Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. 



The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use.



In this work, a team at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen conditions.



The study extends earlier proof-of-concept in rice, with efforts underway to translate the approach to other staple cereals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthetic-nitrogen-fuels-global-harvests">Synthetic nitrogen fuels global harvests</h2>



Worldwide, synthetic nitrogen fuels modern harvests but at a steep environmental and economic price. Wheat alone accounts for about 18 percent of global nitrogen fertilizer use. Of the hundreds of millions of tons produced each year, plants capture only 30 to 50 percent.



The remainder washes into rivers and coasts, feeding oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/">dead zones</a>, or escapes as nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. For smallholder farmers, especially in low-income regions, cost and access make fertilizer a gamble.



“In Africa, people don't use fertilizers because they don’t have money, and farms are small, not larger than six to eight acres,” Blumwald said. “Imagine, you are planting crops that stimulate bacteria in the soil to create the fertilizer that the crops need, naturally. Wow! That’s a big difference!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wheat-learns-microbes-nitrogen-trick">Wheat learns microbes’ nitrogen trick</h2>



Nitrogen fixation is carried out by specialized bacteria using an enzyme called nitrogenase, which only functions in low-oxygen conditions. Legumes such as beans and peas solve this by hosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-root-microbiomes-like-humans-do-vital-for-survival-defense/">microbes</a> in root nodules, which are tiny oxygen-poor chambers. 



Cereals like wheat lack nodules, which is why they rely on bagged nitrogen. Rather than trying to give cereals nodules or force microbes to colonize roots - a strategy that has long struggled to stick - the team flipped the problem.



The researchers screened roughly 2,800 plant-made chemicals and found a small set, including flavones, that prompt soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">bacteria</a> to form protective biofilms. Those sticky microbial coats reduce oxygen exposure enough for nitrogenase to work.



“For decades, scientists have been trying to develop cereal crops that produce active root nodules, or trying to colonize cereals with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, without much success. We used a different approach,” Blumwald said.



“We said the location of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria is not important, so long as the fixed nitrogen can reach the plant, and the plant can use it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edit-flips-fertilizer-switch">Gene edit flips fertilizer switch</h2>



Using CRISPR, the researchers boosted wheat’s production of apigenin, a common flavone. Plants kept what they needed and exuded the surplus through their roots.



In soil tests, the extra apigenin encouraged local bacteria to spin up biofilms, protecting nitrogenase, fixing nitrogen, and making ammonium available for the crop. In low-fertility conditions, edited wheat assimilated the microbially supplied nitrogen and outyielded control plants.



The amazing thing lies in what the plant does automatically. It manufactures the signal, leaks it when nitrogen is scarce, and benefits from the neighborhood effect. No external inoculants are required, and the microbes remain free-living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">soil</a> rather than locked inside a root.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-down-resilience-up"><a></a>Pollution down, resilience up</h2>



If scaled, the approach could trim the fertilizer footprint that drives water pollution and climate forcing in wheat and other crops. Less soluble nitrogen applied to fields means less runoff during storms, smaller algal blooms, and fewer oxygen crashes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">lakes</a> and coastal zones. 



Cutting back on industrial nitrogen also reduces upstream emissions from natural-gas-intensive fertilizer production.



Because the mechanism amplifies microbial activity already present in many soils, it may also help stabilize yields under input constraints. In places where fertilizer is scarce or prohibitively expensive, the crop’s own chemistry becomes a lever to unlock atmospheric nitrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-saved-with-less-fertilizer">Billions saved with less fertilizer</h2>



The United States alone saw nearly $36 billion in fertilizer spending in 2023. Cereals cover close to 500 million acres nationally. Even modest reductions in inputs translate into real money while lowering risk in volatile markets.



“Imagine, if you could save 10 percent of the amount of fertilizer being used on that land,” Blumwald said. “I’m calculating conservatively: That should be a savings of more than a billion dollars every year.”



Those savings would not come solely from buying less nitrogen. Fewer passes to apply fertilizer mean lower fuel use and less soil compaction. Reduced losses to waterways could also ease regulatory pressure and improve community relations in vulnerable watersheds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-stability-across-soil-types">Proving stability across soil types</h2>



The road from greenhouse pots to farm fields is long, but the milestones are clear. Researchers will need to confirm that the nitrogen boost holds under diverse soils, climates, and microbiomes, and that it plays nicely with existing rotations and management. 



They will need to show stable performance across seasons and varieties, measure effects on soil ecology, and ensure that yields and grain quality are maintained.



Because the edit increases a native metabolite rather than introducing a foreign gene, regulatory pathways may be more straightforward in some jurisdictions. Still, farmers and policymakers will want transparent data on environmental outcomes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-solar-power-can-transform-urine-into-fertilizer/">fertilizer</a> savings, and return on investment.



If the results scale, gene-edited cereals like wheat that recruit their own microbial fertilizer factories could become a practical tool in the nitrogen toolbox - cutting costs where budgets are tight, trimming pollution where waters run foul, and building resilience in the breadbaskets of a warming world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pbi.70289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.



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Gene-edited wheat turns soil microbes into fertilizer

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use. In this work, a team at the University of California, Davis, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used CRISPR to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen...

Many of the oceanic islands that arise from undersea volcanoes have served as a natural laboratory for scientists to observe evolutionary and ecological processes. Because islands making up these archipelagos can differ in age by millions of years, scientists are able to analyze the long-term impacts of geology and evolution on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-human-rights-issue/">biodiversity</a> over time.

A new study published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">PNAS</a> has found that – on the archipelago of Hawai’i – biodiversity is higher on older islands than it is on younger ones. Additionally, the research team found that introduced species are diluting the effects of island age within the patterns of local biodiversity. 

An international research team led by the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html">University of Göttingen</a>, German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) and the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), along with the <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawai'i at Mānoa</a>, used data from over 500 forest plots across the Hawai’ian Islands. They wanted to determine how historical and recent ecological processes influenced the number of species that coexisted both on each individual island and within smaller areas of land on the islands. 

The results of their analysis showed that older islands had a greater number of both rare species and native species, even within the smaller plots of land. Their data spanned from older islands such as Kau'I – which is around 5 million years old – to islands like the Big Island of Hawai'I, which is only around 500,000 years old and is still growing.

[caption id="attachment_1875835" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/The-Koolau-summit-on-the-island-of-Oahu-in-Hawaii.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875835" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/The-Koolau-summit-on-the-island-of-Oahu-in-Hawaii.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="433" /></a> The Ko'olau summit on the island of O'ahu in Hawai'i, Image Credit: William Weaver[/caption]

“To be honest, I was a bit surprised by the results. I expected that ecological mechanisms would outweigh the macroevolutionary forces at the scales of these small plots, and that there’d be no differences in local-scale diversity among the islands,” explains senior author Jonathan Chase of iDiv and Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenber. “So, to me, this is the coolest kind of discovery – one that challenges your assumptions.”

The researchers also found that widespread introduced species weakened the effect of island age on biodiversity. “We’re seeing evidence that human activity – such as planting introduced species in our gardens and parks – is starting to erase millions of years of history, of plants and animals interacting with one another and their environment,” says lead author Dylan Craven from the University of Göttingen. 

It’s rather concerning that human activity over such a relatively small period of time (compared to the amount of time it takes for an island ecosystem to form) can have such a clear effect on biodiversity. Studies such as this show how fragile these ecosystems truly are, even though they are formed by the after product of volcanic lava. 

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: William Weaver

Biodiversity suffers when new species are introduced to island ecosystems

Many of the oceanic islands that arise from undersea volcanoes...

A new study has revealed how climate change may negatively impact soils, posing a threat to water sources and crops.

Rising sea levels, habitat degradation, mass coral bleaching events, biodiversity declines, the spread of vector-borne diseases, and an increase in weather extremes are all projected effects of climate change.

But now, researchers from <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> have revealed how climate change could also alter how soils absorb water.

How moisture, air, and CO2 infiltrate into the soil is crucial for healthy crops and vegetation. 

Water in the soil helps to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-soil-carbon-storage/">store carbon</a>, but if soils become degraded and less water infiltrates down into the ground, it could lead to higher levels of atmospheric CO2. 

“Since rainfall patterns and other environmental conditions are shifting globally as a result of climate change, our results suggest that how water interacts with soil could change appreciably in many parts of the world, and do so fairly rapidly,” said Daniel Giménez, a co-author of the study. “We propose that the direction, magnitude, and rate of the changes should be measured and incorporated into predictions of ecosystem responses to climate change.”

Giménez conducted a soil study last year and discovered that increases in precipitation reduce the soil’s ability to absorb water, leading to erosion and an increased risk of flash floods. 

Water infiltration rates can change as precipitation increases, and with less water making its way down into the soil, there will be less water available for plants and crops. 

One long-term experiment led by Rutgers researchers found that a 35 percent increase in rainfall over 25 years in Kansas resulted in a 21 to 33 percent decrease in water infiltration rates. 

With more rain, plants were spreading their thick roots and clogging the once porous soil leaving less room for water. 

The Rutgers team will next investigate how increases in precipitation due to climate change will impact water infiltration and soils in other parts of the world. 

The researchers published their findings in the journal Science Advances.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Edouard Sagues

How climate change could negatively impact soil and threaten crops

A new study has revealed how climate change may negatively...

Led by the <a href="https://au.int/">African Union</a>, the Great Green Wall (GGW) project was launched in 2007 to combat the effects of climate change. 

The project is expected to transform the lives of millions of people by creating productive landscapes across the Sahel in North Africa.

In particular, the initiative aims to plant a barrier of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/exotic-trees-uk-climate-change/">trees</a> that will cover 4,815 miles of the southern edge of the Sahara to protect fertile land in the Sahel from turning into desert. 

The Sahel, a semiarid stretch of grassland that spans the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea, is one of the most impoverished regions on the planet. 

In the last few decades, population growth, land degradation, deforestation, reduced rainfall, and many other factors have transformed a large portion of the Sahel into barren land. The $8 billion African Union project hopes to reforest 247 million acres of this degraded land across Africa.

According to <a href="https://time.com/">Time Magazine</a>, when the project is completed in 2030, the restored land will absorb an estimated 250 million metric tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is the equivalent of parking all of the cars in California for 3½ years.

By August, as the ground was prepared and the saplings were waiting to be planted, the lack of rainfall had become a major obstacle for the launch of the Great Green Wall in northern Senegal. El Hadj has spent the past nine years overseeing the project for Senegal’s forestry department. 

"The rain used to come in June. Here we are in August, and still there is no rain,” Hadj told Time Magazine. How is it possible, he said, to grow trees to combat climate change if climate change is making it impossible to grow trees?

To the south, women from many villages have been planting trees for the GGW project since 2012. Dienaba Aka explained to Time that the pay is good, but most women are participating in the project because they have been told it will bring back the rain, which in turn brings the grass that feeds their livestock.

Since Senegal’s first tree took root in 2008, the GGW agency says that 18 ­million trees have been planted on 99,000 acres of restored land. 

Chris Reij is a sustainable land management specialist and senior fellow at the World Resources Institute who has been working in Africa since 1978. He warned that the rate of land degradation and desertification is much higher than the amount of trees being planted, which greatly reduces their odds of survival.

On the other hand, the regreening is working in some high-density populations, such as Niger. The experts say this is because the farmers in this region are increasingly realizing that the trees can regenerate degraded land.

“It’s literally a story of more people, more trees,” said Reij. “The whole point is that the trees are not protected and managed by farmers for their environmental beauty, but because they are part of the agricultural production system.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Great Green Wall Project

The Great Green Wall project is changing the landscape in North Africa

Led by the African Union, the Great Green Wall (GGW)...

Symbiotic relationships take many forms that can serve the whole ecosystem. Life on Earth is made up of a complex network of relationships between different species. These relationships come in many forms, from predators hunting prey to plants providing habitat. The most deeply intertwined of these relationships are referred to as symbiosis. 

Symbiosis is a long-term, close relationship between two or more species. These relationships can <a href="https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent525/close/goodbuddies.html">take many forms</a>. Though many classic examples benefit all species involved, this is not a requirement. Some forms of symbiosis are “unequal.” Parasitic relationships that threaten the wellbeing of the host can even be considered symbiotic.

Symbiotic relationships create many complex ecological interactions. These relationships hint at the ways in which the members of ecosystems can <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13752-014-0194-7">interact like the organs of an organism</a>. These relationships are essential to many biological processes in humans and our world. 

You encounter symbiosis more often in your day to day life than you might imagine. One well-known example is your <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-microbiomics/">microbiome</a>. These organisms live in your gut and many other parts of your body. They provide essential services like digesting complex sugars, protecting against infections, and training your immune system. These creatures are your own symbionts.
<h2>Mutualism</h2>
Mutualism is the friendliest of these symbiotic relationships. In mutualistic symbiosis, both (or all) species involved benefit from the relationship. These relationships allow species to show off their skills. Organisms that are very skilled at one task will provide this service to another species in exchange for something they need.
<h3>Examples</h3>
There are many examples of mutualism in the natural world. One of the most commonly used examples is how plants collect nitrogen. All living things need nitrogen to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-proteomics/">protein</a>. Though diatomic nitrogen gas is abundant in the atmosphere, plants cannot use this form. Instead, they rely on bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-everywhere/">fungi</a> to “fix” nitrogen. Legumes (which include most beans) owe their high protein content to these relationships. Other <a href="https://www.caseyhofford.com/2018/10/16/fungi-are-friends-not-foes/">plants actually interact with fungi to indirectly “eat” bugs</a> to gain their protein.
<h2>Commensalism</h2>
Commensalism is a form of symbiosis that only benefits one of the partners. In commensalism, the host is not harmed by the relationship but does not benefit either. The commensal organism may get protection, transportation, shelter or even the scraps of the host's last meal. The term comes from the Latin “Commensalis,” meaning “sharing a table.”
<h3>Examples</h3>
Hermit crabs are a great example of this behavior. In this relationship, the crabs use the discarded shells of snails as their homes. The hermit crab gains protection from what is essentially a waste product of another species. 

Cattle egrets are another great example of commensalism. These bug-eating birds hang out around cattle, waiting to feast on the bugs that are inevitably stirred up. 
<h2>Parasitism</h2>
Parasitism is possibly the most common form of symbiosis. In parasitism, one species benefits at the expense of another species. The parasite benefits by stealing food, energy or other resources. Unlike predation, parasitism is long-term and ongoing. Many organisms have parasitic stages in their lives.
<h3>Examples</h3>
The number of parasitic relationships in the natural world is huge. Parasitic relationships can be seen in every ecosystem and taxon. Here are a few well known and interesting examples.

<a href="https://necsi.edu/parasitic-relationships">Aphids are plant parasites</a> that use the plant as a long-term source of food. They continually parasitize the plant, decreasing its growth and reproductive success.

<a href="https://extension.umd.edu/hgic/topics/parasitoid-wasps-hymenoptera">Parasitic wasps</a> are a large group of obligate parasites (they can only survive by eating eggs.) These species sound horrifying but are actually quite helpful. These wasps primarily eat the eggs of garden pests. This makes them a great biological control measure.

[caption id="attachment_1875807" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/parasitic-wasp.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875807" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/parasitic-wasp.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="334" /></a> Parasitic wasp, Image Credit: Suede Chen/Shutterstock[/caption]
<h2>Amensalism</h2>
A far more uncommon form of symbiosis is called amensalism. In this relationship, one species <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/amensalism">harms the other, without receiving a direct benefit</a>. Some organisms will actually secrete toxins to harm or kill their neighbors. This differs from predation or parasitism because the attacker is not feeding on its victim. It also differs from competition, which occurs in all ecosystems. Instead, amensalism reduces competition to gain an indirect benefit.
<h3>Examples</h3>
Though amensalism is less common than other forms of symbiosis, it has some amazing results. The first antibiotic, penicillin, was derived from the penicillium fungus. The mold produced<a href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/amensalism-examples-definition-quiz.html"> penicillin in order to kill bacteria</a> growing nearby. The discovery of this relationship led to one of the biggest leaps in modern medicine. Due to overuse, <a href="http://v">antibiotics are becoming less effective</a>. This poses a huge threat to humanity. 

Symbiotic relationships exist throughout the natural world. Now that you know the core categories of symbiotic relationships, you will likely notice these throughout the natural world. Comment with some examples of symbiosis that you’ve seen or heard of.

--

By: <a href="mailto:writing@caseyhofford.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Colin Trainor/Wikimedia Commons

Symbiotic relationships take many forms that can serve the whole ecosystem

Symbiotic relationships take many forms that can serve the whole...

A new study published by the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> is one of the first of its kind to investigate how altered soils may impact plant water uptake over the long term. The researchers found that plants in soil leached by acid rain take up a significantly larger amount of water. 

The findings suggest that acid rain has a persistent impact on large-scale forest water cycles, which is important to understand for predicting future water availability. According to the study authors, the research may also help explain some of the uncertainty scientists have encountered in terrestrial biosphere models.

A team led by Matthew Lanning investigated changes in soil water available to plants in the Fernow Experimental Forest of West Virginia. This forest is the site of a decades-long watershed acidification experiment. 

The scientists used 23 years of lysimeter data to estimate the transfer of water from <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rises-wetlands-store-carbon/">soil</a> to the atmosphere. They also used  traditional estimates of the differences between precipitation and water discharge from plants. 

The analysis showed that the acidified watershed had much higher soil-to-atmosphere water transfer compared to the water transfer amount in a "control" watershed. The lysimeter data confirmed this by demonstrating that the average volume of the treated watershed was significantly lower than the control. 

The researchers believe that soil acidification causes calcium to leach from the soil. Since calcium plays an important role in signaling plant stomata to close, the absence of calcium would cause the pores to remain open instead of closing to prevent water loss. As a result, evapotranspiration would continue, causing greater water uptake by the plants.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants take up more water in soils that have been affected by acid rain

A new study published by the American Association for the...

Common flowering plant contains compound with anti-cancer properties. In a groundbreaking new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/">University of Birmingham</a> have demonstrated that a compound with anti-cancer properties can be produced directly from a common flowering plant in the daisy family known as feverfew.

The team extracted and modified the compound it so that it could be used to kill chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) cells in the lab.

Feverfew is commonly grown in gardens across the UK. It is also sold in many health food stores as a treatment for pain and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/smartphone-app-migraine-therapy/">migraine headaches</a>. 

Several years ago, the compound parthenolide was identified by scientists as having anti-cancer properties. Even though it is available commercially, parthenolide is extremely expensive with poor drug-like properties.

"This research is important not only because we have shown a way of producing parthenolide that could make it much more accessible to researchers, but also because we've been able to improve its 'drug-like' properties to kill cancer cells. It's a clear demonstration that parthenolide has the potential to progress from the flowerbed into the clinic," explained Professor John Fossey.

The experts developed a method to source parthenolide directly from the plants, and also identified a modification technique which allowed them to produce a number of compounds that successfully killed cancer cells during lab experiments. 

According to the researchers, the parthenolide compound appears to work by increasing the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells. These unstable molecules are already abundant in cancer cells, and the objective is to push ROS levels to a deadly point using parthenolide.  

The study was initiated by Dr. Angelo Agathanggelou of the Institute of Cancer and Genomic Studies. He is investigating new ways to treat a type of cancer which typically affects older people called chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL).

"There are several effective treatments for CLL, but after a time the disease in some patients becomes resistant. We were interested in finding out more about the potential of parthenolide," said Dr. Agathanggelou. "With expertise from colleagues in the School of Chemistry we've been able to demonstrate that this compound shows real promise and could provide alternative treatment options for CLL patients."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.rsc.org/journals-books-databases/about-journals/medchemcomm/">MedChemComm</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Common flowering plant contains compound with anti-cancer properties

Common flowering plant contains compound with anti-cancer properties. In a...

Low in calories and high in nutrients, blueberries are tied to a number of powerful effects including protection against aging and cancer prevention. A collection of research published by the <a href="https://www.geron.org/">Gerontological Society of America</a> is now placing new emphasis on the health benefits that can be achieved simply by adding <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/blueberries-grown-grass/">blueberries</a> to your diet. 

In an opening editorial, Dr. Donald K. Ingram explained that studies focused on the health effects of blueberries have grown "exponentially" since the 1990s.

"Studies have documented that this fruit ranks highest in antioxidant activity compared to many other popular fruits. Moreover, other mechanisms for the health benefits of blueberries, such as their anti-inflammatory properties, have been identified," noted Dr. Ingram.

Among the four articles collected, one study found that consuming about a cup of blueberries a day can improve blood vessel function and decrease systolic blood pressure. The researchers found that these remarkable results can be attributed to anthocyanins, which are phytochemicals that give blueberries their dark color.

Other studies highlighted the cognitive benefits of eating blueberries. For example, the fruit's high polyphenol count has been linked to improved performance on memory tests among older adults. 

For one investigation, researchers used a rodent model to demonstrate the cognitive influence of blueberry consumption among aging rats. The trial revealed that the animals who regularly ate blueberries had significantly improved memory performance compared to rats who were fed a diet that was not supplemented. 

In another article, the researchers reviewed several clinical tests that focused on the potential advantages of blueberry supplementation. The team identified specific memory gains in children as well as older adults with mild cognitive impairment.

The studies are published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology">The Journals of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Subbotina Anna

Blueberries offer a wide variety of remarkable health benefits

Low in calories and high in nutrients, blueberries are tied...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/population-plant-based-diets/">Plant-based diets</a> have gained a great deal of traction recently due to the harmful environmental impacts of the meat and dairy industry. 

However, a new editorial published in the journal <a href="https://nutrition.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/-2019-000037">BMJ Nutrition, Prevention, and Health</a> warns against jumping on new dietary recommendations that limit meat and dairy products as it could also limit your intake of an essential nutrient.

Choline is considered a vital nutrient because while we need it to function. The body does not produce enough of it on its own and we have to get nutrients like choline and omega-3 fatty acids from food. 

Beef, eggs, dairy products, fish, and chicken are all foods high in choline, and you can get choline from peanuts, beans or broccoli but at much lower levels. 

Dr. Emma Derbyshire, a nutritionist and author of the editorial, discussed the importance of choline and the problem with limiting choline-rich foods from regular diets.

Derbyshire worries that because people already don’t get enough choline on a day-to-day basis, switching to a recommended plant-based diet could make a problem much worse. 

Choline helps brain health and liver function. In 1998, the US Institute of Medicine established recommended daily intakes of choline ranging from 425 milligrams per day for women and 550 milligrams per day for men. 

The <a href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en">European Food Safety Authority </a>also proposed daily choline requirements in 2016, but in North America, Europe, and Australia, average daily choline intake is typically lower than the recommended guidelines. 

Derbyshire recommends that the<a href="https://eatforum.org/eat-lancet-commission/"> 2019 EAT-Lancet report,</a> which is the first food plan of its kind that promotes environmental sustainability, factor in foods high in choline.

The editorial also calls for further study, educating healthcare professions and the public about choline intake, and that choline is included in UK diet monitoring efforts. 

“The mounting evidence of choline’s importance makes it essential that it does not continue to be overlooked in the UK,” Derbyshire wrote. “This is now more important than ever given that accelerated food trends towards plant-based diets/ veganism could have further ramifications on choline intake/status.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Plant-based diets often lack a nutrient essential to brain health

Plant-based diets have gained a great deal of traction recently...

South Africa is of course known for its variety of iconic animals from penguins and great white sharks to elephants and lions. The country is also <a href="https://www.awf.org/country/south-africa">ranked</a> as number six in the world’s 17 mega diverse countries.

Additionally, South Africa is home to the largest population of rhinoceros in Africa. South Africa’s animals are often targeted for poaching as well, and rhinos, elephants and other animals are valuable for their body parts sold on the international black market. This is what has long made Africa one of the frontlines of the battle for biological conservation.  

Considering the animal life in South Africa, it’s unsurprising that there is an enormous amount of plant diversity in the country as well. There are approximately 20,000 <a href="https://www.fauna-flora.org/countries/south-africa">plant species</a> found in South Africa, which is home to one of only six floral kingdoms worldwide – the Cape Floral Kingdom. 70% of the Cape Floral Kingdom’s 9,000+ plant species don’t occur outside of the local region. Unfortunately, plant life in South Africa is threatened as well.

Over the period of 300 years, 79 plants were confirmed to have gone extinct in several biodiversity hotspots in South Africa. New research shows that this represents a shockingly large percentage of plant biodiversity for South Africa. According to research published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(19)30943-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982219309431%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>, this loss of biodiversity in South Africa represents 45.4% of all known plant extinctions from 10 of the world’s top biodiversity hotspots. 

The plant loss in South Africa goes as far back as the 1700s when the first recorded loss of a plant species occurred. The plant was a species of fountainbush (Psoralea cataracta) that lived near streams. Plant extinctions in South Africa have also occurred as recently as 2012 when a rare species of vygie went extinct due to urbanization and human development. It’s sometimes more challenging to determine the extinction of a plant species than it is with the more charismatic animals. 

As many as 431 plant species have been declared extinct, only to be later rediscovered. Plants, small, nondescript, many of which require a specialist to identify are easier to overlook than many animals. Plants can also hide out as seeds or very small immature specimens that can be missed. Some of the plants now declared extinct could potentially be rediscovered, but the plant extinction rates are still something to take very seriously, not just in South Africa but across the world as well. 

A <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333679673_Global_dataset_shows_geography_and_life_form_predict_modern_plant_extinction_and_rediscovery">new study</a> found that since 1750, 571 plant species have gone extinct worldwide. Although some plant extinction is normal and not all of it can be attributed to humans, the number of plant extinctions rose sharply after the industrial revolution. The rate of plant extinctions now is 500 times greater than before the industrial revolution. What may be most disturbing is that there are likely even more plant extinctions than those recorded and 571 species is likely an underestimate. 

Islands are some of the most likely places to find confirmed plant extinctions. It’s easier to be sure that a plant has been wiped out from a limited area such as an island, and it’s also easier for a plant in such an area to be threatened. 

Hawaii was the one place surveyed in the study that had a higher number of plant extinctions than South Africa. <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/ecosystems/rare-plants/">Hawaii</a> is home to 1,400 vascular plant taxa, 90% of which are found only in Hawaii. More than 100 plant taxa have already gone extinct there.

Hawaii has also lost its share of animal species and more may die off in the near future. The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/is-hawaii-the-extinction-capital-of-the-world-exhibit-a-the-alala-bird/2016/04/25/3f45c6ac-f210-11e5-89c3-a647fcce95e0_story.html">Washington Post</a> reports that of the 1,225 endangered species listed by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a>, 481 of them are from Hawaii. 

The island state contains <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/ecosystems/rare-plants/">44%</a> of all endangered and threatened plant species in the US. Invasive threats like <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/info/">non-native</a> avian malaria and fire ants have devastated many native species. Unfortunately, often the loss of one species in an area can lead to the loss of more. Even extinctions that don’t lead to a cascade effect are often indicative of an underlying problem that may cause more extinctions. The high rate of plant extinctions in particular doesn’t bode well for animals. 

Plants are of course support almost all life on Earth. By synthesizing their own food from the sun and soil nutrients, plants are the basis of food webs. Plants are also vital in creating oxygen and are used for habitat by numerous species. Birds make nests in trees, caterpillars weave cocoons on particular plants, tigers stalk through grass, even humans build houses from trees or bamboo. Plants are used as tools by primates and birds. Sea grasses are both hiding spots and food sources. Cavities made into saguaro cactus turn into places to hide from the desert sun. Habitats are made cooler and wetter by the presence of plants, which sometimes even partially create the climate of a region. The importance of plants makes it unsurprising that high plant extinctions lead to high animal extinctions. 

The <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/">United Nations reported</a> earlier this year that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/extinction-crisis-solutions/">extinction rates</a> are at an unprecedented high. According to the UN, as many as 1 million species are threatened with extinction. The report called for ‘transformative change’ in human society from local to national and international levels to stop the disintegration of global ecosystems. The average abundance of native species in continental habitats has dropped by 20% the world over, and even the native species not threatened with extinction are less common. 

The loss of diversity driven by humans has the potential to hurt us as well. Not only wild species have gone extinct. More than 9% of mammal breeds used in agriculture had gone extinct by 2016. Combined with a loss of natural environments, this puts humanity’s food supply in a precarious position. The loss of wild plants can lead to the loss of pollinators and indeed the loss of domestic crops. If humanity is to save itself as well as the beautiful forms it shares Earth with, the time is now.         

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Hawaii and South Africa lead the world in global extinctions

South Africa is of course known for its variety of...

Scientists may have found the key to developing flood-resistant crops. Rice is the only major food crop that can survive flooding, but a new genetic study from <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> may ultimately lead to the creation of additional flood-resistant crops. The potential breakthrough comes at a time when <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-impact-soil/">climate change</a> is pushing rainfall patterns to the extremes. 

"This is the first time that a flooding response has been looked at in a way that was this comprehensive, across evolutionarily different species," said study co-author Professor Siobhan Brady.

For the investigation, the researchers examined how a wild-growing tomato, a tomato used for farming, and a plant similar to alfalfa responded to being submerged in water compared to rice. 

The study revealed that all of the plants shared at least 68 families of genes that are activated in response to flooding, which are called submergence up-regulated families (SURFs).

"Since evolution separated the ancestors of rice and these other species as many as 180 million years ago, we did not expect to find 68 SURFs in common," said co-author Professor Neelima Sinha.

Rice was domesticated from wild species that grew in tropical regions, where it evolved to endure monsoons and waterlogging. Some of the genes involved in this adaptation were found in the other plants, but were not effective in response to flooding around the roots.

"We hope to take advantage of what we learned about rice in order to help activate the genes in other plants that could help them survive waterlogging," said study lead author Professor Julia Bailey-Serres.

The team analyzed cells located at the tips of the plant roots to understand whether and how their genes were activated when they became submerged in water and deprived of oxygen.

"We looked at the way that DNA instructs a cell to create particular stress response in a level of unprecedented detail," said study co-author Mauricio Reynoso. 

Although the SURFs were activated in all the plants during the flooding experiments, only the genetic responses observed in rice were effective enough for survival. The researchers will conduct additional studies to improve the flood survival rates of other crops.

"Imagine a world where kids do not have enough calories to develop," said Professor Bailey-Serres. "We as scientists have an urgency to help plants withstand floods, to ensure food security for the future."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Germain Pauluzzi / UCR

Scientists may have found the key to developing flood-resistant crops

Scientists may have found the key to developing flood-resistant crops....

Global deforestation and the slow progress to protect the forests. Costa Rica previously had one of the fastest rates of deforestation in the world. In just a few decades, forest cover dropped from 70 percent to 20 percent by the 1980s. 

Today, Costa Rica is known for its lush tropical forests, ecotourism, and conservation. Somehow Costa Rica went from rapid rates of deforestation to zero, allowing for forest growth and sustainable land use. This dramatic reversal was only made possible by a shift in <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/06/costa-rica-has-doubled-its-tropical-rainforests-in-just-a-few-decades-here-s-how/">government policies</a>. 

Costa Rica’s government restricted logging permits, and a national forest fund was created to offer incentives to farmers who protected and conserved their land. 

Unfortunately, Costa Rica’s conservation success story is the exception rather than the norm. Many people continue to take and take from our planet, burning through -- quite literally -- its natural resources as if there is no endpoint. 

This summer, thousands of wildfires were recorded across the Amazon Rainforest. According to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/amazon-fires-cause-deforestation-graphic-map/">National Geographic,</a> at the end of August, there were around 76,000 fires, an increase of 80 percent compared to the year prior. 

The increase in fires has been linked to illegal clearing and loosening restrictions on development in the region. 

“The government doesn’t have any governance over what is going on,” Ane Alencar, science director for the <a href="https://ipam.org.br/en/">Amazon Environmental Research Institute (IPAM)</a>, told <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/amazon-still-fire-conservation-groups-blame-illegal-logging-criminal-networks-n1056236">NBC News</a>. 

According to a recent IPAM <a href="https://ipam.org.br/most-amazon-fires-break-out-on-private-properties-and-undesignated-forests/">report</a>, 33 percent of the fires were started on private land, and 20 percent of the fires occurred in public, undesignated forests. 

“The primary trigger that set off this burning season in the Amazon was not drought but high levels of deforestation,” Alencar said in a statement. “This year has not been particularly dry compared to previous years. 

Meanwhile, with all eyes on the Amazon, hundreds of intentionally set fires burned across Indonesian Borneo and Sumatra earlier this month. The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/17/world/asia/indonesia-fires-photos.html">New York Times</a> reported that the fires produced so much smoke schools were forced to close, and thousands of people were breathing in toxic air. 

The purpose of the fires was to clear land for palm plantations, a crop that has resulted in the loss of thousands of acres of rainforest in Southeast Asia. 

The fires pose a threat to orangutans that live in the <a href="http://www.bos-uk.org/programs/mawas/">Mawas Conservation Area</a> on the island of Borneo. 

“The Mawas Conservation Area and the orangutan population are threatened by these fires and if the habitat burns these orangutans have nowhere to go,” said Erin R. Vogel, an endangered orangutan expert, and professor at the Department of Anthropology at <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>. “In addition to the harmful effects of the fires on human health, our past research has shown that the carbon emissions and smoke produced by these fires are extremely harmful to orangutan health.”

Orangutans in Indonesia have become endangered, with populations declining by 50 percent as their habits have grown increasingly fragmented over the years due to demand for palm oil. 

Deforestation is a global issue and one that directly contributes to climate change. 

Logging in Canada to meet the demand for tissue paper results in the loss of thousands of acres of boreal forest each year. <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/resources/issue-tissue-how-americans-are-flushing-forests-down-toilet">One report</a> by the <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">NRDC</a> found that between 1996 and 2018, more than 28 million acres of boreal forest were logged. 

While tree-pulp paper products generate billions of dollars in revenue each year, logging is degrading Canadian forest habitats and threatening indigenous communities that rely on the boreal ecosystem. 

Not only does logging destroy trees, but the practice generates millions of tons of carbon emissions each year which, in turn, accelerates the pace of climate change. 

But if Costa Rica is the exception and fires continue to spread across the Amazon Rainforest at a record-breaking rate, what can be done to protect and restore the world’s forests? 

This question becomes even more complicated when you factor in the predicted increases in food demand due to a growing global population and climate change. 

A recent report by the <a href="https://drive.google.com/open?id=1RRnedA5wgCM0-PFuqu2txA4ZTLwglKIMluz-OrJw73M">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> found that 72 percent of all ice-free land on Earth is used to support the global population. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-agriculture-food-shortages/">Agriculture</a> and forestry make up a considerable part of land use, but without sustainable management of these systems emissions will increase, land degradation and habitat loss will increase, species will become extinct and the very resources we need to feed, clothe, and shelter the human population will grow scarce. 

While there are efforts to stem the tide of deforestation, the progress is slow going and limited. 

That’s the major takeaway of a report by the <a href="https://nydfglobalplatform.org/">New York Declaration on Forests</a> (NYDF). The NYDF began in 2014 and has since gained the support of 200 endorsers, a mix of governments, organizations, and companies all committed to stopping global deforestation. 

Recently, the NYDF released its <a href="https://forestdeclaration.org/images/uploads/resource/2019NYDFReport.pdf">five-year assessment report</a>, and the results show that very little progress has been made in the way of keeping in line with the project’s goals. This is not to say that there has been zero progress, but outpacing climate change and the increasing rates of deforestation in many regions will require a mammoth effort. 

“Protecting forests will require an integrated and comprehensive forest strategy that involves

the coordination of governments — including both producing and importing countries —as well as companies, civil society, and indigenous peoples’ organizations,” the NYDF report concludes. This strategy must explicitly align efforts to preserve primary forests, sustainably manage production forests, and restore natural forests in degraded landscapes.

Sustainable management of land use is the call to action we all must rally behind. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global deforestation and the slow progress to protect the forests

Global deforestation and the slow progress to protect the forests....

Tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, tobacco, mandrake, and datura are close relatives. They are all members of the infamous nightshade family (Solanaceae.) Many of its members are actually deadly toxic. Some have been used to create psychoactive brews and potions. Others were Shakespeare's poison of choice. This has led to their association with witchcraft and evil. However, nightshades also include some of the world’s most popular foods. 

This contrast reveals the complexity of this plant family. What is clear is that the nightshades have played a large role in many cultures. The foods, drugs, and poisons derived from this family have played essential roles at key moments in history.

The infamy of Solanaceae is well deserved, so let’s take a closer look at a few of this family’s most interesting and famous historical cameos.
<h2>A Witch’s Flying Ointments</h2>
Flying ointments are herbal preparations associated with “witchcraft.” They are theorized to be the historical origin of the trope of a “witch on a broomstick”.

These preparations were psychoactive oil-based extracts or salves. They were likely an <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20411/20411-h/20411-h.htm">important element of pre-Christian European religions and medicine.</a> Along with other traditional religious practices, these were <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen_Mueller4/publication/13509181_Love_Potions_and_the_Ointment_of_Witches_Historical_Aspects_of_the_Nightshade_Alkaloids/links/595b7ee0458515117741a0d2/Love-Potions-and-the-Ointment-of-Witches-Historical-Aspects-of-the-Nightshade-Alkaloids.pdf">characterized as evil witchcraft</a> during the middle ages and since. This has led to the amalgamation of what was likely a diverse religious history in Northern Europe into the simplified concept of “witchcraft.”

These practices were a combination of religion and traditional medicine. Many drugs derived from these “witches herbs” are <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682509.html">still in use in modern medicine</a>. 

Much of what we know about these preparations is tainted by Christian witch trials. Surviving recipes and samples of flying ointments show they contained animal fats and herbs. These include <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0015587X.1977.9716057?journalCode=rfol20">hallucinogenic and toxic nightshades</a> such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/mandragora/">mandrake</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/atropa-belladonna-belladonna/">deadly nightshade</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/hyoscyamus/">henbane</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/datura/">datura</a>. The use of these herbs likely induced trance-like states in which users felt sensations of flight and transformation.

These preparations were applied to the skin as well as <a href="https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/sites/default/files/280306_a_lee.pdf">permeable mucous membranes including the vagina and anus</a>. This route of administration likely <a href="https://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1947026">contributed to stories of female witches flying on broomsticks</a>. The Catholic magisterium, sexual chastity, and patriarchy were likely <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20411/20411-h/20411-h.htm">threatened by these practices</a>. These are some of the earliest uses of nightshades in Europe.
<h2>Henbane Makes Strong Pilsen Beer</h2>
Plants in Solanaceae were added to beer in place of hops in many traditional recipes. Henbane is called “bilsenkraut” in German. This is the root of the name “Pilsen,” the Czech city where Pilsners were created. In order to increase the apparent intoxication of beer, <a href="https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/sites/default/files/280306_a_lee.pdf">henbane was traditionally included in Pilsen beer</a>. Nightshades were a common beer additive.

This practice was eventually made illegal due to the high risk of fatal intoxication from henbane. The “Reinheitsgebot” laws were created in the early 16th century to <a href="http://www.private-brauereien.de/de/reinheitsgebot/was-ist-das-reinheitsgebot-von-1516/index.php">limit the ingredients</a> in beer to water, barley, and hops. This notably excludes yeast since its role was not yet known.
<h2>Hamlet’s Father Was Poisoned by Henbane</h2>
In Shakespeare's classic tragedy “Hamlet,” the bard writes in Hamlet’s father’s voice:

“Sleeping within my orchard,

My custom always of the afternoon,

Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole

With juice of cursed hebenon in a vial,

And in the porches of my ears did pour

The leperous distilment, whose effect

Holds such an enmity with blood of man...”

<a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140416-do-shakespeares-poisons-work">It has been conjectured that the “hebenon” Shakespeare mentions is an extract of henbane</a>. 

However, this work of fiction takes some liberties with the particulars of the poison’s effects.
<h2>Bacon’s Rebellion, Jamestown, 1676</h2>
In 1676, British soldiers were sent to the colony of Jamestown to prevent an uprising. They were not there long before many of the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WnaDEZwMAyMC&amp;pg=PA89#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">soldiers ate a salad of datura leaves</a>. American historian Robert Beverly, JR. wrote: “they turned natural fools upon it for several days.” This event led to a common name for datura, Jimsonweed. This is a <a href="https://www.neatorama.com/2016/09/12/Jimsonweed-and-Jamestown/">mispronunciation of “Jamestown Weed.”</a>
<h2>Tobacco</h2>
Tobacco (<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/nicotiana-tabacum/">Nicotiana spp.</a>) is another addictive and toxic herb in the Solanaceae family. Occurring natively in the Americas, this plant has a long history of use by native groups. It contains a complex mixture of bio-active chemicals. The most notable of these is the stimulant nicotine. Nicotine has become one of the most popular drugs in the world. As a result, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fast_facts/index.htm">tobacco use now causes 7 million deaths per year</a> around the world.

Tobacco also produces harmala alkaloids. These compounds act as MAOIs, modifying the body's metabolism of neurotransmitters and drugs. This can contribute to the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/25/38/8593.full.pdf">addictiveness of tobacco</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2849634/">and other drugs</a>.
<h2>Europe Was Terrified of the Tomato</h2>
After Europeans discovered tomatoes in the new world, they were brought back to Europe. However, they quickly became known as “poison apples.” This was because nobles who ate them were becoming mysteriously ill. Since these plants were in the same family as many poisons, the tomato was blamed.

In reality, the culprit was lead. Royals often ate off pewter plates. When these were exposed to the acidity of tomatoes, they leached lead. This lead poisoning was <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/why-the-tomato-was-feared-in-europe-for-more-than-200-years-863735/">leading to the sickness and death associated with tomatoes</a>.
<h2>The Hottest Plants</h2>
Peppers are another group of edible nightshades. The link between deadly poisonous nightshades and tear-inducing peppers may seem natural. However, the primary spice causing chemical, capsaicin, is unrelated to the toxic tropane and solanine alkaloids. 

Capsaicin is found throughout the genus <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/capsicum/">Capsicum</a>, from which it gets its name. These spicy peppers are essential to many cultures' modern cuisines. However, they are only native to the “New Word.” Their powerful flavors have led them to be quickly adopted for many dishes.
<h2>A Model of A Plant</h2>
Today, Solanaceae still plays an essential role in our society. In addition to being the family of many extremely popular foods, these plants are popular amongst scientists. 

Tobacco and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/calibrachoa-parviflora/">petunias</a> are both used as “model organisms.” This means that many experiments are first tried on these plants. Because of their widespread cultivation, they are easily grown in repeatable ways. This makes them a good choice for answering basic questions about biology.

--

By <a href="mailto:writing@caseyhofford.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Candus Camera

Why tomatoes, peppers and other nightshades have such an infamous reputation

Tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, tobacco, mandrake, and datura are close relatives....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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