Quantum entanglement is a mind-boggling phenomenon in quantum mechanics that intrigues both scientists and the public alike.



Unlike the predictable nature of classical physics, quantum mechanics thrives on unpredictability, often challenging our everyday perceptions. This is particularly evident in the behavior of entangled particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quantum-entanglement">Understanding quantum entanglement</h2>



In quantum mechanics, particles can exist in multiple states simultaneously, a concept known as superposition. Entanglement elevates this idea: when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-laws-thermodynamics-follow-entropy-rule/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particles become entangled</a>, their states are interlinked.



A change in one particle's state instantly influences the other, regardless of distance—imagine two distant light bulbs flickering in sync across the cosmos.



Entanglement suggests that information can be shared instantaneously between particles, defying the notion that nothing travels faster than light.



This "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-spooky-action-at-a-distance-persists-between-top-quarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spooky action at a distance</a>," as Albert Einstein famously termed it, prompts profound questions about the nature of space and time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-measurement">Challenges of measurement</h2>



Measurement in quantum mechanics presents unique challenges. Observing one particle in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">an entangled pair</a> determines the states of both, leading to critical inquiries: What constitutes a 'measurement,' and how does it influence our understanding of reality?



The complex mathematics underpinning quantum mechanics -- incorporating concepts like Hilbert spaces, wave functions, and operators -- can be intimidating, rendering entanglement less accessible to many.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-puzzle">Fascinating puzzle</h2>



Simply put, quantum entanglement is just too complicated for most people to fully understand. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-tunneling-allow-particles-break-light-speed-barrier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">It defies classical intuitions</a>, involves sophisticated mathematics, and urges us to reevaluate our understanding of reality.



That is, until now. 



Enter Professor Carl Kocher, a pioneer of the study of quantum entanglement. He is currently a member of the <a href="https://quantumfoundry.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum Foundry</a> at University of California Santa Barbara and Professor Emeritus at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>.



Professor Kocher is the author of a new article in Frontiers in Quantum Science and Technology, explaining his groundbreaking 1964-67 experiments in quantum entanglement and discussing the 'paradox' of quantum entanglement.



In the following guest editorial, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carl-Kocher" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Kocher</a> helps us stretch our minds to understand this apparently paradoxical phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quantum-entanglement-0">Understanding quantum entanglement</h2>



My new article, ‘<a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/quantum-science-and-technology/articles/10.3389/frqst.2024.1451239/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum Entanglement of Optical Photons: The First Experiment, 1964-67</a>’, is intended to convey the spirit of a small research project that reaches into uncharted territory. 



The article breaks with tradition, as it offers a first-person account of the strategy and challenges for the experiment, as well as an interpretation of the final result and its significance. 



In this guest editorial, I will introduce the subject and also attempt to illuminate the question ‘What is a paradox?’



Let’s begin with the gyroscope that I bought when I was eight, from a store that sold novelties and magic tricks. The spinning disk, supported at one end of its shaft, did not fall, but moved slowly around in a horizontal plane. 



This behavior seems mysterious or paradoxical in the context of common experience that excludes gyroscopes, but makes complete sense in the context of Newtonian mechanics, which resolves the paradox by predicting precisely how gyroscopes will behave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-quantum-theory">Evolution of quantum theory</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum theory</a>, conceived in the mid-1920s, has been impressively successful in accounting for the properties and interactions of atoms and molecules. 



In 1935, Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen stirred controversy with a thought experiment in which two particles of common origin move apart, noting that quantum theory predicts correlations in subsequent measurements of their spins.



The correlation may seem quite puzzling, as a measurement on one of the particles appears to influence a subsequent measurement on the other, even if the particles do not interact.



In current terminology, these correlations are an example of entanglement, and the correlation phenomenon is known as the EPR paradox.



The puzzle has become a subject for much discussion and analysis, especially because there was (and is) no known mechanism for measurements to communicate with each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disentangling-quantum-entanglement">Disentangling quantum entanglement</h2>



In 1964 I was intrigued by this unfamiliar effect and began to think of a way to actually perform the EPR experiment -- or at least a version of it -- for observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-discovery-is-a-revolutionary-step-forward/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">correlation and entanglement</a>. It would be a low-energy experiment that could be set up in a small laboratory.



For the experiment outlined here, the particles of interest are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-photons-used-to-measure-earth-rotation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visible-light photons</a>, which are noninteracting, emitted by excited calcium atoms in a two-stage spontaneous emission process. The polarization states of the photons, which are related to their spins, can be measured simply, with ordinary linear polarizers. 



Photomultiplier detectors count the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individual photons</a>, #1 (green) and #2 (violet), and timing circuits enable the identification of photon pairs from the same atom. A rotatable linear polarizer is mounted in front of each detector.



In simplest terms, the experiment involves counting the rate at which photon pairs are detected, as a function of the orientation of the polarizers. A photon pair detected from the same atom is recorded as a “coincidence count.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theory-and-experiment-agree">Theory and experiment agree</h2>



Quantum theory makes the following predictions:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-photons-create-vortex-when-they-collide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Each photon</a>, taken separately, has a 50% chance of being transmitted by its polarizer, regardless of its angle of orientation. </li>



<li>If the polarizer axes are parallel, both photons from the same atom can pass through their polarizers and be counted. Coincidence counts will be observed. </li>



<li>If the polarizer axes are perpendicular, it never happens that both photons pass through their polarizers. Therefore, no coincidence counts will be observed.</li>
</ol>



Predictions #1 and #2 are not surprising, as the green and violet beams of light are unpolarized.



Prediction #3, discussed further in my article, is a quantum entanglement effect with no analog in classical (non-quantum) physics. It is especially interesting because it can be tested experimentally. I designed the experiment specifically for this purpose.



The results of the experiment, after nearly three years of effort in the laboratory, clearly demonstrate that coincidence counts are recorded if the polarizer axes are parallel, and that no coincidences are recorded if the polarizers are perpendicular. The agreement between theory and experiment is unequivocal and striking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-so-is-there-a-paradox">So is there a paradox?</h2>



In our brief discussion of the gyroscope, no paradox was acknowledged because Newton’s theory (classical dynamics) fully explains how a gyroscope moves. 



Furthermore, both the theory and the observed gyroscopic behavior are compatible with our life experience and intuitive ability to grasp natural processes in the classical realm.



In the entanglement case, quantum theory accounts for the observed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-photons-fascinating-behavior-in-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">correlation of the photon polarizations</a>. But even when a theory predicts experimental results, a paradox may remain if the intuition cannot reach out to connect with it.



Take another look at predictions #1 and #3 above. If we draw on our experience of life in a non-quantum world, we may notice something very strange when the polarizers are “crossed” at 90 degrees. 



If each photon has a 50% chance of transmission through its polarizer, why don’t we get coincidences 25% of the time? Instead, we observe none at all. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stretching-the-mind-to-resolve-the-paradox">Stretching the mind to resolve the paradox</h2>



At first consideration, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">does seem to qualify as a paradox</a>. One possible explanation could involve a missing component of quantum theory - perhaps a causal mechanism that could allow one photon, or one measurement, to communicate with the other. 



However, despite extensive research, no evidence has been found for such a mechanism.



As we do not live in an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overtly quantum world</a>, classical phenomena may influence our thought processes - even when we venture into the quantum realm. It may therefore remain a challenge to assimilate entanglement into the intuition.



I believe that the paradox can be at least partially resolved when further thought and experience, such as the experiment considered here, ‘stretch the mind’ to more fully embrace entanglement and other quantum phenomena.



I have come to view these aspects of nature as ‘strangely wonderful’.



The full paper and study can we read at <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/quantum-science-and-technology/articles/10.3389/frqst.2024.1451239/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Quantum Science and Technology</a>.



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Quantum entanglement: A simple way to fully grasp this 'impossible' concept

Quantum entanglement is a mind-boggling phenomenon in quantum mechanics that intrigues both scientists and the public alike. Unlike the predictable nature of classical physics, quantum mechanics thrives on unpredictability, often challenging our everyday perceptions. This is particularly evident in the behavior of entangled particles. Understanding quantum entanglement In quantum mechanics, particles can exist in multiple states simultaneously, a concept known as superposition. Entanglement elevates this idea: when particles become entangled, their states are interlinked. A change in one particle's state instantly influences the other, regardless of distance—imagine...

Awareness and acceptance of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/transgender-brains-match-gender/">transgenderism</a> have grown exponentially in the last decade. <a href="https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/research/how-many-adults-identify-as-transgender-in-the-united-states/">Perhaps .6%</a> of the population in the United States is believed to be transgender, per recent estimates. Organizations vary in their preferred terminology for this phenomenon. The feeling that one really belongs to the opposite gender is also called gender dysphoria and gender incongruence. 

Many, if not most, people have a passing familiarity with gender affirmation surgeries designed to more closely align the anatomy of trans people with their asserted gender—vaginoplasty, breast implants, and facial feminization in male to female (MTF) transsexuals, phalloplasty and mastectomy in female to male (FTM) transsexuals. Less widely understood are the hormone regimens used to modify the physiology of patients presenting with dysphoria. These drug protocols, endorsed for adults by such organizations as the <a href="https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/population-care/ama-takes-several-actions-supporting-transgender-patients">American Medical Association</a>, the <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/...and.../rd2012_GID.pdf">American Psychiatric Association</a>, and the <a href="https://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/transgender.pdf">American Psychological Association</a>, vary between patients due to a range of factors, including age and desired results. What follows is a general primer on what these drugs are and how they affect the human body.

Treatment protocols have evolved significantly since the first synthetic sex hormones became available in the 1930s. Current regimens are aimed at safely altering both primary sex characteristics, specifically the genitalia, and secondary sex characteristics, such as the presence of hair, breast tissue, muscle tone, and the distribution of body fat. Regimens designed for men wishing to transition to women are modified from those used in menopausal and post-menopausal natal women. Regimens designed for women wishing to transition to men are adapted from those used in natal men who present with hypogonadism—the failure of the testes to produce sufficient amounts of sex hormones. 

These drugs modify the amount of the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen in the body, either by directly introducing hormones of the opposite sex or blocking or suppressing the production of native hormones. Both natal women and natal men produce both hormones, though estrogen is dominant in females and testosterone is dominant in males. Estrogen is produced by the ovaries and testosterone is produced by the testes, as well as by the adrenal glands. These hormones are responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics. Because cross-sex hormones, when taken medically to alter these characteristics, have serious effects, they must be administered by a knowledgeable medical professional. Drugs obtained on the black market may be contaminated or improperly formulated and thus pose substantial risks to those taking them.

Transgender women who undergo cross-sex hormone therapy typically take drugs from one of three groups. Many are prescribed “off-label”—that is, they are usually prescribed for other conditions. Nearly all trans women who undergo hormone replacement therapy (HRT) take some form of estrogen. Estradiol may be administered orally, as a gel, or through a transdermal patch. Parenteral estradiol valerate is injected. These are the hormones that facilitate breast growth, redistribute fat, lessen the growth of body hair, sometimes reverse alopecia (pattern baldness) to an extent, reduce muscle tone, and soften skin texture. They also shrink the penis and testicles. One study showed that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24165564">libido was decreased in 62.4%</a> of trans women studied. Most trans women also have fewer erections and reduced ejaculate. 

While these hormones do suppress androgen—male hormone—production to an extent, unless the patient has had an orchidectomy—removal of the testicles—testosterone is still produced at appreciable levels and so testosterone blockers, or antiandrogens, are frequently administered as well. Spironolactone is the strongest of these; it simply blocks the action of testosterone. Dutasteride and finasteride stop the production of dihydro-testosterone. Other drugs used to suppress the production of testosterone include goserelin and leuprorelin. These belong to a class of drugs known as gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists, which stop the release of the hormones that initiate sex hormone production by acting on the pituitary gland. 

The third group of drugs, progestogens, in the form of natural progesterone or synthetic progestin, is taken by some trans women because it occurs naturally in natal women and is thought by some to enhance breast development and a general sense of well-being. This is contentious and many doctors advise against it; it is typically converted into testosterone in the body. The changes effected by all of these drugs are slow, and maximum effect is observed after 2-3 years and sometimes longer. Larger doses are not more effective and may in fact be dangerous. Most trans women will be on hormones for life, though some later choose to reduce their dosage, especially after surgery that removes the gonads.

Trans men usually take testosterone by injection, either subcutaneously or intramuscularly. Testosterone enanthate, testosterone cypionate, and testosterone undecanoate are common forms. There are also pellets that can be inserted under the skin, where they slowly release testosterone into the body. And gels and oral formulations are also available. Some trans men also take GnRH agonists to suppress the effects of estrogen if they have not undergone a hysterectomy. After three months, a number of changes are facilitated by administration of these drugs. Menstruation usually ceases, body hair begins to sprout in typically male places such as the face and chest, fat distribution may change to some extent, muscle mass increases, and the voice deepens. Some trans men develop acne. The clitoris enlarges and many report substantial increases in libido. Trans men are usually on hormones for life as well.

A number of recent studies (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5226129/">2015</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5182227/">2016</a>, and <a href="https://www.maturitas.org/article/S0378-5122(17)30705-3/fulltext">2018</a>) have found that, by and large, when administered by a properly trained doctor, hormones are safe and effective methods of alleviating gender dysphoria and providing an improved quality of life to patients. There are nonetheless a number of well-established side effects. Sterility is all but a certainty in trans women and is not uncommon in trans men. And relatively mild side effects such as headaches and hot flashes are often reported. However, more-significant and life-threatening medical problems have been noted in at least some patients as well. While studies have typically focused on relatively small sample groups and more research is needed to fully establish their prevalence, these consequences of HRT are nonetheless noteworthy. 

Perhaps the most commonly noted adverse effects have been cardiovascular and appear to be largely restricted to trans women. They may be on the decline, however, as one drug known to cause them, ethinyl estradiol, is no longer prescribed. Further, these instances have to some extent been correlated to other factors, such as smoking and long periods of immobility, as when a trans woman is recovering from gender confirmation surgery. Studies from <a href="http://annals.org/aim/article-abstract/2645553/cardiovascular-disease-among-transgender-adults-receiving-hormone-therapy-narrative-review?doi=10.7326%2fM17-0577">2017</a> and <a href="http://annals.org/aim/article-abstract/2687653/cross-sex-hormones-acute-cardiovascular-events-transgender-persons-cohort-study">2018</a> did find evidence that venous thromboembolism (VTE), a blood clot that forms in the extremities, was more common in trans women on estrogen. The 2018 study also found evidence of increased risk of ischemic stroke. <a href="http://clinchem.aaccjnls.org/content/65/1/57">A 2019 study</a>, though it noted some incidence of VTE in trans women, was less conclusive. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11154-018-9454-3">Another 2018 study</a> found increased risk of heart attack in trans women. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3029513/">Several cases</a> of pituitary prolactinomas, a benign tumor of the pituitary gland, have been reported in trans women on estrogen. Patients with a family history of estrogen-sensitive cancer are advised to inform their doctors. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28945851">Osteopenia</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23369987">osteoporosis</a>, both conditions marked by loss of bone density, have also been noted in some trans women.

Cardiovascular symptoms do not appear to be as pronounced in trans men, though some studies have found fluctuations in cholesterol and triglyceride levels that might negatively impact cardiovascular health. Though <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/22/4/1011/696190">some studies</a> have suggested that exposure to testosterone may induce polycystic ovary syndrome, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/28/2/453/596664">more recent ones</a> have found that not to be the case. Trans men have also developed <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5796953/">polycythemia</a>, or the overproduction of red blood cells.

More controversial has been the administration of puberty blockers in the form of GnRH agonists, as well as hormone therapy, to children presenting with gender dysphoria. Because the long-term effects of puberty blockers are unknown, and the best-studied patient populations are restricted to children who receive them due to undergoing early puberty, the ethics of this practice are the subject of intense debate. Proponents claim that the benefits of stopping puberty allow children time to explore their identity, and if they do affirm that they are transgender, their transition will be easier. However, opponents cite the fact that <a href="https://www.thecut.com/2016/07/whats-missing-from-the-conversation-about-transgender-kids.html">most studies</a> of gender dysphoria in children have shown high rates of desistance, or a return to comfort with their assigned gender. It is known that puberty blockers do reduce bone density, though this is typically reversed when they are stopped. And the effect of blocking sex hormones on neurological development is not understood. Further, the administration of cross-sex hormones over the majority of a person’s lifespan is completely unprecedented, leaving the possibility of unknown complications down the line. A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4807860/">large-scale study</a> by the National Institute of Health initiated in 2016 aims to resolve some of these questions.

Much remains to be learned about HRT and its consequences. What is certain is that, at least in adults, it has proven to have undeniably positive effects on the lives of members of a vulnerable and poorly-understood population.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How hormone replacement affects the bodies of transgender individuals

Awareness and acceptance of transgenderism have grown exponentially in the...

An island in the South Pacific that emerged after a volcanic eruption in 2015 is now home to hundreds of tropical birds known as sooty terns. The island is also covered in flowering plants whose seeds were likely scattered around in bird droppings.

The island is the result of an <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanoes-tasmania/">underwater volcano eruption</a> that spewed ash and lava into the sea for weeks. When the ash mixed with warm ocean water, it solidified into rocks that ultimately formed the island.

The volcanic rocks accumulated in between two existing islands in the Kingdom of Tonga. While it has not been officially named, locals call the new island Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai after the two small islands that it joins.


<a href="http://nasa.gov">NASA</a> wants to study the island before it is potentially washed away into the sea. Dan Slayback, a research scientist at the Goddard Space Flight Center, recently visited Hunga Tonga with other experts and students. He told <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/earthexpeditions/2019/01/30/land-ho-visiting-a-young-island/">NASA Earth Expeditions</a>: “We were all like giddy school children. Most of it is this black gravel, I won’t call it sand - pea sized gravel - and we’re mostly wearing sandals so it’s pretty painful because it gets under your foot.”

“Immediately I kind of noticed it wasn’t quite as flat as it seems from satellite. It’s pretty flat, but there’s still some gradients and the gravels have formed some cool patterns from the wave action.”

[caption id="attachment_1867207" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/island-life.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1867207" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/island-life.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="412" /></a> Credit: Dan Slayback[/caption]

The team took pictures, collected rock samples, and used a drone to obtain an aerial survey of Hunga Tonga. According to the researchers, data obtained during the trip may shed new light on rare volcanic islands. 

“The island is eroding by rainfall much more quickly than I’d imagined,” said Slayback. “We were focused on the erosion on the south coast where the waves are crashing down, which is going on. It’s just that the whole island is going down, too. It’s another aspect that’s made very clear when you’re standing in front of these huge erosion gullies. Okay, this wasn’t here three years ago, and now it’s two meters deep.”

However, there is no way to know how long the island will last, and further research is needed to explore the possibility that hydrothermal processes may be ongoing that could make the land resistant to erosion for decades to come. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@gmail.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Sea Education Association / SEA Semester/ <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/earthexpeditions/2019/01/30/land-ho-visiting-a-young-island/">NASA</a>

Brand new Pacific island already covered in vegetation and life

An island in the South Pacific that emerged after a...

The human gastrointestinal tract is host to a vast colony of bacteria called the gut microbiome. This garden of microbes is not only key to digestive health, but studies have also found links between <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4425030/">gut flora imbalances and cancer</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-fungi-obesity/"> obesity</a>, diabetes, and most recently, depression. 

In one of the largest studies of its kind, researchers from Belgium are working to investigate the gut-brain connection by studying the gut flora of over 5,000 Flemish individuals from Flanders in Belgium. 

According to the researchers leading the Flemish <a href="http://www.vib.be/en/research/Pages/The%20Flemisch%20Gut%20Flora%20project.aspx">Gut Flora Project</a> and a recent study published in the journal Nature Microbiology, gut flora imbalances are linked to depression. 

For this specific study, researchers from <a href="http://www.vib.be/Pages/default.aspx">VIB</a>, a research institute in Belgium, compared stool microbiome data and diagnoses of depression in 1,054 Flemish Flora Gut Project participants. 

After analyzing the microbiomes of the individuals, the researchers found that people with depression had consistently lower levels of two types of bacteria, Coprococcus and Dialister, even if the patients were being treated with antidepressants. 

These surprising results were later confirmed when the researchers conducted an independent analysis of 1,063 participants from the <a href="https://www.lifelines.nl/researcher/biobank-lifelines/additional-studies/lifelines-deep">Dutch LifeLinesDEEP</a> study of depression patients in Belgium.

The results strongly suggest that gut health and mental health are linked, but the researchers say this is a controversial and little-studied hypothesis. 

“The notion that microbial metabolites can interact with our brain -- and thus behaviour and feelings -- is intriguing, but gut microbiome-brain communication has mostly been explored in animal models, with human research lagging behind,” said Jeroen Raes, an author of the study. “In our population-level study we identified several groups of bacteria that co-varied with human depression and quality of life across populations.”

A potential explanation for why Coprococcus and Dialister depletion is linked to depression could be that both microbes have anti-inflammatory properties and nervous system inflammation has been linked to depression. 

The researchers also examined the genomes of more than 500 bacteria to test their ability to produce neuroactive compounds which could impact activity in the brain and created the first list of neuroactivity in gut flora. 

The study lays important groundwork for future research into how gut bacteria impacts mental health. 

“Our toolbox not only allows to identify the different bacteria that could play a role in mental health conditions, but also the mechanisms potentially involved in this interaction with the host,” said Mireia Valles-Colomer, the lead author of the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New study finds link between gut health and depression

The human gastrointestinal tract is host to a vast colony...

In a groundbreaking new study, experts have managed to grow functional mouse kidneys inside rats by using just a few stem cells. The research, which was led by the <a href="https://www.nips.ac.jp/eng/">National Institute for Physiological Sciences</a> in Japan, has significant implications for human organ transplantation.

For patients with renal disease, a kidney transplant is often the only hope for regaining quality of life or for avoiding <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/environmental-pollutants-kidney-health/">kidney failure</a>. However, a transplant is no simple matter due to a chronic shortage of donor kidneys. For example, there are currently 95,000 patients on the waiting list for a donor kidney in the United States alone.

Researchers have been working on ways to grow healthy organs outside the human body, and one particular method called blastocyst complementation has produced promising results.

“We previously used blastocyst complementation to generate rat pancreas in pancreatic mutant mice,” explained study lead author Teppei Goto. “We therefore decided to investigate whether the method could be used to generate functional kidneys, which would have much greater application in regenerative medicine owing to the high donor demand.”

The team’s first attempts to grow rat kidneys in mice were not successful because the rat stem cells did not readily differentiate into the two main types of cells needed for kidney formation. The researchers then reversed their strategy by transferring mouse stem cells into rat blastocysts, which successfully formed the basic structures of a kidney.

The complemented blastocysts were matured into normal fetuses after being implanted into pseudo-pregnant rats. Overall, more than two-thirds of the rat newborns contained a pair of kidneys derived from the mouse stem cells. Testing revealed that all of the kidneys were structurally intact, and at least half of them had the potential to produce urine.

“Our findings confirm that interspecific blastocyst complementation is a viable method for kidney generation,” said study co-author Masumi Hirabayashi. “In the future, this approach could be used to generate human stem cell-derived organs in livestock, potentially extending the lifespan and improving the quality of life of millions of people worldwide.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Growing human kidneys outside of the body may be feasible

In a groundbreaking new study, experts have managed to grow...

Pokémon GO, also known as an augmented reality game, is a very popular app in which a real-time camera feed is integrated with images and data to provide interactive experiences. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/index.html">University of Tokyo</a> have discovered that the game has had a positive impact on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/physical-activity-prevent-depression/">physical activity</a> among players over 40. 

In November of 2014, the Yokohama Walking Point Program was launched in an effort to make people more active. For the program, 2,580 participants over the age of 18 were given pedometers to count the total steps they took in a day. The individuals were also surveyed through the use of location-based augmented reality games.

Using data from this program, a research team led by Kimihiro Hino selected a total of 230 participants who had as much in common as possible. Overall, 46 of the participants played Pokémon GO, while the other 184 participants did not. The experts compared the walking program outcomes of both groups and found more physical activity among those who engaged in the Pokémon game.

“Game-makers and urban planners could factor what we've learned into their respective activities,” said Hino. “I think Pokémon GO succeeds where physical activity games do not because it's a game first with potential added health benefits. It's possible such games could serve as a gateway to further people's enthusiasm for physical activity.”


The experts also hope their findings may inspire urban planners to incorporate more pedestrian areas into urban centers. Hino plans to further explore the connections between augmented reality games and their impact on physical activity, and would like to examine how these games may affect an individual's attitude toward exercise.

“Many middle-aged people grew up with computer games, but the older generation might feel shy about playing them,” said Hino. “With exercise as an excuse they may play more, thus exercise more. It's a virtuous circle. Maybe we'll see people use cars less and walk or cycle more. There's a lot of Pokémon out there to catch.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jmir.org/">Journal of Medical Internet Research</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Flickr/sethtate under Creative Commons BY-NC-SA

Interactive games can help older adults become more physically active

Pokémon GO, also known as an augmented reality game, is...

Recently, I read an <a href="https://medium.com/on-madagascar/island-mentality-138045bb2d19">opinion piece</a> by a Malagasy man now living in the United States.  The man was frustrated by the widespread ignorance of Americans about his homeland – Madagascar.  His complaints are familiar to me. Other people from many other countries have said much the same to me before.  ‘How do Americans know nothing of my country?’ ‘We learn so much about the US in school.’

It’s almost a trope – the American who is severely geographically illiterate.  You see it with talk show hosts on camera with average American people who think Mt. Rushmore is in Russia.  You see it in US politicians fumbling over foreign policy questions. If you know people from Europe, Australia or other places in the world, you’ve probably heard about it yourself.  It is claimed that Americans know very little about the world. I, myself, have taken this idea in uncritically, but is it really true? How much do and don’t Americans know about the world they live in?  More importantly, why should we know about the world beyond our borders?

A <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/10/16/us-students-are-terrible-at-geography">US News</a> report from 2015 paints a pretty grim picture.  The headlines read, ‘US Students are Terrible at Geography’.  Citing the 2014 National Assessment of Education, the report finds that almost 75% of American students fall short of proficiency in geography, almost the exact same results as those from 1994.  Actually, from 1994 to 2014 there were few changes, advanced proficiency in geography dropped from 4% to 3%, proficiency stayed exactly the same at 24% and basic (partial mastery) jumped 5% to 48%.  

The overall picture is the same for geography knowledge among 8th graders in the US – they are in fact terrible at geography as a whole.  A 2016 article from <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/09/survey-geography-foreign-relations-americans-students/">National Geographic</a> echoes the same sentiments, this time showing young college educated Americans as geographically ignorant.  The piece says that of Americans who took a survey, two-thirds couldn’t identify Indonesia as a majority Muslim nation.  Of Americans 18 to 26 years old with some college education who tool a geographic literacy test, the average was just a score of 55%.  

Many of the survey questions have relevance for US policy; questions like where US troops are stationed in the world and what countries the US is bound to protect.  The <a href="https://www.cfr.org/global-literacy-survey">survey</a> by the Council on Foreign Relations showed that only 29% of participants scored 66% or better on the test.  An early <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/11/geography-survey-illiteracy/">National Geographic</a> article from 2002 proclaimed that only 17% of young Americans could find Afghanistan on a map.  Of course, that was important because even though most Americans were extremely ignorant of Afghanistan, our military was at war there.  

An article in <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/geographic-illiteracy-and-the-rise-of-trump_us_587fef14e4b0aa1c47ac280c">Huffington Post</a> from 2017 by an AP geography teacher points out that geographic illiteracy is perpetuated in the US by the education system.  History seems to be a much bigger focus in American education than current events. We learn more about World War II than any current US military engagement.  In fact, the closer we get to current events, the less the focus. We learn more about the founding of our nation than the last few decades. The former teacher wrote in Huffington Post that his class was the only one focused on current events in the entire school and this seems to be the norm.       

The real question is, are Americans unique in their geographic ignorance or are these surveys showing only a part of the picture?  A 2014 article from the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/10640690/Americans-surveyed-misunderstood-misrepresented-or-ignorant.html">Telegraph</a> points to 2009 study that compared survey results on international affairs in current news from the US and Europeans.  In the survey, only 58% of Americans could describe the Taliban compared to 75% of Britons. Overall, Americans scored more poorly than citizens of Denmark, Finland and England.  The Telegraph article ends by citing a 2003 US Strategic Task Force of Education Abroad report that concluded US geographic ignorance is so deep and widespread that it may constitute a national security threat.

It’s easy to see a danger in the broad ignorance of the rest of the world engendered by many Americans.  After the US had been in the Iraq war for two years, 70% of Americans surveyed still thought Saddam Hussein was directly involved in the September 11 attacks, according to a <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/polls/vault/stories/data082303.htm">Washington Post</a> survey.  This disconcerting fact leads to many questions about our country’s collective ignorance on current world events. 

An opinion piece in the <a href="http://news.aag.org/2018/02/time-for-a-radical-geographic-literacy-in-trump-america/">American Association of Geographers</a> newsletter highlights the vulgar disdain which entire regions of the planet are written off by President Trump, marked as ‘shit hole countries’.  With little broad geographic familiarity, Americans are easily manipulated by such violently emotional remarks. We’ve become accustomed to a more politically divided America, we may also be moving towards a more divided world.  The cost of our ignorance is high, as now the US is heavily involved in world affairs just like always. 

Immigrants wait on the US border in Mexico, while Americans are split on what the immigrant caravan means to the US.  A <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/11/19/migrant-caravan-donald-trump-border-security-immigration-poll-threat-central-america-honduras/2055361002/">USA Today</a> report says that 54% of Americans think the immigrant caravan is some sort of threat to the US.  29% of Americans see the immigrant caravan as a major threat. A full 25% of Americans believe that the immigrant caravan does contain terrorists, despite there being no evidence to support this opinion.  

According to another survey from 2016 by the <a href="https://www.cfr.org/blog/how-americans-see-mexico">Council on Foreign Relations</a>, less than 25% of Americans have a positive image of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tunnels-us-mexico-border/">Mexico</a>.  Despite declines in immigration that continue today, a majority of Americans believed illegal immigration was increasing.  Less people still believe Mexico is safe to travel in. A newer <a href="https://www.monmouth.edu/polling-institute/reports/monmouthpoll_us_111918/">survey</a> from Monmouth University carried out in 2018 found that 49% of Americans feel illegal immigration is a very serious problem.  This is despite the fact that <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/11/28/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/">PEW Research Center</a> shows that illegal immigrants from Mexico have declined since 2007 while immigrants from other countries have remained about the same.  

We enter a period where the US president routinely villainizes much of Latin America and refuses to take military intervention off the table in Venezuela.  President Trump constantly contradicts official opinions on North Korea, Russia, China and other nations. It seems that now more than ever, the only thing that can save us from becoming one of the masses terrorized by its own federal government is knowledge.  Knowing about the world is important, it’s where we all live. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer              

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Is American geographic illiteracy a security threat?

Recently, I read an opinion piece by a Malagasy man...

The Chang’e-4 lunar lander that made history as the first successful mission to land on the far side of the moon is finding temperatures colder than expected after taking a two-week nap.

Just like Earth, a day on the moon is determined by its axis and orbit around the Sun. However, where a day on Earth lasts 24 hours, time on the moon works a little differently. 

A day on the moon lasts around <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/dark-vs-far-side-moon-lunar-night-science-2019-1">27 Earth days</a>, and night on the far side, the side facing away from the sun where the Change-4 probe landed, lasts a little over 14 days. This is why China’s Chang’e-4 probe went into a two-week long hibernation. 

After becoming active on Wednesday, the <a href="http://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/index.html">China National Space Administration</a> (CSNA) reported that temperatures on the surface dropped to -310 degrees Fahrenheit during the lander’s first night on the moon. 

This was much colder than expected for the mission and far colder than previous records from the past lunar missions. 

Despite the cold temperatures, the probe, and its small rover resumed operations and are hard at work with scheduled experiments and surveys of the Von Karman Crater, according to the CSNA. 

China’s Chang’e-3 moon mission had scientific instruments well equipped to handle the cold, according to Zhang He, the executive director of the Chang'e-4 mission. 

Some of the mission’s experiments have already with met with roadblocks. When the lander first arrived on the moon, it was reported that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/china-cotton-seeds-moon/">cotton seeds had successfully sprouted inside specially designed biospheres</a>. 

It was another first for the CSNA and an important step forward in potentially setting up a lunar base which China has announced it will set up by 2036. 

However, not long after the new sprouts were photographed, it was reported that the plants had died due to the freezing cold temperatures. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nights on the moon found to be far colder than expected

The Chang’e-4 lunar lander that made history as the first...

While the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unstable-polar-vortex-brutal-winter/">polar vortex</a> was yesterday’s news, for much of the United States, the dead of winter means more snow, snow, ice, and more snow.

Many residents are stocking up on salt for their sidewalks, and cities keeping roads safe by sending out plows and salting the streets to prevent the snow and ice from freezing over.

Unlike the salt you would use on your sidewalk, the city trucks you see down the highways spraying the road with a salty solution are treating roads to prevent freezing rather than trying melt the ice after the fact.

It all boils down to the chemical properties of salt and how it reacts with water at its freezing point.

Julie Pollock, an Assistant Professor of Chemistry at the <a href="https://www.richmond.edu/">University of Richmond</a>, explained the chemistry of road salting in a recent piece for <a href="https://theconversation.com/salt-doesnt-melt-ice-heres-how-it-actually-makes-winter-streets-safe-110870">The Conversation</a>. 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is salt no matter which way you shake it, but the salt on the road is less pure and gets its brownish color from mineral contamination.

Water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and if the ground temperature is freezing or below freezing, ice and snow will form, but salt lowers the freezing point. Salt solutions lower the freezing point to 15 degrees Fahrenheit.

But this rule will only apply if the road is pre-treated with a salt-water solution. Salt that’s dumped on the road after a blizzard won’t melt the ice unless subjected to heat from the sun and cars.

“Subjecting the environment to this salt via runoff can have some unintended consequences including negative effects on plants, aquatic animals and wetlands,” Pollock wrote. “But it’s a cheap and effective way to protect roads from ice due to a simple scientific principle: freezing point depression of solutions.”

Sand is also used to help provide friction for road traffic in colder climates where this scientific principle won’t work.

Road salt can seep into wetlands, rivers, streams, and lakes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-streams-polluted-salt/">pollute ecosystems</a>. Sidewalk salt can also be harmful to pets, and there are some pet-friendly options for sidewalk salt that concerned pet owners can use for their walkways.

However, some eco-friendly alternatives are being explored to replace road salt solutions, and these still use the freezing point depression principle, according to Pollock.

Some of the alternatives include brines and beet wastewater from sugar beet processing. Like salt, the sugar lowers the melting point of ice when sprayed onto the road and beet wastewater has less of a negative environmental impact. What’s more, brines, beet wastewater and even molasses additives could be effective in lower temperature climates.

These are also not without their potential consequences though, which is why some researchers are looking to replace road asphalt with solar panels in the hopes of making self-clearing roads, according to another report from <a href="https://theconversation.com/road-salt-makes-winter-driving-safer-but-what-does-it-do-to-the-environment-87860">The Conversation</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How salt trucks keep roads safe… and some eco-friendly alternatives

While the polar vortex was yesterday’s news, for much of...

About 15 years ago, <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/geosciences/people/simons/">Frederik Simons</a>, a professor of geosciences at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a>, teamed up with <a href="http://www.princeton.edu/geosciences/people/display_person.xml?netid=nolet">Guust Nolet</a>, now the George J. Magee Professor of Geoscience and Geological Engineering, Emeritus. They wanted to build an undersea robot with a hydrophone in an effort to pick up sounds and therefore locate distant earthquakes. Doing so would help seismologists scan the planet’s interior.

“Imagine a radiologist forced to work with a CAT scanner that is missing two-thirds of its necessary sensors," Simons said via <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>. "Two-thirds is the fraction of the Earth that is covered by oceans and therefore lacking seismic recording stations. Such is the situation faced by seismologists attempting to sharpen their images of the inside of our planet."

Now, Simons, Nolet, and a team of international researchers have published the findings of their new seismic floats called MERMAIDs — Mobile Earthquake Recording in Marine Areas by Independent Divers.

MERMAIDs drift at about 1,500 meters below the ocean surface and travel about 2 to 3 miles per day. If and when one detects an incoming <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/oil-drilling-la-earthquake-risk/">earthquake</a>, it shoots to the surface within 95 minutes, tracks the earthquake’s location, and transmits the seismic data. Nine MERMAIDs floated freely for two years within an area of ocean around the Galápagos that was formerly “blank,” meaning no seismic information was available pre-MERMAIDs.

[caption id="attachment_1867087" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/MERMAID.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1867087" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/MERMAID.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="933" /></a> Image Credit: Yann Hello, University of Nice[/caption]

With the MERMAIDs, researchers found that Galápagos volcanoes are fed from source via a narrow conduit that is bringing hot rock to the surface from 1,200 miles deep within the ocean. This phenomenon is known as a “mantle plume.” Nolet notes that this high-temperature mantle plume “hints at the important role that plumes play in the mechanism that allows the Earth to keep itself warm.”

"Since the 19th century, when Lord Kelvin predicted that Earth should cool to be a dead planet within a hundred million years, geophysicists have struggled with the mystery that the Earth has kept a fairly constant temperature over more than 4.5 billion years," Nolet said. "It could have done so only if some of the original heat from its accretion, and that created since by radioactive minerals, could stay locked inside the lower mantle. But most models of the Earth predict that the mantle should be convecting vigorously and releasing this heat much more quickly.”

He continued, “These results of the Galápagos experiment point to an alternative explanation: the lower mantle may well resist convection, and instead only bring heat to the surface in the form of mantle plumes such as the ones creating Galápagos and Hawaii."

Next, the team will launch 50 MERMAIDs in the South Pacific to study the mantle plumes under Tahiti.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How MERMAIDs are revealing deep-sea mysteries

About 15 years ago, Frederik Simons, a professor of geosciences...

Dr. Michael Pittman, of the Department of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">The University of Hong Kong</a>, and colleagues have determined that a 150-year-old feather fossil — the first feather fossil ever to be discovered — does not belong to the prehistoric bird Archaeopteryx as was originally thought. After using an imaging technique called Laser-Stimulated Fluorescence (LSF), the team was able to locate the missing quill, thus proving the feather belonged to a species other than Archaeopteryx.

The feather was originally found in southern Germany in 1861. Preserved in a dark film, the feather was used to name the fossilized bird, Archaeopteryx. The feather was initially described as having a long quill, however, the quill cannot be seen today. 

Was the quill ever there? And if so, does this feather represent a primary, secondary, or primary covert feather of the Archaeopteryx?

According to Dr. Pittman and his colleague’s LSF analysis, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, the feather fossil actually comes from an unidentified feathered dinosaur. After comparing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-species-dinosaurs-birds/">Archaeopteryx</a> feathers and this single feather to those of modern birds, Dr. Pittman and company saw that this mystery feather lacked similarities to all feathers of the Archaeopteryx and didn’t show the same s-shaped centerline that modern bird feathers do.

[caption id="attachment_1867082" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/first-fossil-feather.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1867082" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/first-fossil-feather.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="839" /></a> Image Credit: The University of Hong Kong[/caption]

"It is amazing that this new technique allows us to resolve the 150-year-old mystery of the missing quill," said co-author Daniela Schwarz, curator for the fossil reptiles and bird collection of the <a href="https://www.museumfuernaturkunde.berlin/en">Museum für Naturkunde</a>, Berlin. 

This finding also proves that there was more feathered dinosaur diversity in southern Germany than previously thought.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

First fossil feather ever discovered did not belong to Archaeopteryx

Dr. Michael Pittman, of the Department of Earth Sciences at...

A new study has revealed that the disk of stars belonging to the Milky Way galaxy is anything but flat and stable. According to astronomers from <a href="http://english.nao.cas.cn/">National Astronomical Observatories of Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (NAOC), the disk becomes increasingly “warped” and twisted as it extends out from the Milky Way's center.

The researchers found that the pull of gravity becomes weaker far away from the Milky Way's interior. The hydrogen atoms making up the far outer disk are no longer confined to a thin plane, but instead give the disk an S-shaped warped appearance.

“It is notoriously difficult to determine distances from the Sun to parts of the Milky Way's outer gas disk without having a clear idea of what that disk actually looks like,” said study lead author Dr. CHEN Xiaodian.

“However, we recently published a new catalogue of well-behaved variable stars known as classical Cepheids, for which distances as accurate as 3 to 5% can be determined.”

This database is what enabled the team to develop the first accurate three-dimensional picture of our Milky Way, including its far outer regions.

Classical Cepheids are young stars that are up to 20 times as big as the Sun and up to 100,000 times as bright. This composition would imply that they burn through their nuclear fuel very quickly, sometimes in only a few million years, and die young. They show pulsations that can be observed as changes in their brightness, and the extent of the pulsation period can be used to obtain a highly reliable distance.

“Somewhat to our surprise, we found that in 3D our collection of 1339 Cepheid stars and the Milky Way's gas disk follow each other closely. This offers new insights into the formation of our home galaxy,” said study senior author Professor Richard de Grijs. “Perhaps more importantly, in the Milky Way's outer regions, we found that the S-like stellar disk is warped in a progressively twisted spiral pattern.”

The team pointed to earlier observations of a dozen other <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/universe-expanding-faster/">galaxies</a> which also showed such progressively twisted spiral patterns. 

“Combining our results with those other observations, we concluded that the Milky Way's warped spiral pattern is most likely caused by ‘torques’ - or rotational forcing - by the massive inner disk,” said study co-author Dr. LIU Chao.

Dr. DENG Licai concluded, “This new morphology provides a crucial updated map for studies of our galaxy's stellar motions and the origins of the Milky Way's disk.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natastron/">Nature Astronomy</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: CHEN Xiaodian

Scientists find that the Milky Way has a warped and twisted shape

A new study has revealed that the disk of stars...

An international team of scientists has developed a groundbreaking new resource to guide the transfer of disease-resistance genes from wild plants to domestic crops. The method, known as AgRenSeq, will revolutionize the creation of disease-resistant crops across the globe.

A team of scientists at the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/">John Innes Centre</a> in Britain collaborated with colleagues in Australia and the United States to develop the tool. The resulting techniques will strengthen the global fight against pathogens that threaten <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wheat-plants-chemical-defenses/">wheat</a>, soybean, maize, rice, and potato crops.  

Study co-author Professor Harbans Bariana from the Sydney Institute of Agriculture and the School of Life and Environmental Sciences is a global expert in cereal rust genetics. He explained, “This technology will underpin fast-tracked discovery and characterization of new sources of disease resistance in plants.”

AgRenSeq provides experts with a database of resistance genes discovered in wild relatives of modern crops so they can rapidly identify DNA sequences linked to disease fighting capability. Equipped with this crucial information, the researchers will use lab techniques to clone the genes and introduce them into domestic crops to protect them against pathogens and pests such as rusts, powdery mildew, and Hessian fly.

“We have found a way to scan the genome of a wild relative of a crop plant and pick out the resistance genes we need: and we can do it in record time. This used to be a process that took 10 or 15 years and was like searching for a needle in a haystack,” said study lead author Dr. Brande Wulff.

“We have perfected the method so that we can clone these genes in a matter of months and for just thousands of dollars instead of millions.”

AgRenSeq has been successfully tested in a wild relative of wheat. Researchers managed to identify and clone four resistance genes for the stem rust pathogen in a matter of months. According to the experts, this process would have easily taken 10 years using conventional methods.

“What we have now is a library of disease resistance genes and we have developed an algorithm that enables researchers to quickly scan that library and find functional resistance genes,” said study first author Dr. Sanu Arora.

Dr. Wulff added, “This is the culmination of a dream, the result of many year's work. Our results demonstrate that AgRenSeq is a robust protocol for rapidly discovering resistance genes from a genetically diverse panel of a wild crop relative.”

“If we have an epidemic, we can go to our library and inoculate that pathogen across our diversity panel and pick out the resistance genes. Using speed cloning and speed breeding we could deliver resistance genes into elite varieties within a couple of years, like a phoenix rising from the ashes.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nbt/">Nature Biotechnology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New technology can help experts develop disease-resistant crops

An international team of scientists has developed a groundbreaking new...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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