In western Canada’s wetlands, a quiet revolution is taking shape. Scientists are bringing mossy peatlands and damaged well pads back to life after decades of oil and gas activity left them altered.



A research team from the <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Waterloo</a>, supported by several Canadian institutions, has tested a new restoration method to revive peatland vegetation on oil well pads.



These pads, once used for drilling, have disrupted the delicate water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-microbes-in-amazon-peatlands-help-balance-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systems</a> and plant life of boreal fens. Now, the team’s breakthrough shows that true mosses - the core builders of peatlands - can grow again, even on degraded, mineral-rich soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pads-disrupted-peatland-ecosystems">How pads disrupted peatland ecosystems</h2>



Canada’s boreal peatlands are not just rich in moss - they store massive amounts of carbon and regulate freshwater systems across the country. 



However, many of these ecosystems have been disrupted by the construction of over 36,000 hectares of well pads and 100,000 km of access roads.



These pads bury native vegetation under layers of clay and sand, severing their connection to natural hydrology and altering nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peatland-canals-are-hidden-hotspots-for-carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. 



Traditional restoration techniques often focused on replanting trees or grasses to convert damaged land into forest or grassland.



But such solutions overlook the unique role of peatlands in storing carbon and supporting biodiversity. The new method shifts the focus: it seeks to restore the land to its original, moss-dominated state.



“These results are the first to suggest that the re-establishment of peatland vegetation on full-scale lowered well pads is possible,” said Murdoch McKinnon, PhD candidate in the Faculty of Environment. 



“Well pads bury all of the native peatland vegetation under clay or sand, negatively impacting the ability of the peatland to sequester carbon and also reducing the availability of habitat for wildlife.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moss-based-method-on-well-pads">Moss-based method on well pads</h2>



In 2020, researchers implemented this large-scale trial on a decommissioned well pad near Slave Lake, Alberta. The strategy involved partially removing the upper layers of the pad and transplanting native mosses collected from a nearby donor site. 



The moss <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/immune-power-of-mosses-can-be-transferred-to-other-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> included true mosses like Aulacomnium palustre, Tomentypnum nitens, and Helodium blandowii - all typical of rich fens. The surface of the pad was reshaped to include low and high microtopographies. 



This mimics natural peatland surfaces and helps retain water in dips, which is essential for moss survival. A straw mulch layer was applied to half the plots to slow evaporation and protect the mosses from drying winds.



The approach draws inspiration from a natural process called paludification, where peatlands expand over mineral soils due to consistent water saturation. 



By partially removing the well pad <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-profits-could-save-the-planet-if-governments-tax-them-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>, the method aimed to replicate conditions that allow early successional peatland vegetation to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moss-needs-steady-water-to-survive">Moss needs steady water to survive</h2>



Peatland mosses, unlike vascular plants, lack roots and internal water transport systems. Their health depends entirely on the moisture around them. 



In this study, researchers found that mosses thrived when the water table stayed within six centimeters of the surface. These optimal conditions were found mostly along the pad’s edges, which were still hydrologically connected to the surrounding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peatland-canals-are-hidden-hotspots-for-carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural peatland</a>.



In contrast, interior zones of the pad experienced rapid drying during the late season. This dryness occurred because those sections lacked direct groundwater input and had poor water retention due to the coarse sandy substrate. 



Mosses in these interior zones faced significant risks of desiccation, particularly during the second study year, which was drier than normal. 



The team concluded that the restoration method works best when a steady flow of water can reach the transplanted mosses. Otherwise, even with added mulch, the mosses struggled to maintain the hydration needed for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> and growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-years-limit-moss-growth">Dry years limit moss growth</h2>



The study ran over two growing seasons. The first season had near-average rainfall, while the second was drier, reflecting potential future climate scenarios. 



In the wet year, seven plots on the pad maintained near-surface water tables and showed high potential for moss establishment. In the drier year, only one plot - located at the hydrologically favorable northeast corner - retained adequate moisture.



Drying trends in interior plots suggested that the partial removal technique alone may not suffice under climate stress. Mosses planted in these areas often encountered moisture conditions below their survival threshold. 



This highlights the need to improve subsurface hydrological connectivity across the pad, perhaps by altering slope design or installing water flow conduits.



“Preserving peatlands is critical because of the role they play storing and supplying water in the landscape,” said Dr. Richard Petrone, a professor in the Department of Geography and Environmental Management at Waterloo. 



“They are also our best choice for nature-based climate change <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/abandoned-oil-wells-could-revolutionize-energy-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solutions</a> because of the vast amounts of carbon that they store.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-moss-dries-out">What happens when moss dries out</h2>



The risk of moss desiccation became particularly clear in the pad’s interior zones. Researchers measured soil moisture and water potential across different microtopographic levels. 



They found that when the water table dropped below 54 cm, mosses - especially those on high ground - entered the desiccation danger zone. Mulching helped slightly in low areas but had limited effect overall. 



The straw was often blown off high points by wind, reducing its ability to shield mosses from evaporation. These findings suggest that water table depth has a stronger impact than surface treatments in controlling moss health.



Some moss species can tolerate drying, but growth slows or halts altogether. Rewetting takes time, and extended dry periods can stunt long-term recovery. This makes mosses in interior pad zones especially vulnerable during drought years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-mosses-thrive-on-well-pads">Some mosses thrive on well pads</h2>



Not all mosses need the same conditions. Species like Tomentypnum nitens and Aulacomnium palustre can survive across a wide range of moisture levels. 



These species may establish even in dry interior areas. However, the long-term success of a diverse peatland community depends on retaining wet microsites and providing favorable conditions across the landscape.



Interestingly, plots near the pad edges also saw some short-term saturation. This may allow submergence-tolerant mosses to dominate. 



Researchers noted that while prolonged flooding can reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/details-photosynthesis-water-viewed-atomic-level-cryo-microscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, it is less damaging than complete desiccation.



These microtopographic differences might ultimately support greater moss diversity by allowing multiple species to thrive in different niches. But the initial phase is critical. Without stable moisture early on, even hardy mosses can fail to establish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-moss-other-restoration-pathways">Beyond moss: Other restoration pathways</h2>



In some parts of the pad, especially where water tables dropped sharply, true mosses may not be the best candidates. 



These zones could instead support sedges like Carex and Scirpus species, which tolerate fluctuating moisture better. Introducing these plants might kickstart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-carbon-buried-deep-beneath-the-forest-is-disrupted-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic matter</a> buildup and improve soil water retention over time.



The idea is not to force every plot to become a moss-dominated peatland. Instead, researchers are exploring mixed strategies tailored to local conditions. 



Over decades, sedges could help transform dry mineral soils into suitable environments for future moss colonization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatland-restoration-requires-better-tools">Peatland restoration requires better tools</h2>



The study marks a turning point in how scientists approach restoration on former drilling sites. While the partial removal method shows promise, it works best when combined with other interventions. 



Adding organic matter, adjusting terrain slopes, or installing water flow conduits may improve moss survival rates in drier regions. Long-term monitoring remains essential. 



The researchers will continue studying how moss communities develop over time and whether introduced species can become self-sustaining. There’s also a need to refine water availability thresholds for different moss types to better guide future efforts.



This work reflects a growing understanding that restoration is not just about replanting vegetation. It’s about re-establishing the physical and hydrological foundations that ecosystems need to thrive.



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The full findings of this study are detailed in Hydrologic assessment of mineral substrate suitability for true moss initiation in a boreal peatland undergoing restoration, published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092585742500103X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Engineering</a>.



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Planting moss helps restore land damaged by oil and gas exploration

In western Canada’s wetlands, a quiet revolution is taking shape. Scientists are bringing mossy peatlands and damaged well pads back to life after decades of oil and gas activity left them altered. A research team from the University of Waterloo, supported by several Canadian institutions, has tested a new restoration method to revive peatland vegetation on oil well pads. These pads, once used for drilling, have disrupted the delicate water systems and plant life of boreal fens. Now, the team’s breakthrough shows that true mosses - the...

When it comes to the effectiveness of echinacea in fighting colds, study outcomes have been very inconsistent. Some trials have found no benefits associated with the herbal supplements, while others have found that echinacea may help to boost immunity and prevent <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/susceptible-common-cold/">colds</a>. 

There are nine different species of echinacea, a flowering plant that can be found in the United States and Canada. The stems, leaves, flowers, and roots are used to make teas and supplements, which have been used as medicine for centuries. 

According to WebMD: “Extracts of echinacea do seem to have an effect on the immune system, your body's defense against germs. Research shows it increases the number of white blood cells, which fight infections.”

A 2015 study by researchers at <a href="https://www.mh-hannover.de/index.php?L=1">Hannover Medical School</a> in Germany found that echinacea could reduce the risk of colds by 35 percent. On the other hand, research from the <a href="https://nccih.nih.gov/">National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine</a> found no evidence that echinacea helps to fight colds in adults or children. 


The inconsistency among echinacea studies is likely due to the fact that there are so many different types and strengths of the supplements. 

Dr. Mark Moyad is the Director of Preventive and Alternative Medicine at the <a href="http://www.med.umich.edu/">University of Michigan Medical Center</a> in the Department of Urology. He is also one of the world's leading experts on dietary supplements.

Dr. Moyad told <a href="http://time.com/5446498/does-echinacea-work/?utm_source=emailshare&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_campaign=email-share-article&amp;utm_content=20181109">TIME</a> that echinacea may reduce the risk of a cold by around 10 to 20 percent. “This may seem underwhelming. But it’s not as if we have a lot of options to prevent colds - especially in people that get a lot of colds during the year.”


Dr. Moyad explained that while regular exercise, hand washing, and sleep are the best ways to prevent getting sick, echinacea may also provide some benefits without any major side effects. He recommends shopping for products that have been certified by quality control companies like NSF or USP to make sure that the supplement will be free of additives or contaminants. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Echinacea gets mixed reviews as a cold prevention therapy

When it comes to the effectiveness of echinacea in fighting...

As scientists prepare to fight the increasing effects of climate change, one area has posed difficulties: engineering drought-resistant plants that grow as well as their unaltered counterparts.

Enter Dr. Ana Caño-Delgado, a researcher with the <a href="https://www.cragenomica.es/">Center for Research in Agricultural Genomics</a>, who has discovered a way to use steroid hormone signaling to increase the growth and yield of drought-resistant crops.

"Drought is one of the most important problems in today's agriculture. So far, the biotechnological efforts that have been made to produce plants more resistant to drought have not been very successful because as a counterpart to an enhanced drought resistance there was always a decrease in plant growth and productivity,” Caño-Delgado said in a press release. “It seems that we have finally found a strategy that could be applied and we want to continue exploring it."

Her team’s study is the first to successfully increase plant tolerance to drought without sacrificing growth. The discovery comes after 15 years of study of brassinosteroids – plant steroids – in the herb Arabidopsis thaliana. 

They found that some plants that overexpressed a specific steroid receptor – BRL3 – and that their vascular tissue was more resistant to water shortages. These drought-resistant plants didn’t show the defects plants with other mutations had, the researchers said.

By modifying the signaling of steroid signaling in A. thaliana, the researchers created drought-resistant plants that still grow like their thirsty cousins. 

"We have discovered that modifying brassinosteroid signaling only locally in the vascular system, we are able to obtain drought resistant plants without affecting their growth," Caño-Delgado said.

The team joined with researchers from the United States, Japan and Europe to study how the mutation works. They found that arabidopsis plants with BRL3 produce more metabolites in their roots and aerial parts during normal irrigation. Under dry conditions, these metabolites protect the roots of the drought-resistant plants.

The researchers are now studying how their find might be adapted for agricultural plants, especially cereal grains.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image credit: <a href="https://www.cragenomica.es/">Center for Research in Agricultural Genomics</a>

Scientists work to enhance drought-resistant plants

As scientists prepare to fight the increasing effects of climate...

Farmers place a great deal of faith in mother nature when it comes to their crops, especially during the winter months when plants go dormant until warmer weather spurs growing and fruiting.

Take an apple orchard for example. Upon sensing a change in the weather, apple trees will start to shed their leaves in preparation for hibernation.

Over the winter, the trees lie dormant, sensing the weather and how much time has passed until the plant begins to speed up its metabolic process. Eventually, the tree will bear flowers and later apples, ripe for the picking. 

It is crucial for farmers to time the planting, dormancy, budding, and flowering of crops like grapes, peaches, and apples to ensure as big a yield.

However, some regions have more mild winters, and so the plants are not able to hibernate as efficiently and ass a result their growth period is out of sync.  This is not only costly for farmers, but it also makes pest control and harvests a challenge. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.jazanu.edu.sa/sites/en/Pages/Default.aspx">Jazan University</a> of Saudi Arabia developed a method to help influence synchronized plant growth by using plasma to manipulate and boost metabolic activity.

The method, if tested properly, could control crop dormancy, increase the cultivation of plants in temperate climates, and make plants more resistant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crops-adapt-climate-change/">climate change</a>. 

Plasma is a special kind of ionized gas, and it’s used for a wide range of applications including sterilizing medical implants. The researchers were curious if grape vines could be forced out of dormancy using plasmas. 

After successful tests in a lab setting, the researchers found that plasma causes the same oxidative stress that plants experience as they come out hibernation. 

“Some of the results from our first successful experiment were phenomenal, and we could not believe it was true,” said Zaka-ul-Islam Mujahid, a plasma physicist who worked on the study. 

Just a few minutes of plasma exposure and the buds were responding even better than plants in optimal cold conditions. 

The plasma worked well on different varieties of grapes, and the researchers say that plasma could be a greener and more effective replacement for hydrogen cyanamide and other chemical treatments sprayed on trees to trigger dormancy. 

These chemicals are often toxic and harmful to the plants themselves, which is why it's essential to find alternative solutions for synchronistic growing in temperate climates. 

The researchers say that further testing is needed in a field setting in order to assess the viability of plasma fully. 

“There is still a lot of work to test the effectiveness and feasibility,” said Mujahid. “We are in the process of figuring out the proper parameters to take it to the field, but it could be in use within just a few years.” 

Mujahid and his colleagues will present their work on plasma and plants at the <a href="http://apsgec.org/gec2018/">American Physical Society 71st Annual Gaseous Electronics Conference</a> this week in Portland, Oregon. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: USDAgov via Wikimedia Commons

Using plasma to rouse plants out of hibernation

Farmers place a great deal of faith in mother nature...

ImageJ=1.50i

In an effort to create an environmentally friendly source of energy, researchers have now engineered bionic mushrooms that are capable of producing electricity. The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/microdosing-mushrooms-solving-creativity/">mushrooms</a> are equipped with energy-producing bacteria and an electrode network.

This incredible breakthrough was achieved by researchers at the <a href="https://www.stevens.edu/">Stevens Institute of Technology</a>. The team, which was led by Manu Mannoor and Sudeep Joshi, set out to cultivate an artificial symbiosis between button mushrooms and cyanobacteria. 

In nature, there are many organisms that live closely together and interact with each other in a symbiotic relationship that is often mutually beneficial. 

For the investigation, the experts created a scenario in which a mushroom would provide shelter, moisture, and nutrients to bacteria that were 3D-printed onto the mushroom's cap. These bacteria would, in turn, supply energy through photosynthesis. 

Alongside the bacteria, graphene nanoribbons would be printed to capture electrons released by microbes during photosynthesis, triggering the production of bio-electricity.

To make the bionic mushroom a reality, the researchers used an electronic ink containing graphene nanoribbons and 3D-printed it onto the cap of a living mushroom. Next, a bio-ink containing cyanobacteria was printed onto the cap in a spiral pattern which intersected with the electronic ink at multiple sites. At these intersections, electrons could be transferred through the outer membranes of the bacteria to the conductive network of graphene nanoribbons.

When the researchers used light to activate cyanobacterial photosynthesis, a current of about 65 nanoAmps was generated. While this current is not even strong enough to power an electronic device, the experts said that an array of bionic mushrooms could generate enough current to light up an LED. 

The researchers are currently exploring ways  to generate higher currents using this system. They explained that this 3D-printing approach could be used to organize other bacterial species in complex arrangements to execute many useful functions, including bioluminescence. 

The study is published in the ACS journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/nalefd">Nano Letters</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: American Chemical Society

Scientists engineer bionic mushrooms that can produce electricity

In an effort to create an environmentally friendly source of...

The analysis of a skeleton from the 9th century suggests that the leaves of ferns were used as a medicinal treatment for conditions such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/susceptible-common-cold/">colds</a>, dandruff, and kidney stones in medieval times. The study was focused on the remains of a male between 21 and 30 years old, who had been buried in the ancient cemetery of Can Reiners on the Spanish Balearic Islands. 

The skeleton had traces of starch grains consistent with cereal plants, such as wheat and rye. More significantly, there was a collection of cells in which spores are formed from the underside of a fern leaf.


While there is no evidence to indicate that the fern leaf was part of the human diet at any point in time, there are written records dating as far back as the first century AD that the fern leaf was used to relieve the symptoms of certain ailments.

Folk medicine stories have described that the fern was used in various regions across Europe, but this study provides the first physical evidence in human remains, as well as the first identification of a particular species of fern.


Study co-author Dr. Elena Fiorin is an expert the Department of Archaeology at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>. 

“Through analysis of the dental calculus of the skeleton, which we believe dates back to the ninth or 10th century, we were able to determine that the cells were from fern plant, asplenium trichomanes, a common species that grows in rocky areas worldwide,” said Dr. Florin. 

“These ferns have been used by herbalists, surgeons, doctors, and other healers for centuries across Europe, but until now we have only had written documents that describe their use.”

“The finding from the dental remains of this skeleton show just how much information we can get from dental calculus analysis. It demonstrates that in this region of Spain, communities were aware of the medicinal properties of some plants and how to administer them to get the desired result.”

Historical texts show that the plants were used to cure dandruff, the common cold, kidney stones, and alopecia. There is also reference to the plant being used to stimulate menstrual flow in women.

The skeletal remains of the young male do not disclose what he was treated for specifically, but it is likely that he drank a fern leaf infusion to cure congestion, a condition of the skin, or a urinary tract infection. 

“The research demonstrates the use of ferns as healing plants in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages,” said Dr. Fiorin. “We now have the potential to look at other dental remains for similar properties that might tell us more about the use of medicinal herbs in the past.”

“These ferns were employed, and are still used in Europe today, to cure a variety of diseases and through the archaeological record we can start to see how human beings have used the natural environment to assist in healthcare throughout our evolution.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10991212">International Journal of Osteoarchaeology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Medieval people may have used fern leaves to treat colds and dandruff

The analysis of a skeleton from the 9th century suggests...

A new study has found that hot temperatures may trigger changes within a plant’s cells which could help researchers and farmers develop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-sequence-wheat-crops/">drought-resistant crops</a>. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> conducted a study using rice plants to understand how the cells of a plant respond to increases in temperature. 

“Rice is a staple food for half the world's population and is particularly important for subsistence agriculture in some parts of the world, so it's a vital food crop,” said Sarah Assman, an author of the study. “With climate change -- and with the goal that we need to increase food production to feed the world's growing population -- we are always trying to understand how plants are responding to climate stress, so, potentially, in the future, we could improve crop varieties, either through breeding or other mechanisms, to get better stress tolerance and better yields.” 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, and the researchers focused on RNA which is a single strand of intricately folded ribonucleic acid.

After exposing rice plants to sudden increases in heat, the researchers observed structural changes in the plant’s RNA and fewer messenger RNAs (mRNA). Messenger RNAs transfer DNA instructions within the cell during protein making. 

One group of two-week-old rice seedlings were subjected to a temperature of 108 degrees Fahrenheit for ten minutes. 

Over 14,000 different RNAs were examined for the study, and the researchers were looking for specific responses to heat stress within the RNAs.  

“Because DNA has two strands, it's really locked into very few different folds, but RNA, because it is not tied up with another strand, is able to fold back on itself, so there are much more complex folds in the RNA,” said Philip Bevilacqua, an author of the study. “We chose such a short time because the re-folding of the RNA is a fast process, whereas the downstream processes, such as protein production, are slower and we were particularly interested in how the RNA refolded.” 

The seedlings exposed to the high temperatures had looser folds within its RNAs, and the researchers linked this unfolding to the declines in messenger RNAs. 

The study provides a jumping off point for creating more heat resistant plants by looking at RNA and mRNAs. 

“This exciting study reveals a new layer of gene regulation that was previously not appreciated,” said Zhao Su, the lead author of the paper.  “In particular, we showed that mRNAs encoding one specific type of regulatory proteins, transcription factors, are especially targeted for degradation by unfolding under high temperatures.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Peter Nguyen

Heat stress triggers cellular changes in plants

A new study has found that hot temperatures may trigger...

Corn production in the midwestern United States has been booming for the past 70 years, and new research shows that climate change has played a significant role in the abundance of crop yields. 

However, while warmer and earlier springs have benefitted midwest farmers, researchers wonder if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-temperatures-will-threaten-corn-availability/">corn will continue to hold up</a> as climate change worsens and food demand increases. 

Since 1940, corn production has increased fivefold, and it had been thought that this was because of advancements in farming technology. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> recently conducted a study to examine the role climate change and local temperatures have played in Midwest corn harvests. 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

The researchers found that earlier and warmer springs are allowing farmers to plant earlier which gives their corn more opportunity to grow and thrive before harvest. 

The results show that both longer growing seasons and a natural cooling effect during the hottest days of the summer have boosted corn production. 

“Our research shows that improvements in crop yield depend, in part, on improvements in climate,” said Peter Huybers, professor and co-director of the <a href="http://environment.harvard.edu/">Harvard University Center for the Environment.</a> “In this case, changing temperatures have had a beneficial impact on agricultural production, but there is no guarantee that benefit will last as the climate continues to change. Understanding the detailed relationships between climate and crop yield is important as we move towards feeding a growing population on a changing planet.” 

The researchers reviewed crop yield and temperature data from 1981 through 2017 and discovered that the increase in temperatures over the years moved planting days three days earlier per decade. 

Planting earlier wasn’t the only factor improving corn crops, though, as the researchers found that high temperatures create a cooling effect over large fields. 

These twin effects, cooling and earlier planting, have been responsible for much of the crop increases since the 1980s. 

“Increasingly productive and densely-planted crops can evaporate more water from leaves and soils during hot days,” said Nathaniel Mueller, a co-author of the paper. “Widespread increases in rates of evaporation apparently helps shield maize from extreme heat, cooling the surrounding area and helping to boost yields.”

Corn farmers are using climate change to their advantage and planting earlier with the season has so far improved crop yields, but the researchers are not sure if these trends will continue with future climate change. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Is the midwest’s booming corn production sustainable?

Corn production in the midwestern United States has been booming...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.mpipz.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research</a> in Cologne, Germany, have discovered that even healthy plants host potentially deadly comycetes in their roots. The team found that most plants manage to fight off illness through a balancing act performed by bacteria that are also found in the roots.

Comycetes, which include fungi and other <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humansrelationship-microbes-inside/">microbes</a>, are responsible for many devastating plant diseases and account for more than 10 percent of all crop loss. Along with oomycetes, soil hosts a diverse range of bacteria and other microbial organisms.

Plants are constantly under attack by various microbial pathogens, and they are equipped with a complex immune system that can protect them from many harmful microbes. However, it has been unclear whether interactions among the various microbiota members have an influence on the colonization of the roots and promote plant health.

To investigate, the research team took an inventory of the different microbes in the roots and surrounding soil of healthy individuals of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana.

While the fungi and oomycetes in the roots showed distinctive differences, the bacterial communities were more consistently similar in structure across varying geographical regions. This indicates that bacteria found in the roots of plants have important functions.

The experts also found a potential signature of mutual exclusion between bacteria and filamentous microbes in plant roots, suggesting competition for access to the root.

The researchers deconstructed the microbiota of healthy Arabidopsis thaliana to better analyze the possibility that microorganisms are competing in plant roots.  Next, they introduced different combinations of bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes to germ-free plants to examine the impact of these different microbial groups on plant health. 

The analysis revealed that plant survival in the presence of fungi and oomycetes is entirely dependent on the coinciding presence of bacteria. These bacteria inhibit the growth of fungi and oomycetes in roots to protect the health of plants, and this protection was found to be a shared responsibility among root-associated bacteria that were only distantly related.

Study lead author Dr. Stephane Hacquard explained: “We have demonstrated that the immune system of plants alone is not sufficient for protection against soil-derived and root-associated fungi and oomycetes, and that root-associated bacteria provide extended immune function which is needed for plant survival in nature.” 

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Image by Rainer Franzen and Paloma Duran; Image editing by Magdalena Kosterska-Singer

Root bacteria is critical in protecting the health of plants

Researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research...

A new project called the <a href="https://www.earthbiogenome.org/">Earth BioGenome Project</a> (EBP) has been launched in an effort to find new ways of protecting <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/protecting-biodiversity-political-action/">biodiversity</a> while sustaining human societies. The goal of the project is to sequence the genomes of all the plants, animals, fungi, and protozoa on the planet over a period of ten years.

The experts behind the project wrote in <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">PNAS</a>:

“Powerful advances in genome sequencing technology, informatics, automation, and artificial intelligence have propelled humankind to the threshold of a new beginning in understanding, utilizing, and conserving biodiversity.”

“For the first time in history, it is possible to efficiently sequence the genomes of all known species and to use genomics to help discover the remaining 80–90% of species that are currently hidden from science.”

The scientists explained that the outcomes of the EBP will inform a broad range of issues, including the impact of climate change on biodiversity and the conservation of endangered species and ecosystems.

In collaboration with the Natural History Museum, the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> is leading the initiative. Dr Tim Littlewood is the head of the Life Sciences department at the museum. 

“Whether you are interested in food, disease, or speciation, the history of how every organism on the planet has diverged and adapted to its environment is recorded in its genetic makeup,” said Dr. Littlewood. “How you then harness that is dependent on your ability to understand it.” 


In PNAS, the researchers suggested that life on Earth still holds an incredible amount of untapped potential. 

For example, invertebrates such as sponges, mollusks, and cone snails have contributed to several drugs approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treating cancer, viral infections, and pain. Fungi are the basis for fermentation to produce wine, beer, and bread, while plants are the basis of major industries, such as food and rubber.

“Unimaginable biological secrets are held in the genomes of the millions of known and unknown organisms on our planet. This ‘dark matter’ of biology could hold the key to unlocking the potential for sustaining planetary ecosystems on which we depend and provide life support systems for a burgeoning world population,” wrote the scientists.

The data collected for the Earth BioGenome Project will be made freely available in public databases.

The initiative is detailed in the paper “Earth BioGenome Project: Sequencing life for the future of life,” which is published in PNAS.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sequencing the DNA of every living creature to protect biodiversity

A new project called the Earth BioGenome Project (EBP) has...

Quercus robur

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) target of conserving 75 percent of the world's threatened <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-regulate-nitrogen-use/">plant species</a> outside of their natural habitat by 2020 may not be possible, according to a new study. While these efforts are focused on storing seeds in seed banks, experts at the <a href="https://www.kew.org/">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a> have found that seed banking is not an option for more than a third of “critically endangered” species.


The Kew researchers have determined that 36 percent of the world's most endangered plant species produce recalcitrant seeds. These are seeds that cannot be frozen due to the fact that they cannot tolerate the drying process.

Furthermore, the research team found that 35 percent of “vulnerable” species, 27 percent of “endangered” species, and 33 percent of all tree species are also unbankable. Among these species are important UK heritage trees such as oaks, horse chestnuts, and sweet chestnuts, as well as staple foods including avocado, cacao, and mango. 

The researchers concluded that alternative techniques are required to achieve the GSPC target, including cryopreservation, which is a method of preservation using liquid nitrogen. In seed banks, seeds are dried and frozen at -20 degrees Celsius. Cryopreservation involves removing the embryo from the seed and then using liquid nitrogen to freeze it at the much colder temperature of -196 degrees Celsius.

Kew has been practicing cryopreservation at its Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) at Wakehurst for a number of years. Kew aims to develop a system for banking recalcitrant seeds and to promote the use of cryopreservation on a large scale.

Study co-author John Dickie is the Head of Seed &amp; Lab-based Collections at Kew's Millennium Seed Bank. 

“Ex-situ conservation of plants is more critical than ever, with many threats to plant populations including climate change, habitat conversion and plant pathogens, we need to make sure we're doing all we can to conserve the most important and threatened species,” said Dickie. 

“As successful as seed banking is for some species, it is not suitable for all seed plants and we need to invest in other ways to safeguard recalcitrant seeds. This paper shows that we need greater international effort to understand and apply alternative techniques like cryopreservation which have the potential to conserve many more species from extinction."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

Some of the most endangered plants aren’t eligible for seed banking

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) target of conserving...

When we think of important resources, especially natural resources, we usually think of things like oil and natural gas. Less likely to garner as much attention are plants like sugar beets or the rubber tree but these indeed are resources, agricultural and natural.  

These resources are important ones too.  Imagine a world without rubber. No tires, no rubber bands.  What would we use to make gaskets or hair bands? Imagine likewise a diet without <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/that-sugar-film-sugar-consumption/">sugar</a>.  No soda, no desert. No sweet and sour pork. Both rubber trees and sugar whether from cane or beets make up important parts of modern life.  Latex rubber especially ties us to the tropical regions of the world. 

In his book One River, Wade Davis discusses the importance of latex, especially around the time of World War II.  Rubber was absolutely essential to the Allies’ war effort. Rubber made up tires on trucks and planes.  

Rubber is more important than commonly thought to everyday life as well as war.  Consider that the US created <a href="https://www.explainthatstuff.com/rubber.html">270 million tons</a> of rubber waste from tires in 2011.  Rain gear, insulation for wires and the soles of boots all use rubber.  One River explores the omnipresence in rubber on vehicles used during World War II:

“Each one of the battleships sunk at Pearl had more than twenty thousand rubber parts, more than one hundred sixty thousand pounds all told.  Every hose on every ship, every valve and seal, every tire on every truck and plane we ship to the Russians…”

The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) has a unique natural history, making it difficult to grow in plantations.  The Olmec used rubber to make things like balls as long as 3,600 years ago, but it was the discovery of vulcanization, a process which makes rubber more durable, that kicked off a rubber boom in South America.  

The rubber tree is native only to the tropics of the Americas and succumbs to blight if too many trees are grown in close proximity of each other in Latin America.  This quirk dictated the realities of much of the early rubber industry. Rubber tappers took to the rainforest, hiking trails to each tree in succession to tap several in turn.  Because the trees were spaced far apart in the forest, long hours were required to obtain raw latex. 

Labor costs cut into the profit margins of rubber businesses and many of the so called ‘rubber barons’ turned to the natives for slave labor, creating a hell that left scars to this day on the cultural landscape of South America.  Places like Manaus Brazil and Iquitos Peru became extravagantly wealthy with many luxuries contrasting their place as remote jungle towns. Soon, agents of the British empire illegally smuggled rubber tree seeds out of South America and plantations were started in British India, breaking South America’s rubber monopoly.  

For a time rubber plantations in Asia out-competed wild rubber tapping in South America and the rubber businesses died, leaving behind the ghosts of their horrible practice.  With the start of World War II, Japan made rubber supplies from Asia increasingly unreliable to the Allies. Rubber was once again taken from South America for a short time. The US started experimental rubber plantations in Costa Rica with blight resistant tree stock.  Eventually the plantations were shut down largely due to political bickering. 

Today, the vast majority of the world’s rubber still comes from southeast Asia.  The top four rubber producing countries in the world are Thailand, Indonesia, China and India.  Rubber is not the only plant to play an important role in international relationships and war, though.  Sugar is more important than it first seems as well. 

Until relatively recently, Cuba dominated the international sugar industry.  According to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cuba/Sugarcane-and-the-growth-of-slavery">Britannica</a>, by 1850, sugar made up four-fifths of Cuba’s global exports, and in 1860 the island produced almost one third of the world’s sugar.  As with the rubber trade in South America and the cotton plantations of the US south, sugar in Cuba fueled the slave trade and huge amounts of inequality among Cubans.  Cuba’s economy also became increasingly dependent upon sugar and tied to its global market. 

In his book, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XPFzV9VRFuEC&amp;q=sugar#v=snippet&amp;q=Cuba%20sugar&amp;f=false">Open Veins of Latin America</a>, Eduardo Galeano tells how the US utilized the weakness of Cuba and its dependence on one crop for wealth.  In 1921, the price of sugar dropped radically from $.22 per pound to $.04 a pound. The drop in prices was a tragedy for Cuba but the US came to their aid with credit of $50 million, though the economy of Cuba has never quite recovered.  

The place of the US in Cuba was cemented for a time with this loan but interference stretched back to the US involvement in Cuba’s fight for independence and the following US military occupation of the newly independent Cuba.  In essence, the sugar industry of Cuba was created to fuel Spain and by being allied with the US, Cuba became entrapped in a sort of dependence on the US, a nation addicted to sugar. Galeano goes on to note that by 1948, Cuba supplied one third of the US’ sugar but received much lower prices than US sugar growers.  Sugar grown outside the tropics was only possible through new technology.

The development of another type of sugar has allowed the United States (and other countries) to dictate the terms of trade with Cuba, leaving the island nation mired in poverty.  Traditionally sugar comes from sugar cane, a large grass in the genus Saccharum; a treat that many who’ve visited the tropics may have bought on the street to munch raw and sticky making the eater look like a panda with bamboo.  In 2009, sugar from beets accounted for 20% of the world’s sugar, with United States, Europe and Turkey being the top global producers of sugar, according to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_beet">Wikipedia</a>.  In 1747, Andreas Marggraf, a German chemist demonstrated that sugar could be extracted from beets, a discovery coming after sugar cane plantations were already established in Cuba.

<a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/191975/sugarcane-production-in-the-us-by-state/">Statista</a> reports that between 2016 and 2017, the US produced 8.5 million metric tons of sugar.  The USDA reports that sugar cane accounts for 40 to 45% of US sugar production and sugar beets supply 55 to 60% of US sugar production.  Clearly beets are important. 

Beets and US sugar cane allowed the US to treat Cuba as their plantation colony and then cast them off when they became politically hard to deal with.  The wealth produced by sugar growers in Cuba also ended up in US pockets often enough. Open Veins of Latin America reports that at one point, 13 US sugar producers owned as much as 47% of the land planted with Cuban sugar cane.  Plantations of rubber in Asia allowed Europe and North America to accumulate their own wealth at the cost of rubber barons in South America.  

The story is the same as with any resource, controlling the resource means gathering the wealth.  The chemistry of sugar from beets, the clandestine planting of rubber trees in Asia and the eventual invention of synthetic rubber are all tied to the wealth of nations.  There’s talk about wealth from oil and the empires built on it but plants can be the basis of wealth just as easily. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Plants and power: The importance of rubber and sugar

When we think of important resources, especially natural resources, we...

Few trees inhabit the human imagination quite as the baobabs do. Simultaneously majestic and comically Seussian in form, the eight species of baobab have been attributed to the work of gods, devils, and even hyenas in the mythos of Africa. 

Objects of reverence and superstition as well as prosaic providers of food, shelter, and water, these bizarre trees of the family Malvaceae have captivated human observers for millennia. Related to hibiscus, cotton, and the familiar garden hollyhocks, they tower over their herbaceous cousins and are the tallest living angiosperms. 

Some specimens of the African mainland species Adansonia digitata approach heights of 100 feet. Their bulbous, water-storing trunks, adapted to the harsh, arid climates to which they are native, may exceed 100 feet in circumference in some ancient individuals. Individual trees are estimated to have lived <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-018-0170-5.epdf?referrer_access_token=HYk_WHVC0gT-RFHTf5UEItRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0PfCb0fwHOSvF60fdB_TECZFartUn3hwa9iRPi5T4HR_Z7SjQWQ4lKaB64vZhh1qC5N2TFnF2czFdo1NNown7crKjT5FAvL4XT_8RfVTrcAxG3dXd9aNXmC65UFK0oqYeC6En43TZpyOa_bwzWd9uTFSJk-kVIdkofLTH2T26rOgitQRLhQOgJebK7ZylvjdBVRrTsg-PpaIWUOVN_RA8hIvvUvP5gAueuYNNQG-1Chi3OW8DK6qgkY5vx8Mr14yvLyGPGa0Doh4tTW3f0QOzpn&amp;tracking_referrer=www.npr.org">for more than 2,450 years</a> per radiocarbon dating studies; even more conservative estimates place specimens at up to 800 years old. 

These “wooden elephants” have long provided succor to the people sharing their range. Their fruits, which are encased in a woody shell, provide a powdery pulp that is a dietary staple for many Africans. This pulp is highly nutritious and contains appreciable amounts of vitamin C, calcium, iron, and magnesium. It may be eaten plain or, more commonly, is mixed into a drink or added to other dishes. The large, hard seeds can be either roasted or fermented and are used as a food or flavoring, or rendered into an oil that has cosmetic applications. 

Humans aren’t the only primates to enjoy baobab fruits; their consumption by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-different-immune-systems/">baboons</a> has led to the moniker “monkey bread.” The leaves, also laden with nutrients, are consumed in salads or dried and mixed with grains. Their salutary properties may in fact lend credence to the myth that women who live near baobab trees are more fertile. The tuberous ends of the roots and even the bark and flowers can be eaten as well.

[caption id="attachment_1861405" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/baobab.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861405" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/baobab-1024x695.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="475" /></a> Image Credit: By Dennis van de Water[/caption]

Baobab bark fiber is used in the manufacture of rope and baskets and the spongy, porous wood is burned for fuel. On the basis of this remarkable versatility, recent research has proposed the baobab as a candidate for <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01257.x">formal domestication and agriculture</a>. Wild specimens have long-sustained African peoples and the tree has been informally cultivated for centuries. The so-called “superfood” qualities of its fruit and leaves, assigned due to their high concentrations of nutrients, have also attracted <a href="https://www.nation.co.ke/lifestyle/health/Demand-for-Africa-s-baobab-fruit-increases-in-UK-/1954202-4369434-4keslkz/index.html">interest in exporting them</a>.

Humans are hardly the only species to benefit from the baobab. The flowers nourish bats and insects, the fruits feed birds, monkeys, and other creatures, and the bark and leaves are enjoyed by elephants, which may strip the trees, which usually nonetheless rebound. Numerous species make their homes in baobabs as well; in the oft-barren savannahs, they are oases, providing food, shelter, and ever-valuable water. 

Indeed, the hollow trunks of some aged specimens were historically used by traders and other travelers as water reservoirs. <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/39426731/Duvall_2007.pdf">Patterns of human settlement</a> have been mapped to baobab distribution, suggesting either that humans gravitated to these towering sources of sustenance or that they actively transported the seeds or young plants as they dispersed. 

These unique trees are thought to have originated in Madagascar, home to six of the eight known species, including A. grandidieri, A. madagascariensis, A. perrieri, A. rubrostipa, A. suarezensis, and A. za. A. digitata of mainland Africa and the single Australian species, A. gibbosa, are believed to have evolved from the Malagasy species. (<a href="https://www.fabinet.up.ac.za/src.fabinet.up.ac.za/cthb/pdf/The_only_one_African_baobab_species.pdf">It has been argued</a> that a putative ninth species identified in 2012 and native to mainland African highlands, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/Adansonia-kilima">A. kilima</a>, is simply a variant of A. digitata.) 

While at one time they were thought to have diverged with the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwanaland some 180 million years ago, current genetic analysis suggests that in fact they radiated from Madagascar more recently. Had they been present when Gondwana broke up, it would be expected that baobab species would be evident in the flora of Asia as well as Africa and Australia. Yet, they are largely absent from Asia, except where they were planted by humans. In fact, the places that they occur in India can be <a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/2/9/150370">mapped to ancient Arab trading routes</a>.  

So, too, their presence in the Caribbean correlates strongly to the African slave trade. Though some have proposed that the species native to Australia originated from fruits that floated from Madagascar, this 6,000 mile journey would likely have degraded the shells. <a href="http://www.uq.edu.au/nuq/jack/BoabOrigins.html">Another theory</a> posits that a no-longer-extant group of African peoples journeyed by sea to Australia some 70,000 years ago and were responsible for transplanting the baobabs, which are relatively genetically similar to the African species. This explanation is bolstered by the existence of the <a href="https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/bradshaws/introduction.php">Bradshaw rock art</a> in Australia, which is different from typical Aboriginal art and depicts large, sea-faring boats which may have been constructed from baobab fibers. 

However they dispersed, their later associations with humans are well-documented. It is thought that their name derives from the Arabic bu hibab, which translates to “many-seeded.” Medieval Moroccan scholar Ibn Battuta mentions them as early as 1353. And Portuguese explorer Gomes Eanes de Zurara noted them while in Guinea-Bissau in 1448, marking the first European observation of the species. It did not come to wider attention until Michel Adanson, a French researcher working in Senegal, sent word of the strange trees to Europe, where Carl Linnaeus catalogued it, as Adansonia, in his Species plantarum (1753). 

More recent <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=lQ1bDwAAQBAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PT11&amp;dq=baobab&amp;ots=MjJ9wo6wPe&amp;sig=2_NocOYi99kMA70T6bhYnUYO8bw#v=onepage&amp;q=baobab&amp;f=false">ethnographic research</a> has recorded some of the numerous myths surrounding the tree. Many of them are versions of an origin story in which the tree was turned upside down by a deity, so that its roots faced the sky. In one, the baobab’s overweening pride in its height and grandeur caused the gods to invert it. In another, the Giriama of Kenya tell of a devil who, infuriated by the tree’s lack of shade, uprooted it and stuck its branches into the earth. And the Bushmen claim that it was a hyena who did so, after being assigned the baobab as its signature tree by an omnipotent deity. With its strangely stunted branches, it is easy to see why these might have been appealing explanations to early observers. 

The narrator of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’s The Little Prince memorably says, “Beware of baobabs!” after the title character relates to him that baobabs threaten to overtake the tiny asteroid he calls home. Baobabs, however, would do well to beware of humans. 

Recent research has shown that global warming is taking its toll on these magnificent trees. Many of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-018-0170-5.epdf?referrer_access_token=HYk_WHVC0gT-RFHTf5UEItRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0PfCb0fwHOSvF60fdB_TECZFartUn3hwa9iRPi5T4HR_Z7SjQWQ4lKaB64vZhh1qC5N2TFnF2czFdo1NNown7crKjT5FAvL4XT_8RfVTrcAxG3dXd9aNXmC65UFK0oqYeC6En43TZpyOa_bwzWd9uTFSJk-kVIdkofLTH2T26rOgitQRLhQOgJebK7ZylvjdBVRrTsg-PpaIWUOVN_RA8hIvvUvP5gAueuYNNQG-1Chi3OW8DK6qgkY5vx8Mr14yvLyGPGa0Doh4tTW3f0QOzpn&amp;tracking_referrer=www.npr.org">oldest specimens are dying</a> and, in an exit fitting for a tree so steeped in mythological significance, disappearing. Baobab wood is so light and fibrous that, without living tissue to hold it together, it decays and blows away like dandelion fluff.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

What is it about baobab trees that makes them so captivating?

Few trees inhabit the human imagination quite as the baobabs...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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