View,Of,The,Device,Of,An,Oil,Drilling,Rig

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-the-evolution-of-the-earths-surface/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's surface</a> into Earth's deep subsurface. 



This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's <a href="https://has.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences</a>, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. 



"We looked at how the rates of fluid production with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a> compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface," McIntosh explained.



In a paper published in the journal Earth's Future, they shed light on the significant impact of human activities on the circulation of fluids in this subterranean zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Deciphering the hidden world in motion beneath our feet</h2>



The study, led by Grant Ferguson, also from the UArizona, compared the rates of fluid production from oil and gas extraction to the natural background circulation of water. 



The findings reveal that human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-internal-jet-stream-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid fluxes</a> surpass the natural flow, and they are projected to increase further with proposed strategies for combating climate change.



These strategies include geologic carbon sequestration, geothermal energy production, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fools-gold-may-be-a-valuable-source-of-lithium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithium extraction</a> from underground mineral-rich brine. 



"Responsible management of the subsurface is central to any hope for a green transition, sustainable future and keeping warming below a few degrees," emphasizes Peter Reiners, a professor in the <a href="https://www.geo.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UArizona Department of Geosciences</a> and a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-subsurface-fluid-fluxes">Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



These fluxes transport water, gases, and other substances through the subsurface, influencing everything from groundwater resources to geothermal energy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Types of subsurface fluid fluxes</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Groundwater flow</h4>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groundwater flow</a> represents the movement of water through porous and fractured rock formations. This flow occurs due to pressure gradients and the force of gravity, allowing water to move from areas of high hydraulic head to areas of low hydraulic head. Groundwater flow plays a vital role in the hydrologic cycle, recharging aquifers and sustaining surface water bodies.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Hydrocarbon migration</h4>



Subsurface fluid fluxes also include the migration of hydrocarbons, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-orphaned-oil-and-gas-wells-litter-the-world-and-must-be-cleaned-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a>. These fluids originate from organic-rich source rocks and migrate through permeable rock layers until they encounter traps or seals. Understanding hydrocarbon migration is essential for oil and gas exploration and production.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Geothermal fluid circulation</h4>



In regions with high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-water-could-be-a-great-source-of-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geothermal gradients</a>, subsurface fluids can circulate through fractures and permeable rock formations, absorbing heat from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's interior</a>. This heated fluid can then rise to the surface, creating hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles. Geothermal fluid circulation is a key factor in the development of geothermal energy resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Importance of Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



Subsurface fluid fluxes have far-reaching impacts on various aspects of our planet. They influence the availability and quality of groundwater resources, which are essential for human consumption, agriculture, and industrial activities. 



Additionally, these fluxes play a crucial role in the formation and distribution of mineral resources, such as ore deposits and petroleum accumulations.



Moreover, subsurface fluid fluxes contribute to the transport and cycling of chemical elements and compounds within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's crust</a>. 



This process has implications for geochemical cycles, rock-water interactions, and the evolution of subsurface environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Human intervention in Earth's fluid dynamics</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-chief-fossil-fuel-era-must-end-for-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a> production, saline water from the deep subsurface is extracted alongside the targeted resources. This ancient water, often millions of years old, acquires its salinity from the evaporation of ancient seawater or reactions with rocks and minerals. 



To maintain reservoir pressures and enhance oil recovery, near-surface water is added to the extracted saline water, and the blended mixture is reinjected into the subsurface, creating a continuous cycle of fluid production and reinjection.



Similar processes occur in lithium extraction, geothermal energy production, and geologic carbon sequestration, where leftover saline water is reinjected into the underground. 



"We show that the fluid injection rates or recharge rates from those oil and gas activities is greater than what naturally occurs," states McIntosh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Rewriting Earth's history through subsurface geology</h2>



Using existing data from various sources, the research team found that current fluid movement rates induced by human activities surpass those that occurred before human intervention. 



As carbon capture, sequestration, and lithium extraction intensify, the researchers also predicted how these activities might be recorded in Earth's geological record.



Moreover, human activities have the potential to alter not only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-geysers-the-worlds-largest-geothermal-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep subsurface fluids</a> but also the microbes that inhabit those depths. 



Fluid movements can modify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-the-extreme-microbial-activity-discovered-in-old-faithful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial environments</a> through changes in water chemistry or by introducing new microbial communities from Earth's surface to the underground. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-fracking-surged/">Hydraulic fracturing</a>, for example, can trigger sudden blooms of microbial activity in previously dormant deep rock formations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Earth's subsurface is still mostly a mystery</h2>



Despite the significance of these findings, many unknowns remain about Earth's deep subsurface and the extent of human impact on this hidden realm. 



"We need to use the deep subsurface as part of the solution for the climate crisis," emphasizes McIntosh. "Yet, we know more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface of Mars</a> than we do about water, rocks and life deep beneath our feet."



Continued research and exploration of this enigmatic zone are crucial for understanding the full scope of human influence on our planet and developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable strategies</a> for addressing the climate crisis. 



While we strive to mitigate the visible effects of human activities on Earth's surface, we must not overlook the hidden impact that extends deep into the subsurface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-what-lies-beneath">Protecting what lies beneath</h2>



As we continue to explore and utilize Earth's deep subsurface in our efforts to combat climate change, we must remain mindful of the hidden impact our actions have on this enigmatic realm. 



By studying the fluid dynamics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a>, and geological record beneath our feet, we can develop a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between human activities and the subterranean world. 



This knowledge will be crucial in guiding our strategies for a sustainable future, ensuring that our solutions do not create unforeseen consequences in the depths below. 



As we navigate the challenges of the climate crisis, we must approach the subsurface with a spirit of curiosity, responsibility, and respect, recognizing that the key to our success may lie in the mysteries that await us in Earth's hidden depths.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF004496" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Human activities also greatly harm Earth’s subsurface, not just the landmass

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the planet's surface into Earth's deep subsurface. This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. "We...

When researchers model and estimate ancient climate conditions, they do so using sediment and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-cores-show-how-abruptly-climate-shifts-affect-earth/">ice cores</a> because each layer in the core sample can reveal important isotopic information about temperature, weather extremes, biomass, and precipitation when the layer was formed. 

But a new study has proven that we can discern climate and precipitation information by analyzing excavated bones and pots from ancient human settlements.

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> studied pots and bones excavated from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic city settlement of Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia, Turkey which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC.

A well-documented climate change event occurred 8,200 years ago at the peak of the settlement’s existent, and the researchers used archeological remains to see how the ancient Neolithic people adapted. 

The settlement dealt with severe drought-like conditions due to a sudden decrease in global temperatures because a massive amount of glacial meltwater was released from a freshwater lake in northern Canada. 

The researchers discovered that during this time, sheep and goats were more popular for herders rather cattle because they are more drought resistant and the cut marks on the ancient bones found at the site showed that meat was a major food source during the drought. 

In the cooking pots, the researchers also analyzed cooking fats that lined the pots which clearly came from the sheep, goats and whatever ruminant (cud-chewing) animals could be spared for food. 

The results of the study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,  show that animal fat remnants in pottery can be used to assess climate and precipitation conditions of ancient human settlements. 

The bones and fats show that meat was readily consumed because the drought would have hindered agricultural operations. 

Changes in the isotopic information in the hydrogen atoms found in the fats reflect a period of major climate change according to the study researchers. 

“It is really significant that the climate models of the event are in complete agreement with the H signals we see in the animal fats preserved in the pots,” said Richard Evershed, a co-author of the study. “The models point to seasonal changes farmers would have had to adapt to - overall colder temperatures and drier summers - which would have had inevitable impacts on agriculture.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvadette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Çatalhöyük Research Project

How did ancient humans cope with climate change?

When researchers model and estimate ancient climate conditions, they do...

There may be hope for environmentalism to take priority even in America's current political climate. 

Discussions about climate change have seemed stuck between two angles. Despite mounting evidence that it’s a growing problem that must be addressed, many conservatives maintain that it’s something that can’t conclusively be proven or is simply a part of Earth’s natural cycle.

Meanwhile, environmental organizations have been infuriated by Trump’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-policies-cost-deaths/">un-environmentally friendly policies</a> and his unwillingness to acknowledge the realities of climate change. 

However, a new study found that younger generations of religious Americans are concerned for the environment and are driven towards stewardship, which means that religious groups may be able to bridge the political divide and foster pro-environmental policies. 

A study from the <a href="https://ku.edu/">University of Kansas</a> found that younger religious Americans are more concerned about the environment than older parishioners and the reason for this is a shift in the way church leaders discuss stewardship and care for the Earth. 

“The best way to account for this upsurge from about 1980 and on is that a lot of religious groups have actually started to talk to their parishioners about creation care -- a term used to avoid the political context attached to environmentalism,” said Lukas Szrot, who conducted the study. “Leaders felt that religious groups and churches needed to address this problem, and their members likely wanted to talk more about these issues.”

To better understand why younger religious Americans are more pro-environment, Szrot reviewed data from the 1973 to 2014 <a href="http://gss.norc.org/">General Social Survey</a>. 

In his research, Szrot includes a 1967 argument that western Christianity is extremely anthropocentric as well as recent comments critical of the United States’ lack of global leadership concerning environmental issues. 

Environmentalism in the US can be traced back to Puritans of the 17th Century who separated from the Church of England and upon arriving in America, felt bound by a duty to God to care for the land. 

In the 1970’s through the 1990’s, there was peak interest in environmentalism and environmental policies which Szrot believes is the driving influence for engagement among younger religious Americans today. 

"It's been rather uneven so far in a lot of ways. Environmental issues are much more polarized than the 1970s,” said Szrot. “There are definitely some challenges, but there is also the idea that the church has a sort of social-networking function as well. People who wouldn't normally associate with each other could instead get together. It is possible that in the long run, this will lead to new conversations about environmental issues in the United States.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Young religious Americans show support for environmentalism

There may be hope for environmentalism to take priority even...

At the end of the last ice age, a period of deglaciation spurred the release of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-determine-how-last-ice-age-ended/">carbon dioxide from the ocean</a> up into the atmosphere further impacting warming patterns. 

Why atmospheric carbon increased to near pre-industrial levels has puzzled many researchers. 

Understanding how and why this occurred is important because of the possibility that history will repeat itself and mass carbon stores from deep below the ocean’s surface could max out Earth’s carbon budget and drive global warming to catastrophic levels. 

Researchers from<a href="https://oregonstate.edu/"> Oregon State University</a> conducted a study attempting to solve one of ancient Earth’s biggest mysteries, what caused the carbon increase during deglaciation at the end of the last ice age? 

The results were published in the journal Nature Geoscience. For the first time, scientists now have a better understanding of how carbon stores from the ocean might be released and emitted into the atmosphere. 

It all boils down to a “flushing” of the deep Pacific Ocean that occurs during warmer periods with increased ocean current speeds. 

“We've known that CO2 in the atmosphere went up and down in the past, we know that it was part of big climate changes, and we thought it came out of the deep ocean,” said Alan Mix, a co-author of the study. “But it has not been clear how the carbon actually got out of the ocean to cause the CO2 rise.”

Starting in Antarctica, according to the researchers, there is a circulation pattern that allows carbon to sink miles below the surface and as the flow of the currents travel to Alaska, slowly rise as the water returns to the Antarctic. 

It’s a process that typically takes nearly a thousand years. 

However, the researchers found that during colder periods the circulation flow slowed and as things warmed up, the flow sped up increasing the release of carbon from the deep Pacific. 

“It happened roughly in two steps during the last deglaciation - an initial phase from 18,000 to 15,000 years ago, when CO2 rose by about 50 parts per million, and a second pulse later added another 30 parts per million,” said Jianghui Du, the study’s lead author. 

The researchers came to this conclusion by analyzing sediment cores and the neodymium isotopes contained within the sediment samples.

Higher isotope counts correlated with a slower moving flow and lower ratios of isotopes corresponded with faster flows and warmer periods.

“This finding that the deep circulation sped up is the smoking gun in this mystery story about how CO2 got out to the deep sea,” said Mix. “We now know how it happened, and the deep Pacific is the culprit - a partner in crime with Antarctica.” 

What’s concerning about the findings is that it shows that carbon stores in the ocean are easily released during warmer periods, something that is painfully evident around the globe as greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels increase. 

Unless more is done to drastically cut emissions, the goals put in place by the Paris Accord may be impossible to achieve because mass carbon emissions from the ocean would take up most of the world’s carbon budget. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Increase in carbon emissions linked to Pacific ocean flows

At the end of the last ice age, a period...

A new study led by the <a href="http://www.stockholmresilience.org/">Stockholm Resilience Centre</a> at Stockholm University has revealed that there is a link between environmental degradation, illegal fishing, and tax havens, which are countries that have near-zero taxation rates.


A massive amount of foreign capital was found to be transferred through tax havens that was associated with the production of soy and beef in the Brazilian Amazon - two sectors that are major contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-fashion-rayon/">deforestation</a>.

“Our analysis shows that a total of USD 26.9 billion of foreign capital was transferred to key companies in these sectors between October 2000 and August 2011. Of this investigated capital, about USD 18.4 billion was transferred from tax haven jurisdictions,” wrote the study authors.

The largest amount of foreign money was transferred through the Cayman Islands, a well-known tax haven that provides tax minimization, legal efficiency, and secrecy to investors.

The researchers also found that 70 percent of all known fishing vessels involved in illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing were registered in tax havens, particularly in Belize and Panama.

These flags of convenience allow companies to operate fishing vessels with dual identity, one of which is used for legal and the other for illegal fishing activities.

“The global nature of fisheries value chains, complex ownership structures and limited governance capacities of many coastal nations, make the sector susceptible to the use of tax havens,” said study co-author Henrik Österblom.


The study, which also involved experts from the <a href="http://www.gedb.se/">Global Economic Dynamics and the Biosphere</a> (GEDB) and the <a href="https://www.kva.se/en/">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a>, is the first published research to expose that tax havens are linked to economic activities that can have serious environmental impacts.

“Our analysis shows that the use of tax havens is not only a socio-political and economic challenge, but also an environmental one,” said study lead author of Victor Galaz. 

“While the use of tax haven jurisdictions is not illegal in itself, financial secrecy hampers the ability to analyse how financial flows affect economic activities on the ground, and their environmental impacts.”


The researchers concluded that the loss of revenue caused by tax havens should be considered as subsidies that promote activities with detrimental environmental consequences. According to the experts, international organizations such as UN Environment should evaluate the environmental costs of these subsidies.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tax havens linked to environmental degradation, study shows

A new study led by the Stockholm Resilience Centre at...

The oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocks-contribute-nitrogen-atmosphere/">rocks</a> on the planet, which date back over four billion years, are felsic rocks that are rich in silicon and found in Canada's Acasta River. A new study has found that these rocks must have formed at extremely high temperatures, and at a surprisingly shallow depth in the Earth's crust.

The research, which will be presented for the first time at the <a href="https://www.geochemsoc.org/programs/goldschmidtconference">Goldschmidt Conference</a> in Boston on August 14th, suggests that these rocks were most likely formed by heavy meteorite bombardment.

Scientists have acknowledged for years that the Acasta rocks are not the same as the majority of felsic rocks we see today, such as widely-used granites.

A research team from Australia and China has modeled the formation of the Acasta felsic rocks and has determined that they could only have been formed at low pressures and very high temperatures.

“Our modeling shows that the Acasta River rocks derived from the melting of pre-existing iron-rich basaltic rock, which formed the uppermost layers of crust on the primitive Earth,” said lead author Tim Johnson from <a href="http://www.curtin.edu.au/">Curtin University</a> in Perth.

“We used phase equilibria and trace element modelling to show that the Acasta River rocks were produced by partial melting of the original mafic rocks at very low pressures. It would have needed something special to produce the 900°C temperatures needed to generate these early felsic rocks at such low pressures, and that probably means a drastic event, most likely the intense heating caused by meteorite bombardment.”

“We estimate that rocks within the uppermost 3km of mafic crust would have been melted in producing the rocks we see today. We think that these ancient felsic rocks would have been very common, but the passage of 4 billion years, and the development of plate tectonics, means that almost nothing remains.”

Johnson explained that these rocks may be the only surviving remains of a series of extraterrestrial impacts that characterized the first 600 million years of our planet.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo">Nature Geoscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The oldest rocks on Earth come from a barrage of meteorites

The oldest rocks on the planet, which date back over...

The evolution of life on Earth is classically envisioned as a tree. 

In this model, species diverge from their parent organisms and head off on their own paths, never to fraternize with their progenitors, or any of their other offshoots, again. This calcified and rigid view of the evolutionary process became dogma in the works of scientists such as Ernst Mayer. In the 1940s, Mayer argued that the definition of a species rested on its inability to breed successfully with other species and that hybridization was usually an accidental and evolutionarily useless event. Nonetheless, the notion that hybridization plays a role in evolutionary processes has been the subject of speculation for ages—it was worthy of a chapter in Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species. 

A large body of research now supports the notion that not only does hybridization play a significant role in evolution, but in some cases it may serve as a primary driver of the process. Hybridization is thought to occur in 25% of plants and 6-12% of animals worldwide per a <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e10/a88eb6547b66158c1d2aaaf1dafd094ce7f9.pdf">2006 study</a>. Remarkably, in some environments, hybrid tendencies are even more prevalent. Some 25% of all plant species in Great Britain hybridize with at least one other species and 75% of British ducks are known to mate with other species of duck. (British ducks aren’t the only ones who step out on their conspecifics; they’re <a href="http://www.10000birds.com/hybrid-mallards.htm">notoriously promiscuous</a> worldwide.) 

Though on a short timescale, cross-specific, or introgressive, mating is somewhat rare, on a longer timescale it has been shown to be quite common. And even though only a few individuals in a population may mate outside the population, the genetic transfer can have major effects down the line if the genes from the other species provide adaptive benefits to the species as a whole. This suggests that life is best envisioned as reticulated rather than terminally branching. That is: it is a net or web rather than a tree. Branches diverge and then converge again, as in the delicate fretwork of a lichen or bryozoan.

This process is most visible and perhaps most important during disruptive events, such as the formation of islands and lakes, where enormous stretches of ecosystem are uncolonized. So, too, when overlapping species hybridize at the edge of their respective ranges, novel gene combinations allow adaptive radiation into new territories, often quite rapidly. 

A <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Rosenthal/publication/10622009_Major_Ecological_Transitions_in_Wild_Sunflowers_Facilitated_by_Hybridization/links/0fcfd508156d868458000000/Major-Ecological-Transitions-in-Wild-Sunflowers-Facilitated-by-Hybridization.pdf">2003 study on sunflowers</a> in the southern United States demonstrated that the harshest habitats were occupied mainly by ancient hybrids of sunflowers that occurred at the edges of differing ecosystems. While the parent species were unable to grow in salt marshes or dry sandy deserts, the new gene combinations in the hybrids allowed them to radiate into these difficult environments. 

Most <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/96/1/4/2187599">British dog roses</a> have been found to have hybrid origin due to the presence of tetraploid eggs and haploid pollen, which indicate separate parent species early in their lineage. This has also happened with cichlids in Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika and with sculpins in Lake Baikal. The few initial species radiated into hundreds, assisted by frequent backcrosses to parent and related species. 

Interestingly, this still happens. A <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a409/42c3254ad715326f7acb931932779b8a4eb5.pdf">2004 study</a> found that a hybrid between a species of cichlid from one end of Lake Malawi introduced to the other end hybridized with a species native to the area. The hybrids colonized the perimeter of an entire island. Even Darwin’s finches, which are thought to have diverged perhaps 2-3 million years ago in response to their sui generis island home, are thought to have developed partially through hybridization at the overlap zones between the various species. And hybridization <a href="https://artsci.uc.edu/content/dam/artsci/departments/biology/Docs/publications/2005GrantPetrenAmNat.pdf">continues to happen in the Galapagos to this day</a>. 

Newer disruptions may also cause hybrid events. Species of butterfly fish around Christmas Island were <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ece3.83">found to hybridize</a> with formerly allopatric, or geographically separated species brought into contact by <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/5/2/258.short">changing temperatures</a> and currents. 

One of the more <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2009/09/23/rsbl.2009.0575.short">sensational instances of recent hybrid evolution</a> has happened within the last 90 years in the United States and Canada. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eastern-coyotes-wolves/">Coyotes</a>, once mostly restricted to the Great Plains, moved up through Canada, where they hybridized with wolves, and then colonized the eastern seaboard, where native wolves were largely extirpated. The “eastern coyote” is actually a hybrid between wolves and coyotes. This is evidenced both in its morphology, which is intermediate between coyotes and wolves, and in its behavior. The eastern coyote hunts in packs like wolves and takes down large prey such as deer, unlike the western coyote, which is largely solitary and hunts small mammals and birds. Though larger than the western coyote, it is smaller than a wolf. Sexual dimorphism is also more wolf-like in the eastern coyote; western coyotes are not nearly as sexually dimorphic. The eastern coyote filled the niche abandoned by wolves on the east coast when they were eliminated from the area early in the 19th century. The rapid occupation of abandoned niches like this is known as hybrid swarming. 

The phenomenon of hybrid evolution has major implications for humans as well. Some of our food species have evolved through hybrid evolution, notably in certain varieties of cacao. And other species of economic important have hybrid origins as well, <a href="https://watermark.silverchair.com/mbe0311.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAbIwggGuBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggGfMIIBmwIBADCCAZQGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMEtcJlLlda5ejKHm4AgEQgIIBZZCSC1DCXc582DxBUvFx-BoXNZsJqpe5geAfosCpxjjQuPN3SJqZkWyHt8S9UJ5XVJGCZ3m4wjrTtX7P_7sQRLolaI3NO26S3JjoEZrlOuSxSmf_xA_1Y-SJYKp1f56wXS5jGrVtbXq1j-MlbVog_tl24mtFTv6aXLVWcoAP-5Z5bYQ1EL0X0QNwSRRPHgnKGfzjwj6nbtfRW4U2FUvTFxzZmCsL-vI_XO2lMPiCe7v5DQ5wRk0HG4nftvTHylw-k-iujhFqBm_XW35rAf0e93JpjqbsAkq44bquPoW7gjSGq8r_j_z92MEURjkKRRt2c72rjxFxjMNeHGOnskgupt2Jhx1ij-Fs_S9nd7BCvowerkLW3TEoVXXPCi6_6ESr8UQSzhCgo-27qCGS3Vf55u3kOw_VlUfPQSlofzu0b1VlSFh7TXcc2jiURwm6tCIAkUQFEJmiU7q84NKfogoQuO3E7IsMTQ">notably tobacco</a>. And we’ve caused hybrid evolution ourselves through the introduction of non-native species that may hybridize with natives and take over entire ecosystems, and through climate change, which has brought previously allopatric species back into contact. The so-called pizzly, a hybrid between a grizzly bear and a polar pear, is a great example. Polar bears evolved from grizzly bears. While once separated by their ecological niches, warming climates have brought polar bears further south and grizzlies further north. Due to their remaining genetic similarities, they are still able to breed. 

We as a species have hybrid origins as well. Homo sapiens is known to have interbred with two other supposedly distinct species, Neanderthals and the Denisovans. This is mirrored in the behavior of other primates, which often interbreed at so-called hybrid zones. Studies of these zones and their hybrid products are invaluable in analyzing possible hominid hybrids in the fossil record. Because fossil bones may not be useful in genetic analysis, morphological characteristics become important in discerning possible hybrids. Hybrid zones between the various species of baboon have <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c465/5dc1f912c5ad76b127f0fbf0bb1679eb2a94.pdf">proven useful in this regard</a>. They have shown that even in cases of hybridization, morphology may or may not be a useful indicator. Sometimes, hybrids favor one parent or the other. 

Genetic studies have determined definitively that modern day humans express genes from both Neanderthals and Denisovans. So, ponder this: what is a human? Amd what is a species?

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The net of life: Hybridization and evolution

The evolution of life on Earth is classically envisioned as...

There’s a saying in the Great Plains: “Rain follows the plow.” Like the suburban legend about rain falling once the cars have been washed, it refers to the way rain always seems to fall once it’s no longer needed, or when it will be most inconvenient.

But is it true? And more importantly, do these myths affect how scientists compile data about rainfall?

In the 1800s, settlers used the “rain follows the plow” myth as impetus to clear the Great Plains. The theory went that turning up the soil would help it collect moisture, and then the moisture would add humidity to the air. That would lead to rain.

No one’s quite sure if it worked, or if the myth itself is making people want to see evidence that it did.

"In addition to, and partly motivated by, the ‘rain follows the plow’ myth, many scientific papers have been published with conflicting results: wet soil would increase, decrease or not change precipitation in different papers. Our goal was to resolve this controversy," said Dr. Xubin Zeng, a professor at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> who worked with doctoral student Josh Welty to  examine whether the myth held any truth.

The pair looked at data from June to September of each year from 2002 to 2011, collected by the U.S. Department of Energy's <a href="https://www.arm.gov/sites/sgp">Southern Great Plains observatory</a>.

They found that the amount of moisture in the soil in the morning can have an effect on afternoon rain on the Great Plains it two different ways. On days when less moisture is carried on the wind, dry morning soil can increase any afternoon rain. 

"The dry soils that enhance afternoon rain are acting like conveyor belts for warm air that's being sent into the upper atmosphere," Zeng said. "Combine that upward motion with moisture and a water vapor source, and the result is afternoon rain."

But on days when the wind is damp, moist soil leads to more rainfall, the researchers said.

Human activity – like plowing – may play a role, but so does the climate and how much moisture the wind carries over the Great Plains. Manipulating the moisture content of soil under the right climate conditions could encourage rainfall, the researchers said.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Scientists wonder: could Great Plains rain follow the plow?

There’s a saying in the Great Plains: “Rain follows the...

On Friday, a jury made a stunning decision in a lawsuit against chemical giant Monsanto: it awarded almost $290 million to a former school groundskeeper who said his use of the weedkiller Roundup led to untreatable cancer.

Dewayne Johnson was awarded $39 million in compensatory damages and $250 in punitive damages in the case. He believes that his use of the weedkiller, which he applied 20 to 30 times per year at the San Francisco-area school where he worked, led to his now terminal non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. 

The case could set a precedent as hundreds of other cancer patients turn on the chemical company. <a href="https://monsanto.com/">Monsanto</a> was facing more than 800 lawsuits from non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma patients, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/">CNN</a> reported last year.

While the cause of cancer is difficult to prove, Johnson’s attorney said, there appears to be a link between Roundup and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. 

"You can't take a lung cancer tumor and run a test that proves that tobacco caused that cancer. ... You're seeing the same thing here," lawyer Timothy Litzenburg told CNN. "I think we're in the beginning of that era of this dawning on us as a country – as a public – the connection between these two things."

Johnson, 46, believes that his use of the weedkiller Roundup led to his terminal cancer, which has left him near death and covered up to 80 percent of his body in painful lesions. He testified in court that on two occasions, he accidentally spilled the chemical on himself, the first in 2012. His cancer was diagnosed in 2014.

Monsanto denies that allegations despite the ruling.

"More than 800 scientific studies, the U.S. EPA, the National Institutes of Health and regulators around the world have concluded that glyphosate is safe for use and does not cause cancer," said Scott Partridge, Monsanto's vice president of strategy. 

One of those studies, he pointed out, looked at the effects of pesticides – including glyphosate – on farmers and their families between 1993 and 2013.

The <a href="https://www.iarc.fr/">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a>, part of the <a href="http://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a>, announced findings that linked glyphosate to non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in March 2015. But Monsanto shows that other studies have refuted that, finding no links between the weedkiller Roundup and cancer of any kind, including lymphoma.

"We all have sympathy for Mr. Johnson," Partridge said. "It's natural he's looking for answers. Glyphosate is not the answer."

Litzenburg says it’s the combination of glyphosate and other chemicals in Roundup that make it dangerous, but Monsanto spokespersons argue that regulatory agencies have tested the weedkiller and judged it to be safe.

Litzenburg and his attorneys have found more than 2,000 cases in states around the U.S., and another 400 have been filed in federal multidistrict litigation.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Cancer patient wins $289 million over weedkiller Roundup

On Friday, a jury made a stunning decision in a...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> have found that historic fires which occurred before the first Industrial Revolution in 1750 may be having a cooling effect on the planet that has been underestimated. 

According to the study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/local-winds-accelerate-wildfires/">fires</a> were much more common during pre-industrial times than what was previously realized, and large amounts of aerosols released during the fires have likely persisted in the atmosphere. Aerosols cool the planet by reflecting sunlight away from the Earth and increasing cloud brightness.


Prior to this investigation, experts thought that fires were far less common before 1750, and the experts pointed out that fires from agricultural practices in the same timeframe have also been largely overlooked. 

The current study has found that fires were just as common, if not more common, before 1750 compared to modern times.


“We know aerosols in the atmosphere have always had a significant impact on climate, but until now, the influence they had historically has been underestimated,” said study lead author Dr. Douglas Hamilton.

“It has been a case of not having the correct tools for the job as global fire models have mostly been designed to simulate present-day fires and long-term observational records of fire activity are sparse.”

“Our findings show there may be a significant gap between previous estimations and what was actually taking place in the pre-industrial atmosphere. This suggests the high possibility of a much smaller difference in aerosol cooling between pre-industrial and present-day than we have previously thought. The implication is that the cooling effect of additional present-day man-made aerosol pollution may have been overestimated.”


The researchers emphasized that the climate models used to represent atmospheric conditions in the past should be updated to account for this new evidence.

“To continue to study the history of the planet's environment accurately, as well as more accurately predict how human activity impacts the Earth system, we now need to reassess our understanding of how much fires contributed in the pre-industrial era,” said Dr. Hamilton.

The team used fire models that incorporate the influence of humans on global fire activity. This allowed the scientists to reassess pre-industrial fire occurrence and estimate what the subsequent aerosol emissions were in 1750.

The fire models revealed a substantial difference in atmospheric composition that has not been accounted for in climate models.

“It's impossible to evaluate how present-day society's impact on climate has changed over the years without a firm understanding of what the atmosphere was like historically and how it has evolved,” said study co-author Dr Catherine Scott.

“Our study suggests that the level of particles in the pre-industrial atmosphere might have been more similar to the level we have today than we thought.”

“Additionally, whilst this study focused on improving understanding of aerosol emissions from pre-industrial fires we also have to remember that historic and present-day fires have many other effects on the atmosphere, such as the carbon dioxide emitted during burning, and the impact of the fire on the capacity of the remaining forests to take up and store carbon.”

“These factors play an important role in the overall impact of fires on the climate and we need to develop a much deeper understanding of how fires evolved over the pre-industrial era and into present day to appreciate how these impacts fit together.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Historic fires from centuries ago still impact the planet today

Researchers at the University of Leeds have found that historic...

The recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-severe-frequent/">heatwaves</a> many people have been suffering through in the United States have been affecting our friends in the United Kingdom as well. Britain has been experiencing high temperatures in excess of 90°F as an “Iberian plume” moved in from the continent, resulting in a heatwave that has been responsible for hundreds of deaths. During the height of the heatwave in a 15-day period in June and July, almost 700 more deaths than average resulted due to excessive heat.

Unfortunately for the Brits, a shocking new study gives evidence that these heatwaves are not likely to end as the years go on. Scientists at the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> used computer simulations from around the world to determine the probability of future occurrences of a heatwave with the same temperature as 2018, using the predicted changes to future global temperatures set out in the Paris Agreement. 

Their models showed that if temperatures increase by 2.7°F, heatwaves such as these would occur every other year. And if global temperatures increase by 3.6°F, almost every summer will have a heatwave at least as hot as this year.

“'As the extreme European heatwave persists into August, with notable droughts, wildfires and impacts on human health, the question being asked is how often would a similar heatwave re-occur in the future? We show that in our current climate, heat waves similar in temperature to the present one would occur about once every five to six years, on average,” explains Dr. Dann Mitchell, one of the researchers on the study. “Our climate models are not perfect, and they cannot capture all aspects of the current heatwave, but they can give us a reasonable estimate as to what to expect in the future.”

There would be numerous consequences to continued heatwaves – heat-related mortality being one of the more obvious ones. Mitchell also believes migration would be another issue, as people in less developed countries may migrate from rural to urban areas during long heatwaves and droughts. Agricultural practices could also change, and productivity could drop as it would be less practical and more dangerous for people to be working in high heat.

The researchers point to cutting greenhouse gases as the best way to curtail this warming. This would mean governments coming together to determine how to go about reduce their country’s carbon footprint, as well as citizens reducing their own carbon footprint on an individual level. With this summer having the potential to be the hottest on record in the UK, it seems like time is running out for us to maintain a planet where these types of heatwaves are not a common occurrence.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

UK heatwaves show no sign of slowing or disappearing

The recent heatwaves many people have been suffering through in...

An iconic fish that dates back before the days of the dinosaurs has become the latest subject of outrage by campaigners against marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-polar-bear-plastic/">plastic litter</a>. The coelacanth was found dead off the coast of Indonesia with a plastic bag from Lay's potato chips wrapped around its intestines.

Coela­canths were once believed to have gone extinct alongside the dinosaurs and were known for a long time only through fossils. In 1938, a living specimen was unexpectedly discovered in the western Indian Ocean. 

These “living fossils,” as they are called, date back around 400 million years and were widely distributed across the planet at one point in time with over 90 species. Today, only two known species remain.

There is some unsettling irony in the fact that coelacanths managed to survive the catastrophic extinction that killed the dinosaurs, but are now threatened by plastic litter from human activities. The image of the dead fish alongside the trash that it choked on is being described as “exactly what is wrong with our society” by activists.

 According to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily Mail</a>, Frito-Lay owner Pep­siCo described the picture as “up­set­ting.” The company said it is has a target of 100-percent re­cy­clable, com­postable, or biodegrad­able pack­ag­ing by 2025.


John Hourston, the founder of <a href="http://blueplanetsociety.org/">Blue Planet Society</a>, told <a href="http://www.iflscience.com/">IFLScience</a> that large companies “are all fully aware that public opinion is against them. But some are resisting change because of cost, marketing, shelf-life, etc. None are making changes quick enough.”

Last year, the Daily Mail launched its “Turn The Tide on Plastic” campaign, a move which was applauded by <a href="http://www.unenvironment.org/">UN Environment Programme</a> head Erik Solheim.

“We’re facing an ocean armageddon. Every year, we’re dumping at least eight million tons of plastic in our oceans,” said Solheim.

“If we continue to allow this to happen, by 2050 there is going to be more plastic in the ocean than fish. To tackle the problem of marine pollution we have to make this a kitchen table conversation."

“This is happening. For example, the Daily Mail, one of the most widely read newspapers in the world, is putting the message out and this is really positive, really fantastic.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://twitter.com/Seasaver/status/1027020054314070016">Blue Planet Society</a>

Primitive fish found dead after choking on Lay’s potato chip bag

An iconic fish that dates back before the days of...

Cats, by some estimates, <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/304/5668/259">have been our commensals for 9,500 years</a>, though more conservative estimates place the length of our relationship at closer to 4,000 years. Since the first wildcats were drawn to grain stores in search of rodents, and were consequently tolerated and even venerated, they have dispersed, along with our own species, across the globe. 

In both domestic and feral form, cats inhabit most of the world, from subarctic to subantarctic. Though they have inarguably provided our species with valuable services as rodent controllers and companions, in recent years, a heated debate has broken out between feline allies and conservationists over the place of cats in the current ecological landscape.

An enormous body of literature backs the notion that cats have almost exclusively detrimental effects on the outdoor environments they inhabit. They decimate wildlife through both hunting and the spread of disease. And, further, their own lifespans are <a href="http://www.mobilespca.org/Portals/0/downloads/documents/Your%20Cat%E2%80%94Indoors%20or%20Out.pdf">substantially shortened by al fresco existence</a>. Nonetheless, even in the Western world, many still persist in believing that outdoor cats, whether domestic or feral, have negligible impacts on wildlife and that they in fact require time outdoors to be happy. 

Even in light of the profound love shown by humans to Felis domesticus—your humble writer included—this myth is surprisingly resilient given the nearly overwhelming evidence contravening it. Enough ink has been spilled on the subject to dye all the world’s cats black. The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/30/science/that-cuddly-kitty-of-yours-is-a-killer.html">New York Times</a>, prestigious scientific journals, the corridors of social media...all regularly feature studies and anecdotal reports of the havoc wreaked by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-cats-charge/">cats</a>.

There may be as many as 120 million feral cats in the United States. Add to that the probable 30 million owned cats who are allowed outside and you have a recipe for catastrophe, both for the animals themselves and their prey. A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms2380">2013 study</a> by the <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/conservation">Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> estimated that these stray felines may be responsible for the deaths of some 1.3 to 4.0 billion birds and 6.3 to 22.3 billion mammals each year. Another <a href="http://www.ace-eco.org/vol8/iss2/art3/">2013 study</a> found that there were up to 4.2 million feral cats in Canada and that they may be responsible for the deaths of as many as 350 million birds each year. And a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-10-04/cats-killing-one-million-birds-in-australia-every-day-estimates/9013960">2017 study</a> at <a href="https://www.cdu.edu.au/">Charles Darwin University</a> suggested that the 2.1 to 6.3 million ferals in Australia kill up to 377 million birds a year in Australia. The IUCN has dubbed Felis domesticus one of the <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/33655728/100_world_worst_invasive_alien_species_English.pdf">100 worst invasive species</a>. 

Noticing a pattern yet? While the estimates of populations and their kill rates vary due to research methodologies and study locations, it’s clear that this is a very damaging trend.

Cats are a particularly pernicious problem in island environments, where animals such as seabirds breed and where residents may not have adapted to the presence of predators and thus serve as easy pickings. Similar effects are noted in other environments with few, if any, apex predators, either naturally or due to extirpation. Hence, the problem in places like the U.S. and Australia, where large predators are absent from all but a few protected areas.

With no larger predators to control them, <a href="http://umanitoba.ca/institutes/natural_resources/pdf/CrooksSoule1999Nature.pdf">cat populations explode and decimate prey species</a>. And they don’t just target birds and mammals, though those are their preferred prey. Reptiles, amphibians, and even <a href="https://ccal.ucsc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Bonnaud_2010.pdf">insects and fish</a> are on the menu as well. Cats may even <a href="https://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/adjunct/snr0704/snr07042l.pdf">prefer native species in some environments</a>, puncturing the long-held notion that they provided an environmental service by targeting other invasives such as house mice and brown rats. 

A <a href="http://img2.timg.co.il/forums/1_112700308.pdf">2007 University of Sheffield study</a> demonstrated that the effects are not limited to predation. The presence of cats also stresses breeding birds and diminishes the likelihood of fledgling healthy young. And the spread of diseases like rabies, feline leukemia, distemper, and Toxoplasma gondii has affected species as diverse as otters, seals, and Florida panthers.

And yet: bizarrely, even some wildlife scientists are convinced that their moggies are owed time to roam, per a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/animalia/wp/2016/09/02/cats-are-bird-killers-these-animal-experts-let-theirs-outside-anyway/?utm_term=.7c2bb966ee30">Washington Post survey from 2016</a>. Worse still than pet cats allowed to patrol their neighborhoods are wholly or partially feral cats, who often have no choice but to subsist on the prey available to them. Ultimately, it may not make much difference whether the cat in question is feral or domestic: even if well fed, cats kill for fun.

 In the face of this, the rancor expressed by advocates of letting cats roam is somewhat surprising, particularly in regards to companion animals. The solution to the havoc wreaked by those animals is simple and widely agreed upon by <a href="http://www.humanesociety.org/animals/cats/tips/bringing_outside_cat_indoors.html?referrer=https://www.google.com/">animal advocacy organizations</a> and conservationists alike: keep your cat indoors (or only allow him or her outside under supervision). Period.

Stickier is the problem of feral cats. Though cases have been made for trap-neuter-return (TNR) programs, in which cats that are temperamentally unsuited to adoption are neutered and returned to managed colonies, these programs have come under fire as well. Though the principle suggests that such programs keep feral colonies from growing, in many cases, too few cats are sterilized to have a significant effect. Reproduction of the remaining fertile cats often makes up for the reductions in short order and new, unfixed cats will always join the colonies and amplify this effect. <a href="https://now.tufts.edu/articles/cat-eat-bird-world">One intriguing study</a> suggests that performing vasectomies and hysterectomies on ferals, leaving their gonads intact, rather than removing them as is typical in spaying and neutering, might have a suppressive effect on breeding. 

Culling programs have understandably raised the most ire among advocates for cats. Australia plans to cull some 2 million by 2020 and New Zealand aims to <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/predator-free-2050/">eliminate all ferals by 2050</a> as part of its plan to rid the country of invasives, which have driven numerous species to the brink of extinction. Hunting, trapping, and even <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/apr/17/robots-lasers-poison-the-high-tech-bid-to-cull-wild-cats-in-the-outback">laser-powered poison applicators</a> have all been suggested as means of reducing the numbers of ferals. While this is less than ideal, and raises ethical questions regarding human obligations to our commensal species, advocates of such measures underscore their necessity. Unchecked, feral cat numbers may drive more species to extinction. They have already been implicated in the disappearance of some 33 types of animal. 

Nonetheless, as evidenced by sites like <a href="http://www.voxfelina.com/">Vox Felina</a>, which counters research on the effects of ferals, advocates for cats aren’t giving up and the tension between our obligations to wild species and our feline friends is unlikely to resolve any time soon.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Cat fights: The debate about outdoor felines

Cats, by some estimates, have been our commensals for 9,500...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

[sendtonews key="uwirCufwYv-2012371-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

[sendtonews key="JrMLDXHmjl-1911953-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

[sendtonews key="u0TYxxqfF7-2186404-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA’s...