Sutley is leading a comprehensive three-year study on managed retreat, valued at approximately $650,000.&nbsp;



This research is titled “Retreating from Risk (RFR): Decision-supports for the equitable implementation of retreat to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-yards-promote-climate-resilience-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate resilience</a>.” 



It is part of a collaboration funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> and Canada’s New Frontiers in Research Fund.



This initiative is through the 2023 International Joint Initiative for Research on Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Competition. Each agency supports scientists at institutions in their respective countries.



“This is multidisciplinary collaboration between partners in the United States, Canada, and Indonesia, who are all faced with flood disasters, whether that's coastal flooding associated with a hurricane or not,” Sutley said.



“Inland flooding, seasonal flooding, and repeated nuisance flooding -- all three of these countries are facing it. Managed retreat has become a somewhat common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-climate-adaptation-lacks-coordination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation strategy</a>, particularly for flooding. The U.S. team will also consider retreating from wildfire disasters.”



The KU-headed partnership extends beyond the <a href="https://ku.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a>, involving <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook</a> and <a href="https://www.ttu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas Tech</a> universities, as well as researchers abroad. 



This collaborative effort aims to develop effective and fair retreat strategies to address various types of flooding and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-want-to-fight-climate-change-more-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate-related risks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-managed-retreat">Understanding managed retreat</h2>



The focus of this research extends beyond communities grappling with floods and wildfires; it also aims to inform decision-making for those facing a range of recurrent natural disasters.&nbsp;



The researchers are committed to understanding managed-retreat approaches. They are exploring how these methods are considered and implemented in various geographies, cultures, and nations. 



By examining global practices, they aim to identify common strategies. They also want to highlight necessary adaptations tailored to specific regional challenges.



This comprehensive analysis will help in developing effective, context-sensitive approaches for communities around the world, enhancing their resilience to various climate-related risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-respecting-indigenous-knowledge">Respecting indigenous knowledge</h2>



In this extensive effort, the team is deeply committed to seeking and incorporating Indigenous knowledge and practices wherever applicable.&nbsp;



They aim to work closely with Indigenous communities, building trust and fostering meaningful partnerships.&nbsp;



By integrating Indigenous perspectives and traditional ecological knowledge, the researchers hope to ensure that their strategies are not only effective but also culturally respectful and inclusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-barriers-to-managed-retreat">Identifying barriers to managed retreat</h2>



The researchers will also document a range of barriers to adopting managed retreat, including political, financial, cultural, and policy-related challenges.&nbsp;



To gain a comprehensive understanding, data will be collected through a variety of methods, such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and roundtable discussions. 



This approach ensures that the research captures diverse perspectives from all levels of decision-making.



The ultimate goal is to provide actionable guidance for communities considering managed retreat as a strategic option.&nbsp;



By examining the nuances and varying viewpoints from different communities and stakeholders, the researchers aim to offer tailored recommendations that address specific needs and concerns, facilitating a more informed and equitable decision-making process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-tools-and-immediate-relevance">Practical tools and immediate relevance</h2>



The findings will be instrumental in guiding policymakers, community leaders, and future research efforts.



The ultimate aim is to develop "contextually relevant decision-support tools" that empower community leaders to effectively engage their constituents on managed retreat strategies.



Given the pressing nature of the managed retreat issue, the research is designed to offer practical and timely guidance.&nbsp;



By studying communities at various stages of addressing this challenge, the researchers seek to understand how managed retreat processes unfold in different contexts.&nbsp;



The results are intended to provide both immediate and long-term relevance, ensuring that the recommendations are adaptable to the evolving needs of diverse communities.



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Effective 'managed retreat' strategies for climate-threatened areas

Climate change brings numerous challenges, with 'managed retreat' emerging as a...

When you think about butterflies and moths, what comes to mind? A peaceful scene of these creatures fluttering around flowers, their delicate bodies brushing against petals while they seek nectar. Well, it's time to add another scene to that mental canvas -- one with static electricity.



New research reveals that these insects amass so much static electricity while in flight that they pull pollen towards them from several millimeters or even centimeters away.



Dr. Sam England from <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol's School of Biological Sciences</a> leads a team of researchers that has made this striking discovery. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-moths-and-static-electricity">Butterflies, moths, and static electricity</h2>



This fascinating finding holds implications for these insects' effectiveness as high-efficiency pollinators.



Dr. England's team also discovered that the extent of static electricity varies amongst different species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-love-pretty-butterflies-and-that-complicates-data-for-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies and moths</a>. 



These differences align with aspects of their ecology, such as whether they visit flowers, hail from a tropical environment, or are day or night flyers.



This evidence suggests that the quantity of static electricity an animal accumulates is an adaptive trait, making it a candidate for natural selection's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary process</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accumulation-in-butterflies">Accumulation in butterflies</h2>



“We knew many species accumulate static electricity as they fly, likely through friction with the air. It had been suggested that this static electricity might enhance the pollination capabilities of flower-visiting animals, like bees and hummingbirds, by using electrostatic attraction for pollen," Dr. England elaborates.



So, the intriguing question was whether this principle extends to an array of crucial pollinators such as butterflies and moths. If they, too, accumulate significant charge, could that charge attract pollen onto them?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-behind-static-electricity-in-butterflies">Factors behind static electricity in butterflies</h2>



The team studied 269 butterflies and moths across 11 different species, native to five continents and found in various ecological niches. 



Scientists then compared these species to determine whether ecological factors correlated with their charge. This investigation helps establish static charging as a trait upon which evolution can act.



"A clearer picture is developing of how static electricity's influence in pollination might be powerful and widespread," Dr. England shared. 



"By establishing electrostatic charging as a trait upon which evolution can act, it opens up numerous questions about how and why natural selection might lead to animals benefiting or suffering from the quantity of static electricity they accumulate."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-power-of-pollinators">Invisible power of pollinators</h2>



"We've discovered that butterflies and moths accumulate so much static electricity when flying, that pollen is literally pulled through the air towards them as they approach a flower," Dr. England concluded. 



These creatures can pollinate without even touching flowers, making them incredibly effective at their job and highlighting their crucial contribution to our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovation-triggered-by-nature">Innovation triggered by nature</h2>



This study's practical implications are far-reaching. Technology might harness this knowledge to artificially increase pollinators or pollen's electrostatic charges, thereby enhancing pollination rates in natural and agricultural settings.



The insights gained from Dr. England's study could pave the way for innovative strategies in agriculture, particularly in the context of increasing crop yields. 



By manipulating the electrostatic properties of pollen or enhancing the natural static electricity in pollinators like butterflies and moths, farmers could potentially improve the efficiency of pollination processes.



This approach may lead to a reduced need for chemical pollinators and support more sustainable farming practices. 



Moreover, understanding how static electricity influences interactions between flowering plants and their pollinators can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inform conservation efforts</a> aimed at preserving diverse ecosystems that rely on these critical relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-butterflies-and-electricity">Future research on butterflies and electricity</h2>



As the study opens new avenues of inquiry, future research may delve deeper into the genetic and ecological factors that influence the accumulation of static electricity among pollinators. 



Investigating the molecular mechanisms behind this phenomenon could shed light on the evolutionary history of these species and their interactions with various plants. 



Additionally, examining the effects of environmental changes -- such as climate change and habitat loss -- on the electrostatic charging capabilities of butterflies and moths will be crucial in assessing the resilience of pollination systems.



This line of research may also contribute to our understanding of how biodiversity loss impacts ecosystem functionality, emphasizing the need for comprehensive conservation strategies.



“For me personally, I would love to do a wider survey of as many different species of animal as possible, see how much static electricity they accumulate, and then look for any correlations with their ecology and lifestyle. Then we can really begin to understand how evolution and static electricity interact!” Dr England concluded.



So, the next time you see a butterfly or a moth flutter by, remember, there's a whole lot of science in that seemingly simple flight!



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2024.0156" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of The Royal Society Interface</a>. 



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Butterflies use static electricity to catch pollen without touching it

When you think about butterflies and moths, what comes to...

The story of global reforestation is far from a simple one; it's a complex interplay of local economies, international industries, environmental stewardship, and the incessant forward march of climate change. 



Imagine the forests as our planet’s lungs - inhaling carbon dioxide and exhaling oxygen.



But it seems the balance has been off for a while, and our planet is gasping for air. Today, however, a study from <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> breathes new life into this narrative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-reforestation">Power of reforestation</h2>



At the forefront of this research is Jeff Vincent, a professor of forest economics and management at Duke University’s <a href="https://nicholas.duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicholas School of the Environment</a>. 



Alongside lead author Jonah Busch, a Climate Economics Fellow at Conservation International, Vincent and his team have advanced a fresh perspective on the cost and impact of reforestation. 



Their study reveals fascinating facts about the power of a combined approach to reforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reforestation-sites">Reforestation sites</h2>



Simply put, reforestation involves growing back trees on lands where human activity has decimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">original forests</a>.



Presently, most reforestation programs across low- and middle-income countries focus solely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-planting-campaigns-fall-short-of-successful-reforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a>. 



However, this study uncovers that nearly half of all suitable reforestation sites would be more effective in carbon sequestration if forests were allowed to regrow naturally. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-all-about-the-wood">Is it all about the wood?</h2>



"Wood markets are one key to large-scale reforestation," Vincent states. 



In fact, the study shows that in more than half the areas studied, timber plantations sequester carbon at a lower cost than naturally regenerated forests. 



Could the key to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-story-reforestation-has-helped-keep-the-eastern-us-relatively-cool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reversing deforestation</a> lie in our local wood markets?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mix-is-the-trick">Mix is the trick</h2>



According to Vincent, a combination of planted and naturally regenerated forests often offers the best solution for balancing society’s demands on forests. 



Yet, Jonah Busch notes that this more biodiversity-rich method of reforestation is enormously underutilized.



To illustrate this, the researchers propose another method to sequester more carbon: replanting some forest regions while allowing nature to do her thing in others. 



As it turns out, it's not an 'either-or' situation – a mixed approach offers the most effective strategy to combat climate change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paying-for-the-planet-s-lungs">Paying for the planet's lungs</h2>



Companies and organizations seeking to offset their greenhouse gas emissions can help incentivize reforestation through carbon payments. 



"Carbon payments can provide a sufficient reforestation incentive on their own in some locations," Vincent explains.



He also adds that the net cost of carbon sequestration could be reduced in other places by income from sustainable wood harvests.



In essence, the total cost of capturing and storing carbon dioxide, minus any benefits gained from the process, can be significantly lowered through projects that generate income from timber sales or wood products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implementation-of-reforestation">Implementation of reforestation </h2>



Implementing the findings from Duke University’s study requires a coordinated effort among governments, NGOs, and local communities. 



Policy frameworks must be developed to support mixed approaches to reforestation, providing guidelines for sustainable forestry and natural regeneration methods. 



Furthermore, educational campaigns can raise awareness about the importance of biodiversity and the necessity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maintaining ecological balance</a>. 



Engaging local communities in the reforestation process ensures that initiatives are culturally sensitive and economically viable, ultimately leading to more successful outcomes in restoring our planet’s green spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-affecting-reforestation-costs">Factors affecting reforestation costs</h2>



Whether natural growth or planting trees is more cost-effective in a certain location depends on several factors. 



These include forest growth rates, proximity to natural seed sources for regeneration and wood-processing mills for plantations, the value of land in its current use, and the costs of each method.



In their study, the team modeled these factors for the two reforestation methods and produced a world map showing the most cost-effective reforestation method by location.



"We hope our map will help governments, companies, and other organizations use their forest restoration budgets more efficiently," Vincent concludes.



And so do we. After all, it's not just about the trees. It's about the air we breathe, the climate we wish to preserve, and the planet we hope to pass onto our children.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02068-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Planting trees is important, but reforestation can help, too

The story of global reforestation is far from a simple...

Isn't it bizarre how many times we've been told that a glass of wine a day keeps the doctor away? Or some variation of that claim on benefits of moderate drinking. 



Well, a new research has come to light, and it might alter the way you perceive that glass of Cabernet Sauvignon or pint of IPA in your hand.



The report is shaking up the conventional wisdom we've heard for years--that moderate drinking could extend lives and decrease our chances of chronic diseases. 



Steering this riveting ship of discovery is lead researcher Tim Stockwell, Ph.D., a scientist affiliated with the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/cisur/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research</a> at the University of Victoria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-studies-on-moderate-drinking">Past studies on moderate drinking</h2>



Stockwell and his team argue that there are underlying flaws in the way previous researches have been designed. 



They believe that the studies' focus on older adults without considering their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-has-a-hidden-impact-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifetime drinking habits</a> led to skewed results.



"Think about this for a second. When these studies compare moderate drinkers with abstainers, many of the abstainers are older adults who have quit or reduced their drinking due to health conditions," Stockwell remarked. 



"This situation makes the continued drinkers appear healthier, but it's a rigged comparison. It's like comparing apples with oranges."



In other words, things are not what they seem when it comes to these studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truth-about-alcohol-consumption">Truth about alcohol consumption</h2>



For this analysis, Stockwell and his team examined 107 published studies that followed individuals over time and explored the relationship between drinking habits and lifespan.



A quick look at the data suggested something that might ring a bell: moderate drinkers (those who drank between one drink per week and two per day) had a 14% lower risk of dying during the study period compared to abstainers. However, a closer examination of the studies told a different story.



Stockwell pointed out that the "higher quality" studies - those that considered younger participants and ensured a clear distinction between former drinkers and lifelong abstainers - showed no link between moderate drinking and longer lives.



The illusion of health benefits came only from the "lower quality" studies. Stockwell quipped, "If you look at the weakest studies, that's where you see supposed health benefits."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paradox-of-perception">Paradox of perception</h2>



In our social constructs, drinking often takes on an additional layer of meaning, transformed into a communal activity that fosters connection. Yet, this context can also mask the true implications of alcohol consumption on health. 



Many individuals justify their drinking habits with social norms, failing to recognize the potential harm. 



Stockwell's research underscores the importance of examining how societal attitudes towards drinking can buoy the perception of its health benefits, leading to an environment where moderation may not be as beneficial as previously thought. 



We need to reassess not just our protocols for studying alcohol but also the culture around it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-awareness-on-moderate-drinking">Public awareness on moderate drinking</h2>



Given these revelations, there is an urgent need for public health campaigns to rethink their messaging about alcohol consumption. 



Instead of perpetuating the myth that moderate drinking has health benefits, stakeholders should emphasize the risks tied to alcohol and encourage a more informed dialogue around healthy lifestyles. 



By promoting comprehensive education on the potential dangers of drinking, the goal should be to empower individuals to make more educated choices regarding their alcohol consumption. 



It’s time to break away from outdated perceptions and embrace a modern understanding of alcohol’s role in our health, fostering a culture of awareness rather than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-zero-alcohol-drinks-a-type-of-gateway-drug-for-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complacency</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-busting-myths">Busting myths</h2>



One myth that Stockwell wants to debunk is the decades-old belief in the "French Paradox." This notion suggests that red wine explains why French people have significantly lower rates of heart disease despite having a diet high in fats. 



It's a compelling story, but Stockwell argues that the concept is a mere figment of the public imagination.



According to Stockwell, moderate drinking likely doesn't extend our lives. In fact, it can bring along a suitcase of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-consumption-can-lead-to-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health risks</a>, such as increased chances of developing certain cancers.



"There is simply no completely 'safe' level of drinking," Stockwell stressed.



So, the next time you hear that familiar saying about a glass of wine a day, remember: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-benefits-of-moderate-drinking-may-be-hidden-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">what the doctor ordered</a> has been reconsidered. 



New evidence prompts us to reassess our drinking habits and encourages us towards a more informed and healthier future, even if it's with a little less wining and dining. Cheers to that!



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jsad.com/doi/10.15288/jsad.23-00283" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs</a>. 



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Even moderate drinking severely harms health, despite past studies

Isn't it bizarre how many times we've been told that...

A remarkable revelation is brought to us courtesy of Diego Diel, an associate professor of virology, and director of the Virology Laboratory at the Animal Health Diagnostic Center in the <a href="https://www.vet.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Veterinary Medicine</a>, Cornell University. The team found that the highly pathogenic avian flu can now efficiently spread among mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avian-flu-s-journey-to-mammals">Avian flu's journey to mammals</h2>



“This is one of the first times that we are seeing evidence of efficient and sustained mammalian-to-mammalian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-may-transmit-bird-flu-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza</a> H5N1,” said Diel.



However, there's a bit of good news too. The sequencing of the virus hasn't revealed any mutations that would increase its transmissibility in humans.&nbsp;



But, the very fact that the virus is showing mammal-to-mammal transmission is cause for worry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-cases-and-the-virus-origin">Human cases and the virus origin</h2>



So how does this impact us humans? Well, the U.S. has reported 11 cases so far, with the first case recorded back in April 2022. 



All these patients have shown mild symptoms, and their exposure to the virus can be linked to either cattle or poultry farms. 



And it seems dairy cows might be the origin of the virus. These patients had contracted the same strain that was found circulating in dairy cows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-infection">Human infection</h2>



While the virus does infect and replicate in humans, the efficiency is rather low currently. But, Diel cautions about possible future mutations which might make the virus adapt better to mammals and subsequently to humans, potentially leading to efficient transmission amongst us.



Therefore, what's really crucial is to keep monitoring the virus in affected animals and also in humans that might potentially get infected. 



"Early testing, enhanced biosecurity and quarantines in the event of positive results, would be necessary to contain any further spread of the virus," Diel advises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avian-flu-s-impact-on-mammals">Avian flu's impact on mammals</h2>



H5N1 Infections were first detected in January 2022 and have resulted in over 100 million domestic birds and thousands of wild birds losing their lives.&nbsp;



The virus has increasingly been found in dairy cattle herds, causing reduced appetite, respiratory distress, and abnormal milk in the affected animals, leading to a significant drop in milk production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-avian-flu-s-spread-to-mammals">Preventing avian flu's spread to mammals</h2>



In light of the rising concerns regarding H5N1 outbreaks among livestock, implementing strict biosecurity measures is paramount. 



Farmers and ranchers are advised to limit contact between domestic animals and wild birds, as well as employ robust sanitation protocols within barns and feeding areas. 



Routine health checks for livestock, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-influenza-vaccine-could-offer-lifetime-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">along with vaccination</a> where feasible, can help mitigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-influenza-h5n1-marine-mammals-spreading-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risks of transmission</a>.



Additionally, educating farm workers on the signs of avian influenza and ensuring that any symptomatic animals receive immediate veterinary care contributes to early detection and control of the virus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-research-and-surveillance">Role of research and surveillance</h2>



As the situation evolves, ongoing research and surveillance are critical to understand the dynamics of avian flu's transmission to mammals.



Universities and veterinary institutes are ramping up their efforts to study the virus's behaviour in both avian and mammalian hosts. 



This comprehensive approach includes genetic sequencing, epidemiological studies, and close monitoring of infected populations.



Collaborative efforts between agricultural departments and public health agencies are essential to timely identification and response to potential outbreaks. 



Enhanced reporting mechanisms will also ensure that any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-is-killing-thousands-of-seals-and-sea-lions-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emerging threats</a> are swiftly addressed, guarding both animal health and public safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-disease-spread">Unearthing the disease spread</h2>



This extensive research involved whole genome sequencing of characterized viral strains, modeling, and epidemiological information to trace the virus's journey. The virus was found capable of moving from Texas cows to healthy ones in Ohio.&nbsp;



Even cats, a raccoon and wild birds found dead on the affected farms tested positive for the virus, likely contracted from consuming raw milk of the infected cows.



This research is a collaborative effort, involving many experts from various institutions. Several authors contributed their expertise to this significant study. They worked under different institutions, pooling their knowledge and resources.



The study was funded by entities like the AHDC, the Ohio Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, the Texas A&amp;M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, and the USDA.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07849-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Avian flu is now spreading from mammal-to-mammal, alarming health officials

A remarkable revelation is brought to us courtesy of Diego...

Have you ever pondered the bewildering array of creatures that inhabit our planet? From scaly reptiles to feathered birds and furry beasts, each one piques our curiosity. One such group that stands out because of their unusual stomachs is the monotremes.



Monotremes are egg-laying mammals -- encompassing the platypus and echidnas -- and they bask in the glory of being the oldest living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unearthing-the-lost-world-of-unique-mammals-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian lineage</a>. These oddballs continue to intrigue and confound scientists around the globe.



The recent revelation hits the nail on the head, demystifying why they have unusually small, non-acidic stomachs; in particular, platypuses lack a pyloric sphincter, the gateway that controls the passage of food from the stomach to the intestine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monotremes-anatomy">Monotremes anatomy</h2>



Enter Jackson Dann, the lead author of this groundbreaking study, and a Ph.D. student at the University of Adelaide's <a href="https://set.adelaide.edu.au/biological-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological Sciences</a>.



"Work from our lab previously had shown that the platypus and echidna had lost the genetic instructions for proteins that break down food and secrete stomach acids, but to me this didn't explain the drastic shift in their stomach anatomy relative to other animals," Dann shared his initial dilemma.



Drawing a unique conclusion from his research, he discovered that an essential gene named Nkx3.2 was inactivated in the common ancestor between platypuses and echidnas, tens of millions of years ago!



"Thanks to novel repositories of genetic data, and physical specimens we had at the lab, we were able to discover that Nkx3.2 wasn't functional in monotremes, and this inactivating event contributed to the evolution of their unique body plans," Dann continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-monotreme-s-stomach-anatomy">Insights into monotreme's stomach anatomy</h2>



Dann and his team's discerning analysis of genetic data endowed us with priceless insights into how the monotreme stomach evolved and how it develops in the fetal period.



Monotremes harbor an enigmatic stomach anatomy. 



"It's likely there is some overarching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological factor</a> we're missing as to why these species have lost their stomachs," Dann surmised.



"It's otherwise surprising that we would see these drastic shifts in stomach anatomy in monotremes and then the next closely related species are loose groups of fish."



The lens of curiosity zoomed onto these remarkable creatures based on Dann’s fascination with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of unique animal body plans. 



The published research paper in Open Biology shines a light on a singular aspect of the labyrinthine evolutionary trajectory of monotremes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-significance-of-monotremes">Evolutionary significance of monotremes</h2>



Monotremes hold a pivotal place in the evolutionary timeline, serving as a bridge between reptiles and mammals. Their unique characteristics reveal much about the diversification of mammals over millions of years. 



With a lineage dating back to the Mesozoic era, these creatures exemplify how evolutionary adaptations can lead to distinct biological forms. 



The study of monotremes enables scientists to understand not just their own evolutionary history, but also the evolutionary mechanisms that led to the vast array of mammalian life we see today. 



This knowledge can offer insights into resilience and adaptation in changing environments, shedding light on the pressures that shape species over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-monotreme-stomachs">Significance of monotreme stomachs</h2>



Dann's study is not simply for the biologists and geneticists, but also for us, the ordinary folks. He earnestly believes that the more we know about monotremes -- and all Australian fauna -- the more we can appreciate their role in their ecosystems and celebrate their idiosyncrasies.



"There are fantastic efforts led by my colleagues, Dr. Tahlia Perry, Isabella Wilson, and my supervisor, Professor Frank Grützner, into engaging and educating the public about monotreme biology and conservation, such as through EchidnaCSI," Dann appreciatively said.



"A better understanding of these unique and iconic species provides a significant contribution to Australian ecology and culture -- they help us understand more about mammals, including ourselves."



As we delve deeper into monotreme biology, it becomes evident that their distinct traits not only offer insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-geographic-isolation-shaped-global-species-habitat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian evolution</a> but also highlight the delicate balance of ecosystems. 



By studying these remarkable animals, we gain a greater appreciation for biodiversity and the importance of preserving such unique species in our ever-changing world.



So, next time when you see a picture of an echidna or a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unique-museum-collection-of-platypuses-resurfaces-after-150-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">platypus</a>, remember that their small, non-acidic stomach hosts a tale of millions of years of evolution!



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsob.240071" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Open Biology</a>.



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Egg-laying mammals, called monotremes, are unique in many ways

Have you ever pondered the bewildering array of creatures that...

Scientists have recently celebrated a significant milestone in astronomy, announcing the discovery of six new exoplanets. This pushes the total number of confirmed exoplanets to 5,502, according to a report from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/exoplanets/discovery-alert-with-six-new-worlds-5500-discovery-milestone-passed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



The achievement marks a major step in our understanding of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-sized-exoplanet-orbiting-ultracool-dwarf-star-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worlds beyond our solar system</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-5-502-exoplanet-discoveries">Journey of 5,502 exoplanet discoveries</h2>



Back in 1992, scientists made an incredible discovery. They found exoplanets. Poltergeist and Phobetor were found orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. This was a game-changer in astronomy. It opened the door to studying planets beyond our solar system.



By March 2022, more than 5,000 exoplanets had been identified. Each new find teaches us more about how planets form. It also shows us how diverse these distant worlds can be. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="hVqU3bwfBE-3751524-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-latest-discoveries-six-new-exoplanets">The latest discoveries: Six new exoplanets</h2>



Now, let's meet the new members of the cosmic family, each of them holding fascinating stories of their own:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hd-36384-b">HD 36384 b</h3>



HD 36384 b is a super-Jupiter planet. It orbits a massive M giant star. Scientists discovered this planet using the radial velocity method. The star it orbits is nearly 40 times the size of our Sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toi-198-b">TOI-198 b</h3>



TOI-198 b is a potentially rocky planet. It is located on the inner edge of the habitable zone. The planet orbits an M dwarf star. Scientists discovered TOI-198 b using the transit method, which detects planets as they dim their star's light.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toi-2095-b">TOI-2095 b</h3>



TOI-2095 b is a large, hot super-Earth. It orbits an M dwarf star. Scientists discovered this planet using the transit method. TOI-2095 b is likely more similar to Venus than Earth.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toi-2095-c">TOI-2095 c</h3>



TOI-2095 c is a large, hot super-Earth. It orbits the same M dwarf star as TOI-2095 b. Scientists discovered this planet using the transit method. TOI-2095 c is likely more similar to Venus than Earth.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toi-4860-b">TOI-4860 b</h3>



TOI-4860 b is also known as a hot Jupiter. It orbits an M dwarf star. Scientists discovered this planet using the transit method. TOI-4860 b completes an orbit every 1.52 days. It is rare for such planets to orbit closely to stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mwc-758-c">MWC 758 c</h3>



MWC 758 c is a giant protoplanet. It orbits a very young star with a protoplanetary disk. Scientists discovered this planet using direct imaging, which captures actual images of the planet. MWC 758 c is notable for carving spiral arms into the star's disk. It is one of the first exoplanets found in such a young system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-routes-to-exoplanet-discovery">Diverse routes to exoplanet discovery</h2>



Exoplanets are elusive. Their detection and study involve a creative mix of methods, each designed to reveal unique aspects of these distant worlds. From the radial velocity method, transit method, to direct imaging, each approach brings its unique perspective to the table.



In exoplanet research, technology leads the way. <a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/tess/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TESS</a> and NASA's space telescopes like <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/spitzer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spitzer</a>, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a>, and <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a> have been crucial in making these discoveries possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upcoming-missions">Upcoming missions</h2>



The future holds exciting times for space enthusiasts. NASA's Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, launching in May 2027, will carry the Roman Coronagraph Instrument. 



As a result, we will soon be looking at the development of the Habitable Worlds Observatory, which is set to search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-85-new-exoplanets-that-could-harbor-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life signatures</a> on distant planets.



The discovery of exoplanets is not a matter of numbers or records. Each discovery contributes to our growing understanding of planetary formation and diversity and stirs up possibilities for finding habitable worlds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sulfur-dioxide-found-on-distant-exoplanet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-exoplanet-research">Future of exoplanet research </h2>



The field of exoplanet research resembles a river; it's always flowing and progressing. Technological advancements and the launch of new missions hint at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearby-exoplanet-lhs-1140-b-best-chance-yet-finding-alien-ocean-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greater discoveries</a> in the pipeline. The potential to find life on other planets fuels this constant drive and inspires a new generation of space explorers.



This latest announcement marks a significant milestone in the exploration of the universe. We have confirmed over 5,500 exoplanets, and we are getting closer to understanding the mysteries of space.



NASA scientists continue their quest unabated, inspiring awe and curiosity about the intriguing worlds beyond our own.



Video Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/M. Russo, A. Santaguida (SYSTEM Sounds)



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Exoplanet discovery: NASA identifies over 5,500 distant worlds

Scientists have recently celebrated a significant milestone in astronomy, announcing...

Scientists have discovered something wholly unexpected and utterly captivating about the sun. Previously, events shaping our planet - volcanic eruptions, tectonic movement, climate oscillations - were predominantly chalked up to Earth's internal dynamics. But this story now has a new twist: our brilliant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-storm-warning-issued-astronauts-auroras/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sun</a> also leaves its mark deep within the Earth's magma.



Among those pioneering the study is Wan Bo, a geologist from the <a href="http://english.igg.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Geology and Geophysics</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redox-reactions-in-earth-s-magma">Redox reactions in Earth's magma</h2>



The world of science favors evidence, and what better evidence exists than the redox state of arc magma? 



"Redox" state is the perfect balance between oxidizing and reducing conditions within magma formed in volcanic arcs. Here's the stunning part: marine creatures, rich in organic carbon, play a vital role in these deep-Earth chemical reactions, subsequently influencing the redox state of the magma.



Through the subduction of oceanic plates, these carbon-rich organisms make the profound journey from the ocean surface to the Earth's interior. 



The presence of this organic carbon decreases the oxidation state of arc magma. Simply put, our magma has a dash of sunlight in it, courtesy of these carbon-laced marine organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magma-samples-and-sun-s-traces">Magma samples and Sun's traces</h2>



Researchers have collected thousands of magma samples globally, giving us an extraordinary peek into the web of interactions between the surface climate and deep Earth processes. 



These samples are crucial for locating metal ores such as copper, tin, and lithium, essential components for renewable energy technologies.



Two proven guides in this exploration have been the levels of vanadium and scandium in the arc magma. The researchers noticed a distinct pattern of the redox state in the magma - more oxidized at higher latitudes and less at lower latitudes. It seems that the sun leaves a different tattoo on the magma according to the Earth's latitude.



“Trying to explain these differences led us to discover this unexpected pattern," said Wan Bo, offering a glance into the fascinating journey of scientific discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-seafloor-and-magma">Sun, seafloor and magma</h2>



The sun's influence on Earth's deep interior doesn't end here. Seafloor studies offer more insights into this intriguing relationship. 



There exist larger deposits of reduced carbon at lower latitudes. This carbon, upon interaction with sulfur, forms sulfide that is then seamlessly transported into the mantle, further enhancing the overall redox pattern.



"It suggests a strong link between the surface environment and the redox state of the deep Earth, paving new directions for exploring the resources and environmental impacts of subduction systems at different latitudes," noted study co-author Hu Fangyang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-climate-research">Implications for climate research</h2>



The interconnectedness of surface and deep Earth processes could revolutionize our understanding of climate change and its impact on geological formations. 



As global temperatures fluctuate, the alterations in organic matter availability at the ocean surface may influence the levels of carbon transported into the Earth's interior. These shifts could result in noticeable changes to the redox state of the magma over time. 



Understanding this relationship is critical, as it may provide insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/suns-fury-secrets-of-solar-energy-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geothermal activities</a> that contribute to volcanic eruptions and their link to climate variability. 



Moreover, the study of these deep-Earth processes might enhance predictive models, allowing scientists to better forecast the effects of climate change on both our planet's surface and subsurface dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geochemical-research">Geochemical research</h2>



As the intrigue surrounding the sun's influence on Earth's magma continues to grow, researchers are keen to explore further avenues of investigation. 



Future studies may focus on understanding the specific mechanisms by which organic carbon alters the redox state, and how these changes affect volcanic activity and mineral deposits. 



Additionally, employing advanced analytical techniques could yield more detailed data on the elemental signature of magma samples, enhancing our comprehension of the geographical and chemical variations across different volcanic arcs. 



By embracing interdisciplinary collaboration, scientists across geology, geochemistry, and environmental science can pave the way for groundbreaking discoveries that link the forces of nature shaping our world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-ahead">The journey ahead</h2>



Despite these captivating findings, the insatiable curiosity and diligence of scientists continue. 



As Wan Bo acknowledges, we need more data, especially from global marine and subducted sediments. Nevertheless, this study has opened up new, thrilling avenues for scientific exploration.



So, the next time you bask in the sun's warm rays, take a moment to consider its influence far-reaching, intricate, and entirely awe-inspiring.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50337-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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The sun affects magma formation deep within the Earth

Scientists have discovered something wholly unexpected and utterly captivating about...

Giant plumes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sahara Desert dust</a> that blow across the Atlantic can influence weather patterns, suppressing the formation of hurricanes and affecting North American weather. 



However, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn6106" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a> has shown that thick dust plumes can also lead to heavier rainfall and more potential destruction from landfalling storms.



“Saharan dust, transported across the Atlantic Ocean by trade winds, is the predominant aerosol type during summer and early fall over the tropical Atlantic,” noted the researchers.



“It can efficiently alter atmospheric radiative fluxes in both shortwave and longwave bands and participate in cloud formation by serving as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and/or ice nuclei (IN).”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saharan-dust-and-hurricane-precipitation-nbsp">Saharan dust and hurricane precipitation&nbsp;</h2>



The study uncovered a previously unknown relationship between Saharan dust plumes and hurricane precipitation.&nbsp;



Study co-author Yuan Wang is an assistant professor of Earth system science at the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



“Surprisingly, the leading factor controlling hurricane precipitation is not, as traditionally thought, sea surface temperature or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/">humidity</a> in the atmosphere. Instead, it’s Sahara dust,” said Wang.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-saharan-dust-nbsp">Climate change and Saharan dust&nbsp;</h2>



Previous research indicates that Saharan dust transport may decline in the coming decades, leading to increased hurricane rainfall due to human-caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



However, there is still uncertainty regarding how climate change will affect Saharan dust outflows and the amount of additional rainfall from future hurricanes.&nbsp;



Understanding the complex relationships among Saharan dust, ocean temperatures, and hurricane dynamics is critical for predicting and mitigating climate change impacts.



“Hurricanes are among the most destructive weather phenomena on Earth,” said Wang. Even relatively weak hurricanes can cause significant inland flooding and heavy rains.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-cyclone-rainfall">Tropical cyclone rainfall</h2>



The study authors noted that tropical cyclones (TCs) have caused catastrophic damages globally.&nbsp;



“According to global and regional climate models, tropical cyclone rainfall (TCR) is expected to increase with global warming, following the increased water vapor holding capacity in the atmosphere with rising temperature,” wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underestimated-weather-source-nbsp">Underestimated weather source&nbsp;</h2>



However, as Wang pointed out, dust has not received enough attention in conventional weather and hurricane predictions. Dust particles can have opposing effects on tropical cyclones.&nbsp;



According to Wang, a dust particle can make ice clouds form more efficiently in the core of the hurricane, which can produce more precipitation.



This effect is called microphysical enhancement. However, dust can also block solar radiation and cool sea surface temperatures around the hurricane's core, thereby weakening the tropical cyclone.



To understand these dynamics, Wang and his colleagues developed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-can-more-accurately-predict-ocean-currents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> model to predict hurricane rainfall. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-optical-depth-nbsp">Dust optical depth&nbsp;</h2>



Using 19 years of meteorological data and hourly satellite precipitation observations, they found that a key predictor of rainfall is dust optical depth, which measures how much light passes through a dusty plume.&nbsp;



The experts discovered a boomerang-shaped relationship: rainfall increases with dust optical depths between 0.03 and 0.06, then sharply decreases as dust concentration rises further. This means high concentrations of dust shift from enhancing to suppressing rainfall.



“This study uses an XGBoost machine learning model with 19-year meteorological data and hourly satellite precipitation observations to predict TCR for individual storms. The model identifies dust optical depth (DOD) as a key predictor that enhances performance evidently.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saharan-dust-and-tropical-cyclone-rainfall-nbsp">Saharan dust and tropical cyclone rainfall&nbsp;</h2>



The model also uncovers a nonlinear and boomerang-shape relationship between Saharan dust and TCR, with a TCR peak at 0.06 DOD and a sharp decrease thereafter. This indicates a shift from microphysical enhancement to radiative suppression at high dust concentrations,” the authors explained.



“Normally, when dust loading is low, the microphysical enhancement effect is more pronounced. If dust loading is high, it can more efficiently shield [the ocean] surface from sunlight, and what we call the ‘radiative suppression effect’ will be dominant,” Wang added.



The research highlights not only the power of machine learning algorithms to predict weather patterns, but also the urgent need to consider Saharan dust in hurricane predictions to better understand and mitigate the impacts of climate change.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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Saharan dust can intensify hurricanes

Giant plumes of Sahara Desert dust that blow across the...

According to the <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Copernicus Climate Change Service</a> (C3S), our planet has just experienced its hottest day in recorded history. 



On July 22, 2024, the daily global average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/death-valley-may-reach-the-hottest-temperature-ever-recorded-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> reached a new record high of 17.15°C. This exceeded the previous records of 17.09°C set just one day before on July 21, 2024, and 17.08°C set a year earlier on July 6, 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hottest-day-on-record">Hottest day on record</h2>



Based on preliminary data released by C3S on July 24, 2024, Monday, July 22, marked the hottest day in the ERA5 dataset, which has records dating back to 1940.&nbsp;



While the temperature on July 21, 2024 (17.09ºC) was nearly indistinguishable from the previous record of 17.08ºC reached on July 6, 2023, the new record temperature of 17.15°C on July 22 represents a more significant deviation than typical day-to-day variations.



What stands out even more is the significant difference between the temperatures recorded since July 2023 and those of all previous years. The data can be explored in <a href="https://pulse.climate.copernicus.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Pulse</a>, the C3S application that provides historical and near-real-time temperature data from the ERA5 reanalysis dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-temperature-record">Global temperature record</h2>



Before July 2023, the previous daily global average temperature record was 16.8°C, set on August 13, 2016. Since July 3, 2023, there have been 58 days that have exceeded that previous record, spread between July and August 2023, and during June and July so far in 2024.



“On July 21st, C3S recorded a new record for the daily global mean temperature. What is truly staggering is how large the difference is between the temperature of the last 13 months and the previous temperature records. We are now in truly uncharted territory and as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-dual-crises-of-climate-and-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> keeps warming, we are bound to see new records being broken in future months and years,” said  C3S Director Carlo Buontempo, commenting on the record set on July 21, 2024.



“We now have a new record, and its value is sufficiently large to indicate with some confidence that this has exceeded the record set only last year. The event is still ongoing and it is possible the date of the peak may still change, but our data suggest we may see slightly lower temperatures in the next few days,” he added, following the new record on July 22, 2024



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-the-times">Signs of the times</h2>



Analysis of the years with the highest annual maximum daily global temperatures shows that both 2023 and 2024 have seen annual highs substantially above those recorded in previous years.&nbsp;



Another sign of the global warming trend is the fact that the ten years with the highest annual maximum daily average temperatures are the last ten years, from 2015 to 2024.



The difference between the lowest-ranked of those ten years (2015) and the previous record prior to 2023 (August 13, 2016) was 0.2°C. The jump from the 2016 record to 2023 is 0.28°C, and to the new 2024 record is 0.35°C, highlighting how substantial the warmth of 2023 and 2024 is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forces-behind-the-hottest-day">Forces behind the hottest day</h2>



But what caused this new record global average temperature? The global average temperature tends to reach its annual peak between late June and early August, coinciding with the Northern Hemisphere summer. This is because the seasonal patterns of the Northern Hemisphere drive the overall global temperatures.&nbsp;



The large land masses of the Northern Hemisphere warm up faster than the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere can cool down during the Northern summer months.



The global average temperature was already at near-record levels in recent days, slightly below the levels of 2023, after being at record levels for the time of year for more than a year.&nbsp;



The analysis suggests that the sudden rise in daily global average temperature is related to much above-average temperatures over large parts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-in-distress-the-escalating-consequences-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>. Such large anomalies are not unusual during the Antarctic winter months and also contributed to the record global temperatures in early July 2023.



What’s more, Antarctic sea ice extent is almost as low as it was at this time last year, leading to much above-average temperatures over parts of the Southern Ocean.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-global-temperatures-nbsp">Record global temperatures&nbsp;</h2>



As the global average temperature was already at near-record levels during the first half of July, close to the temperatures seen at this time of year in 2023, and the global average temperature typically reaches its peak at this time of year, it is not completely unexpected that we are seeing global average temperatures of this magnitude.



We expect the daily global average temperature to peak around July 22 or 23, 2024, and then decrease, but with possible further fluctuations in the coming weeks.&nbsp;



As the annual maximum global average temperature typically occurs between late June and early August, these conclusions are preliminary as scientists follow the evolution of the climate in near-real time.&nbsp;



In 2023, there was a second peak in the daily global average temperature on August 4 (reaching 17.05°C) that came close to the record set on July 6, 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hottest-year-on-record">Hottest year on record?</h2>



Whether 2024 will likely be the warmest year on record will largely depend on the development and intensity of the next phase of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-event-may-push-earth-towards-its-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (i.e., when and how strongly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australian-bushfires-triggered-rare-multi-year-la-nina/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">La Niña</a> develops). 



To date, 2024 has been sufficiently warm for it to be quite possible that the full year will be warmer than 2023, but the exceptional warmth of the last four months of 2023 makes it too early to predict with confidence which year will be the warmer.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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Earth just experienced its hottest day ever recorded

According to the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), our planet...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-sexual-satisfaction-linked-to-rapid-memory-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Memory loss</a> and attention deficit are common complaints among those who have recovered from severe COVID-19. However, a new study from the <a href="https://www.fearp.usp.br/en/index.php/where-we-are/university-of-sao-paulo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) in Brazil reveals that even individuals with mild COVID cases can experience cognitive impairments more than 18 months after infection. 



This finding underscores the importance of comprehensive rehabilitation for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/abzymes-new-discovery-cause-long-covid-symptoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long COVID</a> sufferers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-covid-infection-and-cognitive-impairment-nbsp">COVID infection and cognitive impairment&nbsp;</h2>



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01740-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Psychology</a>, collected data from 302 volunteers and found cognitive impairment in 11.7 percent of mild cases, 39.2 percent of moderate cases, and 48.9 percent of severe cases. These results highlight the significant impact of neuroinflammation caused by SARS-CoV-2.



“Although the damage done by the disease in terms of memory loss, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/information-overflow-attention-spans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attention</a> deficit, and slow processing increases in proportion to its severity, the same problems affect a far from negligible number of people – around 100 in our study – who had mild or moderate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-infected-with-even-mild-covid-cases-experience-long-term-decline-in-semen-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID</a>,” explained Antônio de Pádua Serafim, the study’s first author and a professor at the Institute of Psychology (IP-USP).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-and-attention-impairments-nbsp">Memory and attention impairments&nbsp;</h2>



The results of the study emphasize the potential impact of neuroinflammation due to COVID-19 infection. Memory and attention impairments are not limited to those who were intubated or received intensive care.&nbsp;



“Some of the data analyzed in the study were from patients who didn’t require intensive care or didn’t even have sufficient symptoms to be hospitalized and nevertheless exhibited memory loss and attention deficit,” Serafim noted. “The findings therefore opened our eyes to the question of neuroinflammation due to COVID-19.”



Attention and memory are crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-drugs-secreted-from-toad-skin-greatly-improve-cognitive-functioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive functions</a> that significantly affect daily life. Participants with poor memory and attention test scores reported difficulties recalling words or performing routine activities, such as forgetting pots on the stove or failing to pick up children from school. 



“Attention is the primary function in all mental activity, and this explains why attention deficit has such a huge impact on people’s daily lives. Impairment of attention in turn affects memory. This also affects processing activity, which involves rapid decision-making based on information,” Serafim explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-impairments-in-covid-recovery-nbsp">Addressing impairments in COVID recovery&nbsp;</h2>



The study, funded by the <a href="https://fapesp.br/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">São Paulo Research Foundation</a> (FAPESP), points to the importance of addressing cognitive impairments in COVID-19 recovery. Serafim and his colleagues at USP are developing programs to mitigate these cognitive losses. 



They are exploring non-invasive techniques like neurostimulation and neurofeedback to enhance brain function through neuromodulation, which stimulates synaptic connections.&nbsp;



“We have only case studies so far. For example, in the case of a physician who was in the intensive care unit for 34 days, we conducted a neurofeedback protocol often used to study patients with attention deficit disorder, and he made a good recovery. But that was an isolated case,” Serafim said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-and-cognitive-difficulties-persist-nbsp">Emotional and cognitive difficulties persist&nbsp;</h2>



Despite the end of the severe phase of the pandemic, the cognitive sequelae persist. Serafim emphasized the need for effective intervention programs to address both emotional and cognitive difficulties resulting from COVID-19.&nbsp;



Serafim said that based on the knowledge his team has acquired so far regarding cognitive stimulation and rehabilitation techniques, he believes it may be possible to obtain an improvement in neural connectivity by means of brain training to stimulate overall cognitive ability.



“Many people were infected, and many have sequelae of this kind. However, we don’t have an effective program to intervene not only in the emotional aspects but also in the cognitive difficulties resulting from COVID-19,” said Serafim.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rehabilitation-programs-are-needed">Rehabilitation programs are needed</h2>



The researchers noted that the findings provide empirical evidence regarding cognitive effects post-COVID-19, particularly in individuals experiencing severe disease manifestations.&nbsp;



“Moreover, our study has demonstrated the presence of cognitive difficulties in individuals infected with mild and moderate symptoms, emphasizing the intricate nature of factors associated with COVID-19, as underscored in the existing literature.”&nbsp;



The experts said they have also highlighted the need for a comprehensive, multidimensional approach in rehabilitation programs to address the enduring cognitive impacts of COVID-19.



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Even mild COVID can cause prolonged cognitive impairment

Memory loss and attention deficit are common complaints among those...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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