Stars,Are,Collapsing,In,A,Deep,Black,Hole,,Attracted,By

“Hic sunt leones,” said Stefano Liberati, the co-author of a new study exploring the nature of the&nbsp;singularities at the heart of black holes.



On medieval charts, these words warned of terra incognita, or unknown territory. In modern cosmology, they mark the central core of a classical black hole - a place where Einstein’s otherwise triumphant field equations predict an impossible infinity.



According to Karl Schwarzschild’s 1916 solution to Einstein’s theory of general relativity, if enough mass collapses into a small region, it forms a horizon through which nothing can escape. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spacetime</a> curvature keeps steepening until, at the very center, it diverges.



By the 1960s, theorists had proven that singularity is not a removable coordinate glitch but an unavoidable feature of classical relativity taken to its limit. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immensely-compact-objects">Immensely compact objects </h2>



Invoking the word “singularity” became, in Liberati’s phrase, a white flag that signals surrender: here our current physics breaks down. Observations since the 1970s have nevertheless confirmed that immensely compact objects exist. 



Nobel‑winning milestones include the first gravitational‑wave signal in 2015 - an invisible quake caused by two black holes spiraling together - and the <a href="https://eventhorizontelescope.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Event Horizon Telescope</a>’s images of the shadows of M87* and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-orbiting-sagittarius-a-appear-rejuvenated-after-stellar-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sagittarius A*</a>.



These achievements reveal matter and light teetering on the brink of the horizon, but they say nothing about what happens farther in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-black-holes">A new look at black holes</h2>



Seeking an answer to these questions, the <a href="https://www.ifpu.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe</a> (IFPU) gathered an eclectic mix of theorists and observational specialists for a workshop whose debates have just been distilled into a substantial new paper.



Liberati, an astrophysicist at IFPU, calls the result “something more” than a conventional review: the text weaves together arguments from participants who began with sharply different positions and, in several cases, left with revised views.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-core-models-emerge">Three core models emerge</h2>



By the closing session, three broad classes of models had emerged. Each described an ultra‑compact object with different interior properties, while reproducing the observed exterior gravity that makes a black hole so distinctive.



The classical black hole remains faithful to Einstein, retaining both its event horizon and its singularity. The regular black hole keeps the horizon intact yet replaces the infinite core with a finite quantum‑driven region. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-objects-that-mimick-black-holes">Objects that mimick black holes</h2>



Finally, the black hole mimicker does away with horizon and singularity alike. Objects in this family - gravastars supported by quantum vacuum energy, boson stars made of exotic scalar fields, or wormholes stabilized by modified gravity - imitate the outer profile of a black hole. 



However, they host a radically different interior. Participants then asked whether nature could forge such objects.



Collapse halted by quantum pressure might generate a regular black hole, whereas a cloud of self‑interacting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higgs-boson-god-particle-still-remains-quantum-mystery-after-12-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bosons</a> could condense into a mimicker without ever forming a horizon. 



Some scenarios even allow an object to migrate from one class to another as it accretes mass or sheds angular momentum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-the-invisible">Probing the invisible </h2>



While current telescopes cannot see inside a horizon, the team emphasizes that non‑classical objects are never exactly identical to a Schwarzschild solution even outside that boundary. Small discrepancies could betray a different interior.



High‑resolution imaging may reveal extra photon rings or subtle asymmetries around a mimicker, produced by the way light bends in a spacetime that slightly deviates from Einstein’s geometry.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/black-hole-singularity_discovery_credit-Sissa-Medialab_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/black-hole-singularity_discovery_credit-Sissa-Medialab_1s.webp" alt="Singular black hole and non-singular alternatives. Credit: Sissa Medialab. Background image sourced from ESO/Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit" class="wp-image-1969092"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Singular black hole and non-singular alternatives. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Sissa Medialab. Background image sourced from ESO/Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit </figcaption></figure>



Future gravitational‑wave detectors could pick up minute echoes caused by reflections from a surface just outside where the horizon would usually form. Even thermal signatures from a surface that replaces the horizon might betray a mimicker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-singularity-of-black-holes">Confirming the singularity of black holes</h2>



Why press so hard to replace or confirm the idea of singularity in black holes? Aside from resolving a long‑standing paradox in general relativity, experimental evidence for a finite core or a mimicker could illuminate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-quantum-gravity-discovery-leaps-one-step-closer-to-unified-theory-of-everything/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum gravity</a>, the still‑missing framework uniting relativity with quantum mechanics.



If singularities are smoothed away, the mechanism doing the smoothing must involve quantum principles acting on astronomical scales. For now, no one can specify how strong the telltale deviations should be.



Numerical simulations are advancing rapidly, however, helped by ever‑faster supercomputers and clever algorithms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-gravity-research">The future of gravity research </h2>



As models sharpen, engineers can design instruments keyed to the predicted anomalies, just as waveform catalogs guided <a href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIGO</a>’s discovery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-our-view-of-the-universe-with-faint-gravitational-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational waves</a>. Data will then feed back into theory, pruning ideas that fail and refining those that survive.



Liberati sees the moment as a turning point. “What lies ahead for gravity research is a truly exciting time. We are entering an era where a vast and unexplored landscape is opening up before us.”



Whether the singular black hole core will dissolve into quantum foam, reveal a tangible surface, or stand unchanged as Einstein foretold, the coming interplay of theory, simulation, and observation promises to redraw our deepest map of space, time, and matter.



The study is published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1475-7516/2025/05/003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a>.



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Solving the singularity puzzle at the heart of black holes has proven very difficult

“Hic sunt leones,” said Stefano Liberati, the co-author of a new study exploring the nature of the&nbsp;singularities at the heart of black holes. On medieval charts, these words warned of terra incognita, or unknown territory. In modern cosmology, they mark the central core of a classical black hole - a place where Einstein’s otherwise triumphant field equations predict an impossible infinity. According to Karl Schwarzschild’s 1916 solution to Einstein’s theory of general relativity, if enough mass collapses into a small region, it forms a horizon through which nothing can...

In a new study led by <a href="https://en.ru.is/">Reykjavik University</a>, scientists have found microplastics in the remote and pristine area of Europe's largest ice cap, the Vatnajokull <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-rock-glaciers-are-far-more-important-than-expected/">glacier</a> in Iceland.

It is not yet understood how microplastics may affect the melting and deformation of glaciers. This means they could potentially influence future meltwater and sea level rise. 

Microplastics have never been found in the vicinity of the Vatnajökull glacier before. The team used optical microscopy and μ-Raman spectroscopy to detect and identify various sizes and types of plastic particles. 

So far, most studies on microplastics have been focused on ocean pollution, and little research has been conducted to investigate plastic in the Earth's polar ice caps. Microplastic particles have been found in the Italian Alps, the Ecuadorian Andes, and in icebergs at Svalbard. 

Study first author Dr. Hlynur Stefansson is an associate professor at the RU Department of Engineering. She said that it is of vital importance to understand the distribution of microplastic, as well as its short and long term effects on ice dynamics.

The findings of the study confirm that microplastic particles are carried and distributed through the atmosphere. 

"We do not understand well enough the pathways for microplastic particles in our environment. Is the plastic carried by snow and rain? We need to know more about the causes," said Dr. Stefansson.

She noted the the samples the team collected are from a very remote and pristine location in Vatnajokull glacier, with no easy access, so it is unlikely the site was directly polluted by human activities.

"We also need to know much more about the short and long-term effects of microplastic on the dynamics of the ice and if they contribute to the melting of glaciers. If that is the case, it will play a critical role in future meltwater contribution to the oceans and rising sea levels."

Dr. Stefansson explained that the plastic particles degrade very slowly in the cold glacier environment, and can accumulate and persist in the glaciers for a very long time. 

"Eventually, however, they will be released from the ice, contributing to pollution in rivers and the marine environment. It is therefore very important to map and understand the presence and dispersal of microplastics in glaciers on a global scale."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability">Sustainability</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microplastics found in the remote Vatnajokull glacier

In a new study led by Reykjavik University, scientists have...

Sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loggerhead-turtles-migrate-using-a-secret-thermal-corridor/">turtles</a> are making a comeback in the Cayman Islands after they were nearly wiped out two decades ago, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. 

The experts report that loggerhead and green turtle nest numbers increased dramatically from 1998 to 2019, while hawksbill turtle nest numbers remain low.

In 1999, there were only 39 sea turtle nests counted across the Cayman Islands. By 2019, the number of nests had jumped to 675.

The gradual recovery of sea turtles can be attributed to captive breeding and stricter regulations. However, the population numbers are still far below historical levels and the turtles face ongoing threats such as illegal hunting.

"Our findings demonstrate a remarkable recovery for sea turtle populations that were once thought to be locally extinct," said Dr. Janice Blumenthal. "A combination of factors is thought to have led to this conservation success story."

"It is likely that a captive breeding operation by the Cayman Turtle Farm (now the Cayman Turtle Centre) drove the increase in Grand Cayman's green turtle population in the early years of monitoring."

Dr. Blumenthal noted that the most important factor for loggerhead turtles was the restrictions placed on a legal turtle fishery in 2008.

"For both species, the recovery was assisted by protection efforts by the Cayman Islands Department of Environment on nesting beaches, including patrols by conservation officers to reduce illegal hunting," explained Dr. Jane Hardwick.

"However, our study finds that illegal take is an ongoing threat, with a minimum of 24 turtles taken from 2015-19, many of which were nesting females."

"Artificial lighting on nesting beaches, which can direct hatchlings away from the sea, increased over the period of our study."

"Additionally, as highly migratory endangered species, sea turtles are influenced by threats and conservation efforts outside of the Cayman Islands, showing a need for international co-operation in sea turtle management."

Before the Cayman Islands were settled by humans, millions of turtles migrated to the islands for nesting. But by the beginning of the 19th century, human overexploitation had driven the massive nesting populations to the brink of extinction.

The current study shows that, despite reaching critically low levels, nesting populations of green and loggerhead turtles have increased significantly.

Cayman Islands authorities are using data collected through monitoring the nests to target management efforts. Under the National Conservation Law of the Cayman Islands, "turtle-friendly lighting" initiatives and a greater level of habitat protection for key areas have been proposed.

"I was fortunate to have been involved in establishing the turtle monitoring programme with the Department of Environment in the Cayman Islands back in 1998 and it is fantastic to see how protection and awareness has resulted in an increase in nesting turtles," said Professor Brendan Godley.

"The wonderful team and leadership of the Department of Environment have been instrumental in driving the monitoring and conservation."

Gina Ebanks-Petrieb is the director of the <a href="https://doe.ky/"> Cayman Islands Department of Environment</a>.

"We are extremely grateful to the many volunteers, interns, property owners, businesses, organizations and members of the public who have assisted with sea turtle conservation efforts over the past two decades," said Ebanks-Petrieb.

"Sea turtles are a national symbol of the Cayman Islands and our community has come together to demonstrate our commitment to their protection. This research gives us essential information for strategically targeted management efforts to secure future survival of these populations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea turtles are making a comeback in the Cayman Islands

Sea turtles are making a comeback in the Cayman Islands...

Exposure to air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-in-childhood-linked-to-mental-dysfunction/">pollution</a> during childhood increases the risk of high blood pressure, according to the <a href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association</a>. The report is based on the results of 14 air pollution studies from around the world.

Study lead study author Dr. Yao Lu is an expert in the Clinical Research Center at the Third Xiangya Hospital at Central South University in Changsha, China, and a professor in the Department of Life Science and Medicine at King's College London. 

"Our analysis is the first to closely examine previous research to assess both the quality and magnitude of the associations between air pollution and blood pressure values among children and adolescents," explained Dr. Lu.

"The findings provide evidence of a positive association between short- and long-term exposure to certain environmental air pollutants and blood pressure in children and adolescents."

While it has been established that high blood pressure during childhood is a risk factor for hypertension and heart disease later in life, studies on air pollution and blood pressure in adolescents have produced inconsistent conclusions. The current analysis included data for more than 350,000 children.

The research - which included health outcomes of people in the United States, China, and Europe - looked at both long-term and short-term exposure to nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter, measured as PM2.5 and PM10.

According to the results, long-term exposure to PM2.5, PM10, and nitrogen dioxide were all associated with elevated systolic blood pressure levels in children. Short-term exposure to PM10 was also significantly associated with higher systolic numbers among young people. 

Furthermore, higher diastolic blood pressure levels were associated with long-term exposure to PM2.5 and PM10.

"To reduce the impact of environmental pollution on blood pressure in children and adolescents, efforts should be made to reduce their exposure to environmental pollutants," said Dr. Lu. 

"Additionally, it is also very important to routinely measure blood pressure in children and adolescents, which can help us identify individuals with elevated blood pressure early."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/journal/jaha">Journal of the American Heart Association</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Childhood exposure to air pollution linked to high blood pressure

Exposure to air pollution during childhood increases the risk of...

Plant diversity will suffer in places where water becomes scarce, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=33573">Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research</a> (UFZ). The experts have demonstrated, for the first time, that plant biodiversity is particularly sensitive to precipitation in dry regions.

It is difficult to predict how climate change will affect Earth's ecosystems, including biodiversity. For example, scientific studies worldwide have investigated how individual species and their communities will react to changing precipitation conditions, yet with no clear answers. 

"These studies use different methods and are located in different regions of the world," said study first author Dr. Lotte Korell. "And these studies yield contradictory results in many cases." 

The UFZ team set out to derive a general understanding from the data collected worldwide, focusing on how an increase or decrease in precipitation affects the plant diversity of terrestrial ecosystems. Overall, the analysis included the results of 72 field experiments published in 23 studies.

The researchers found a clear trend that in dry regions, changes in precipitation have a much greater effect on plant diversity than in wetter regions.

About 40 percent of Earth's land surface is made up of dry ecosystems. For some of these dry regions, climate models predict increasing rainfall, but the water shortage is likely to worsen in most of them.

The study predicts that plant diversity will increase in places where it becomes wetter. However, few regions will likely benefit, considering that drylands are expected to expand - leading to a noticeable decline in plant diversity. 

"Although the plants there have adapted to the challenges of their habitats over long periods of time, at some point, even the most resilient survivor reaches its limits," said Korell.

With every species that dries up and can no longer germinate, plant diversity is reduced. The researchers warn that changes in plant diversity will have consequences for the ecosystems, and also for people living in the affected regions. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant diversity will decline along with rainfall in dry regions

Plant diversity will suffer in places where water becomes scarce,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-a-trillion-corals-counted-in-the-pacific-ocean/">Corals</a> in the northern Red Sea, along with their symbiotic algae, appear to be overcoming the threat of global warming. In a new study from <a href="https://www.epfl.ch/en/">EPFL</a>, experts are closer to understanding why.

Global warming is pushing ocean temperatures beyond the limit that coral reefs, as well as many other marine organisms, will be able to survive. For example, the photosynthetic algae that provide corals with essential nutrients will not be able to resist the temperatures that are projected by the end of this century.

These symbiotic algae contain a variety of pigments that give coral reefs their brilliant colors. As the algae are lost, the corals turn white in a process known as coral bleaching. 

"We already knew that corals in the Gulf of Aqaba, at the northern tip of the Red Sea, were particularly resistant to higher temperatures. But we wanted to study the full molecular mechanism behind this resistance," said study lead author Romain Savary.

The scientists found that these corals, as well as their unicellular algae, can withstand average temperatures the are up to five degrees Celsius higher than what they typically experience. Despite the intensity of global warming, it is unlikely that Red Sea temperatures will rise more than five degrees Celsius by the end of the century, noted the researchers. 

"This gives us real hope that we can save at least one major coral reef ecosystem for future generations," said study co-author Anders Meibom.

"The main thing we found is that these corals currently live in temperatures well below the maximum they can withstand with their molecular machinery, which means they're naturally shielded against the temperature increases that will probably occur over the next 100 or even 200 years," said Savary. "Our measurements showed that at temperatures of up to 32°C, the corals and their symbiotic organisms were able to molecularly recover and acclimate to both short-term and long-term heat stress without any major consequences." 

The findings have laid the groundwork for a much more ambitious project that will be led by the Transnational Red Sea Center, which was established at EPFL in 2019. The new project will kick off this summer and will continue for four years. 

"We'll sail the entire Red Sea - some 2,000 km long - on the research vessel Fleur de Passion, owned by our partner the Fondation Pacifique," said Meibom. 

"The goal will be to map the heat tolerance levels and the diversity of all the different types of corals found in these waters. Water temperatures rise as you head further south on the Red Sea, with a 5-6°C differential between the northern and southern tips. That's what makes it a perfect real-world laboratory for studying these ecosystems. It's as if you're sailing towards the future as you head south."

According to the researchers, corals in the southern Red Sea are already starting to bleach.

"We have to protect these corals and shield them from local stressors, which are mainly sources of pollution and physical destruction," said Savary. 

"That way we can keep a stock of 'natural super corals' for potentially recolonizing areas that have been hit particularly hard by climate-change-induced heat waves."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Corals in the northern Red Sea can resist global warming

Corals in the northern Red Sea, along with their symbiotic...

It is widely assumed that inbreeding is bad and that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-not-the-only-animals-that-create-their-own-culture/">animals</a> prefer to avoid mating with family members, but experts at <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university">Stockholm University</a> have found little evidence to support this theory. 

"People assume that animals should avoid mating with a relative when given the chance," said study co-author Raïssa de Boer. "But evolutionary theory has been telling us that animals should tolerate, or even prefer, mating with relatives under a broad range of conditions for more than four decades."

The researchers analyzed the results of 139 experimental studies on inbreeding, which were conducted over 40 years and involved a total of 88 animal species.

"We address the 'elephant in the room' of inbreeding avoidance studies by overturning the widespread assumption that animals will avoid inbreeding whenever possible," said de Boer.

The experts found that animals rarely attempt to avoid mating with relatives, and this finding was consistent across a wide range of conditions and experimental approaches.

"Animals don't seem to care if their potential partner is a brother, sister, cousin or an unrelated individual when they are choosing who to mate with," explained study co-author Regina Vega Trejo.

The researchers also looked at studies on inbreeding avoidance in humans, and compared the results with similar experiments on animals.

"We compared studies that asked if humans avoid inbreeding when presented with pictures of faces that were digitally manipulated to make the faces look either more or less related to studies that used similar approaches in other animals," said de Boer. "Just like other animals, it turns out that there is no evidence that humans prefer to avoid inbreeding."

According to study senior author Professor John Fitzpatrick, the findings help explain why many studies have failed to find clear evidence of inbreeding avoidance.

The research also has far-reaching implications for conservation biology. Mate choice is increasingly being used in conservation breeding programs to protect endangered species. 

"A primary goal of conservation efforts is to maintain genetic diversity, and mate choice is generally expected to achieve this goal. Our findings urge caution in the application of mate choice in conservation programs," said Fitzpatrick.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals rarely try to avoid inbreeding

It is widely assumed that inbreeding is bad and that...

A new study from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> has revealed that a tropical rainforest in southeast China contained a remarkable level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-supports-healthier-seafood/">biodiversity</a> during the Middle Miocene 14.7 million years ago. 

The experts analyzed material preserved in amber and sedimentary rocks to describe the wildlife of the ancient seasonal rainforest in Fujian Province.

"During the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum, global temperatures were similar to predicted temperatures for the coming century," explained the researchers. "Limited megathermal paleoclimatic and fossil data are known from this period, despite its potential as an analog for future climate conditions."

Led by Professor Bo Wang and Professor Gongle Shi, an international team of experts collected approximately 25,000 fossil-containing amber samples and about 5,000 fossil plants to study Zhangpu biota.

The leaves of 78 different broadleaf trees show that tropical seasonal rainforests once extended farther north than today, which provides new insight into what changes could take place as a result of future warming.

The amber from Zhangpu contains diverse, well-preserved fossils of arthropods, fungi, snails, flowering plants, and even feathers.

According to the researchers, the arthropod fossils include more than 250 families of spiders, mites, and millipedes, and at least 200 families of insects in 20 orders. This extremely high diversity makes the Zhangpu collection one of the four richest records preserved in amber in the world. 

The insects contained in Zhangpu amber include many ants, bees, lacewings, stick insects, termites, and grasshoppers that are today restricted to tropical Southeast Asia and New Guinea.

"The most unexpected finding is that the high diversity of ants and springtails all belong to living genera," said Professor Wang. "In addition, the vast majority of previously identified insects in Zhangpu amber, such as bark lice, grasshoppers, beetles, and bees, also belong to living genera."

The results suggest that Asian rainforest insect communities have remained stable since the middle Miocene, at least 15 million years ago.

"Our results not only highlight the role of tropical rainforests acting as evolutionary museums for biodiversity at the generic level but also suggest that the MMCO probably strongly shaped the East Asian biota via the northern expansion of the megathermal rainforest biome," wrote the study authors. "The Zhangpu biota provides an ideal snapshot for biodiversity redistribution during global warming."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Extraordinary biodiversity found in ancient Asian rainforest

A new study from the Chinese Academy of Sciences has...

In a breakthrough study from the <a href="https://www.egu.eu/">European Geosciences Union</a>, scientists have discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-have-become-increasingly-toxic-to-insects/">insects</a> like the non-biting midge grow larger up north. Based on this evidence, the researchers have developed a new way to examine past temperatures and climates.

Scientists use many proxies to reconstruct Earth's ancient climates, including pollen, diatoms, geochemical isotopes, and fossils. One previous study used chironomids to reconstruct climate during the past 11,000 years by comparing fossil insects to modern midges. 

"This (technique) is pretty good, but it has a major drawback: the further back in time you go, the less applicable what we know about the coverage of modern animals becomes," said study co-author Viktor Baranov, a palaeontologist at Lüdwig Maximilians-University in Munich. 

For example, explained Baranov, the small dragonflies of today may not share a similar range with the meter-long dragonflies of the Cretaceous that lived around 100 million years ago.

The experts have now developed a technique using the size of fossil midge bodies and wings to reconstruct temperatures all the way back to the start of the Cretaceous about 145 million years ago. 

Baranov said the team wanted to add a proxy that can be useful for fossils that are found in settings where other proxies are not. The findings revealed that the relation of insect body size to latitude appears to be a promising new proxy for studying ancient temperatures.

According to Baranov, he found the possibility of using insects for palaeoclimate work deep in the geologic past to be alluring, and started looking at literature to see if it could be feasible. 

"I noticed that some workers wrote down in very old papers anecdotal evidence - it appears that the Afrotropical representative of this genus living in the Congo seems to be considerably smaller than close relatives from France."

Baranov explained that the omnipresence of insects makes them a good candidate to reveal global patterns. He said the collection in Munich alone has about two million specimens of chironomids, from Antarctica to the Arctic, from Australia to England.

The study was focused on more than 6,000 specimens that lived at some point between 245 million years ago and today. The experts  measured body and wing lengths and found that, in Northern Hemisphere chironomids, both became larger in the northward part of their range. Just like polar bears, the midges got bigger with colder temperatures.

"The average midge becomes one millimeter longer per every five degrees of latitude," said Baranov. "That was very exciting for me to learn. Because it means there seems to be a very strong signal, at least in this group."

The results show the potential of using invertebrate fossils for quantitative analyses to reconstruct temperatures over millions of years, said Baranov.

In addition, the temperature-size relationship may be useful in predicting what could happen to modern insect populations facing climate change. 

"I'm also working on the insect decline and drivers of the modern insect extinctions," said Baranov. "It appears that increasing temperatures influence insect size, and that's impacting their ability to fly around."

The research was presented at the <a href="https://www.egu.eu/">European Geosciences Union</a> (EGU) General Assembly 2021.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Past temperatures are revealed by the size of insects

In a breakthrough study from the European Geosciences Union, scientists...

Earth's permafrost became less susceptible to thawing about 400,000 years ago, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>. This indicates that more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-greening-will-not-slow-local-climate-changes/">carbon</a> is stored in the frozen ground than what was anticipated.

"The stability of the last 400,000 years may actually work against us, in that it has allowed carbon to steadily accumulate in permafrost over this time," said study co-author Professor David McGee. 

"Melting now might lead to substantially greater releases of carbon to the atmosphere than in the past."

In the Northern Hemisphere, nine million square miles of land contains a permafrost layer made up of soil, sediment, and rocks that have been frozen solid for years. Within this permafrost, a massive amount of carbon is stored in the form of decayed plant and animal material.

It is estimated that Earth's permafrost holds more than 1,400 gigatons of carbon, which could potentially be released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and methane as temperature continue to rise. Scientists are trying to understand more about the stability of permafrost in order to predict how it will impact future global warming. 

In collaboration with experts at Boston College, the MIT team analyzed cave deposits in locations across western Canada to reconstruct the history of permafrost over the last 1.5 million years. The study revealed that between 1.5 million and 400,000 years ago, permafrost was prone to thawing, even in high Arctic latitudes. 

However, the results also showed that the planet's permafrost shifted to a more stable state in the last 400,000 years, and permafrost thaw has been since limited to sub-Arctic regions. In this state, the permafrost has retained most of the carbon that it has accumulated, with no opportunity to release it. 

The investigation was focused on 74 samples of stalagmites, stalactites, and flowstones from caves in the southern Canadian Rockies, Nahanni National Park in the Northwest Territories, and the northern Yukon.

The experts found that cave deposits collected from the Yukon and the farthest northern sites did not contain any samples younger than 400,000 years old. This indicates that permafrost thaw has not occurred in those sites since then.

"There may have been some shallow thaw, but in terms of the entire rock above the cave being thawed, that hasn't occurred for the last 400,000 years, and was much more common prior to that."

McGee said that seeing evidence of a much less stable Arctic prior to 400,000 years ago suggests that the Arctic can be a very different place. "It raises questions for me about what caused the Arctic to shift into this more stable condition, and what can cause it to shift out of it."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Permafrost could release much more carbon than expected

Earth's permafrost became less susceptible to thawing about 400,000 years...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/en">KAUST</a>, researchers set out to investigate how the soft-bodied ancestors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-coral-reefs-depend-on-poop-from-their-predators/">corals</a> were transformed into the ecosystem builders they are today. The experts have now identified the specific genes that allowed corals to grow calcified skeletons. 

"Reef-building corals build the largest living structures in the world that provide a habitat for more than a quarter of all marine animals, and are the 

primary source of livelihood to hundreds of millions of people," wrote the researchers.

"Their immense structures are built through calcification, i.e., the continuous

deposition of calcium carbonate that forms their skeletons."

But while the processes involved in coral calcification are well understood, it is less clear how corals actually evolved the ability to grow calcium carbonate skeletons, explained study lead author Xin Wang.

"How did a squishy anemone-like organism begin to build reefs?" added study co-author Manuel Aranda. "Did the 'tools' already exist in their genetic code?"

While the earliest fossils of calcified corals are around 265 million years old, their evolution began much earlier.

"We conducted a genomic search for conserved genes that might be involved in calcification," said Wang. "Our findings suggest that corals evolved to calcify somewhere between 308 and 265 million years ago."

The researchers compared the genomes of six related species, including two evolutionary divergent reef-building corals, two of their closest non-calcifying relatives, and two sea anemones. The two-year analysis was conducted using the KAUST supercomputer.

"We found that the necessary proteins to make coral skeletons were already present in the soft-bodied ancestor and that various existing proteins were recruited to boost the calcifying process," said Wang. "Essentially, we believe we've found the genetic toolkit for coral skeleton creation."

In order to calcify, corals take in positively charged calcium ions from seawater. The experts pinpointed the genes responsible for transporting calcium and removing protons in the soft-bodied organisms. They showed that two of the three gene copies found in corals have been recruited to the calcifying tissue. 

The researchers also identified a gene that was duplicated in corals twice and recruited to precipitate and stabilize calcium carbonate in the initial stage of skeleton building. 

"This is a great example of how latent traits can evolve to become dominant given certain environmental pressures," said Aranda. "Next we hope to verify which of these components is critical to calcification and investigate how coral reefs might be influenced by the changing pH of future oceans."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Squishy ancestors of corals had the genes to build skeletons

In a new study from KAUST, researchers set out to...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> are describing how a plant's ability to tell time could be exploited for more sustainable food production. According to the experts, circadian clock genes could be targeted in agriculture and crop breeding for higher yields.

"Circadian biology might have translational impact in crop science through the practice of 'chronoculture,' in which the daily timing of agronomic interventions and the genetic basis of circadian rhythms are targets for crop improvements and reduced inputs," wrote the study authors.

Just like humans, plants have an internal clock that detects daily rhythms in the surrounding environment. Now that there are genetic tools to modify this circadian system, the clock should be exploited in agriculture, explained the researchers.

"We live on a rotating planet, and that has a huge impact on our biology - and on the biology of plants," said study senior author Professor Alex Webb. "We've discovered that plants grow much better when their internal clock is matched to the environment they grow in."

The circadian clock plays an important role in regulating photosynthesis, flowering time, and many other functions that affect plant yield. Crop breeders could target tie circadian clock genes to gain control of these functions.

For example, the researchers said the simplest and easiest approach would be to use knowledge of a crop's internal clock to apply water, herbicides, or pesticides at the most effective time of day or night. 

"We know from lab experiments that watering plants or applying pesticides can be more effective at certain times of day, meaning farmers could use less of these resources. This is a simple win that could save money and contribute to sustainability."

Professor Webb said that indoor "vertical farming" could also be improved using chronoculture. Using this approach, crops like leafy greens are grown under highly controlled light and temperature conditions that can be very energy intensive. By genetically modifying the plants' circadian clock, the most efficient lighting and heating cycles could be identified. 

"In vertical farming, chronoculture could give total control over the crop," explained Professor Webb. "We could breed specific crop plants with internal clocks suited to growing indoors, and optimize the light and temperature cycles for them."

According to Professor Webb, there are many opportunities for chronoculture to make food production more sustainable. The specifics would be different for every location and crop, and more research is needed. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant circadian systems may be key to sustainable farming

Scientists at the University of Cambridge are describing how a...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>, experts have discovered that fish have been swallowing microplastics since the 1950s. The researchers examined the guts of freshwater fish preserved in museum collections, and found that concentrations of microplastics have dramatically increased over time.

"For the last 10 or 15 years it's kind of been in the public consciousness that there's a problem with plastic in the water. But really, organisms have probably been exposed to plastic litter since plastic was invented, and we don't know what that historical context looks like," said study co-author Professor Tim Hoellein of Loyola University Chicago. "Looking at museum specimens is essentially a way we can go back in time."

Study co-author Caleb McMahan is an ichthyologist at the Field Museum who cares for two million fish specimens, most of which are preserved in alcohol and stored in jars in the museum's underground Collections Resource Center. 

McMahan explained that these specimens are more than just dead fish - they are a snapshot of life on Earth. "We can never go back to that time period, in that place."

The study was focused on four common fish species that the museum had chronological records of dating back to 1900: largemouth bass, channel catfish, sand shiners, and round gobies. 

"We would take these jars full of fish and find specimens that were sort of average, not the biggest or the smallest, and then we used scalpels and tweezers to dissect out the digestive tracts," said study lead author Loren Hou. "We tried to get at least five specimens per decade."

To find microplastics inside of the fish, the team treated their digestive tracts with hydrogen peroxide. 

"It bubbles and fizzes and breaks up all the organic matter, but plastic is resistant to the process," explained Hou. "It just looks like a yellow stain, you don't see it until you put it under the microscope."

"We look at the shape of these little pieces. If the edges are frayed, it's often organic material, but if it's really smooth, then it's most likely microplastic." 

To determine where the microplastics came from, the researchers teamed up with collaborators at the University of Toronto to examine the samples using Raman spectroscopy, a technique that uses light to analyze the chemical signature of a sample.

The amount of microplastics present in the fish guts was found to drastically increase over time. There were no plastic particles before mid-century, yet these concentrations skyrocketed in the 1950s - when manufacturing was industrialized.

"We found that the load of microplastics in the guts of these fishes have basically gone up with the levels of plastic production," said McMahan. "It's the same pattern of what they're finding in marine sediments, it follows the general trend that plastic is everywhere."

One of the major sources of plastic particles found in the fish guts was fabric. 

"Microplastics can come from larger objects being fragmented, but they're often from clothing," said Hou.

"It's plastic on your back, and that's just not the way that we've been thinking about it," said Hoellein. "So even just thinking about it is a step forward in addressing our purchases and our responsibility."

While it is not clear how ingesting microplastics affected the fish in this study, the outcome was probably not great. 

"When you look at the effects of microplastic ingestion, especially long term effects, for organisms such as fish, it causes digestive tract changes, and it also causes increased stress in these organisms," said Hou.

The researchers hope the stark findings will serve as a wake-up call. "The entire purpose of our work is to contribute to solutions," said Hoellein. "We have some evidence that public education and policies can change our relationship to plastic. It's not just bad news, there's an application that I think should give everyone a collective reason for hope."

The researchers noted that the study highlights the importance of natural history collections in museums. 

"Loren and I both love the Field Museum but don't always think about it in terms of its day-to-day scientific operations," said Hoellein. "It's an incredible resource of the natural world, not just as it exists now but as it existed in the past. It's fun for me to think of the museum collection sort of like the voice of those long dead organisms that are still telling us something about the state of the world today."

"You can't do this kind of work without these collections," said McMahan. "We need older specimens, we need the recent ones, and we're going to need what we collect in the next 100 years."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19395582">Ecological Applications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microplastics have been abundant in fish guts since the 1950s

In a new study from the Field Museum, experts have...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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