<p>For a century, Western water forecasts have leaned on a simple idea: more mountain snow means more water in rivers in the spring. But where you measure that snow matters as much as how much you measure.</p>



<p>A new analysis of more than two decades of data across 390 snow-fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planning-for-an-uncertain-future-in-the-colorado-river-basin/">river basins</a> in 11 Western states shows that placing new instruments at strategically chosen “hotspots” consistently delivers better water supply forecasts than trying to blanket an entire basin with broad surveys.</p>



<p>In those basins, adding hotspot sites improved forecast skill by about 11–14 percent on average. By comparison, doing comprehensive basin-wide snow mapping nudged forecasts up by only about 4 percent on average. </p>



<p>The takeaway is surprisingly straightforward: measuring snow in the right places can help far more than measuring snow everywhere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-snow-matters-most">Where snow matters most</h2>



<p>Hotspots are small areas within a watershed where snow conditions punch above their weight in predicting how much water will actually reach streams months later. </p>



<p>Think of ridgelines, aspects, or elevations where snow tends to persist or melt in patterns that strongly control downstream flow.</p>



<p>Because most existing ground stations sample a tiny fraction of a basin, there’s room to improve forecasts by adding just a few stations - if they’re placed where the snow signal matters most for runoff.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-snow-sites-to-the-test">Putting snow sites to the test</h2>



<p>Researchers sifted through more than 20 years of snow estimates and streamflow records, comparing two expansion strategies for monitoring: adding targeted hotspot gauges, or rely on basin-wide mapping (from aircraft or satellites) to capture total snow volume. </p>



<p>They tested both approaches against the current network of ground stations that operational forecasters use today. </p>



<p>The team treated streamflow forecasting the way a water manager would, asking how much each strategy improved the year-to-year predictive power for seasonal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-global-greening-could-drain-earths-water-supply/">water supply</a>.</p>



<p>Because different basins respond differently, they repeated the analysis for hundreds of watersheds, from the Cascades and Sierra Nevada to the Rockies and the Great Basin. </p>



<p>Across that breadth of climates and terrains, the pattern held - focused hotspot measurements typically outperformed broad coverage.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-airborne-snow-measuring-has-tradeoffs">Airborne snow measuring has tradeoffs</h2>



<p>Basin-wide surveys are undeniably powerful. Airborne campaigns can directly estimate a basin’s total snow volume, and satellites help paint the big picture over vast, remote areas. The catch is cost and cadence.</p>



<p>Airborne surveys are expensive and can’t fly everywhere all the time. Satellite products are improving quickly but still struggle with forests, clouds, and complex terrain, and they need ground truth to keep forecasts anchored in reality.</p>



<p>By contrast, a handful of well-placed ground sensors can run all season, in all weather, at a fraction of the price. </p>



<p>The new study shows those stations can deliver similar - and often better - forecast gains precisely because they target the parts of a basin that control when and how snowmelt becomes streamflow.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snowmelt-and-a-warming-west">Snowmelt and a warming West</h2>



<p>On average, about half of the water in Western U.S. streams comes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-spring-begins-earlier-speeding-up-plant-growth/">snowmelt</a>. Cities plan reservoir releases and farmers schedule irrigation based on spring forecasts issued months ahead of peak demand.</p>



<p>But warming winters are shrinking mountain snowpacks and making melt timing jumpier, which raises the stakes for every improvement in prediction.</p>



<p>With budgets tightening, the findings offer a practical roadmap: expand monitoring, yes - but do it surgically. In many basins, adding a few instruments at hotspot locations will deliver more value than trying to map the whole watershed every time snow falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-water-managers-can-do-now"><a></a>What water managers can do now</h2>



<p>One of the most useful outcomes of the study is a framework for identifying where new measurements will help the most. </p>



<p>Rather than guessing, agencies can now screen a basin to find untapped areas whose snow signals are especially predictive of downstream flow and focus new stations there.</p>



<p>The same framework highlights where basin-wide mapping will add value - for example, in large, highly variable basins where total snow volume swings widely from year to year.</p>



<p>In short, there isn’t a single “best” strategy for every watershed. But there is a smarter sequence: start by asking where a new measurement would most improve the forecast, then pick the tool - a ground station, an aircraft flight, or satellite data - that fits the need and the budget.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-as-snowlines-shift">Adapting as snowlines shift</h2>



<p>Hotspot monitoring isn’t a magic wand. Some basins still benefit from periodic aerial surveys to capture the full snow picture, especially after major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">storms</a> or in places with complex rain-snow transitions.</p>



<p>Satellites remain essential for regional situational awareness. As climate change pushes snowlines higher, the locations of the most informative hotspots may shift, requiring the network to adapt.</p>



<p>The encouraging news is that the ingredients for better forecasts already exist: decades of streamflow records, a century of snow-station data, rapidly improving remote sensing, and now a tested way to combine them so that each new measurement counts.</p>



<p>The study also shows that many forecasters are closer than they might think to an optimally balanced network - one that blends a few carefully placed new stations with occasional basin-wide snapshots to keep tabs on the big swings.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-what-matters-most">Measuring what matters most</h2>



<p>Snowmelt will remain the West’s water engine, even as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/">climate change</a> makes it less predictable. This work suggests a practical, budget-savvy way to squeeze more certainty out of the same mountains: measure the snow where it matters most.</p>



<p>When every acre-foot counts, a handful of well-chosen hotspots can do more for tomorrow’s water plan than trying to see everything everywhere all at once.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02660-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications: Earth and Environment</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Measuring snow in the right places can greatly improve water forecasts

For a century, Western water forecasts have leaned on a simple idea: more mountain snow means more water in rivers in the spring. But where you measure that snow matters as much as how much you measure. A new analysis of more than two decades of data across 390 snow-fed river basins in 11 Western states shows that placing new instruments at strategically chosen “hotspots” consistently delivers better water supply forecasts than trying to blanket an entire basin with broad surveys. In those basins, adding hotspot sites...

<p>A pivotal global study has painted a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-anti-aging-drug-interleukin-11-boosts-lifespan-prevents-cancer-gray-hair/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grim picture</a> for the future of men's health. Already at a higher risk of cancer and related deaths than women, men are projected to face an 84% increase in cancer cases by 2050, jumping from 10.3 million to a staggering 19 million.</p>



<p>The death toll is also estimated to rise by an alarming 93% from 5.4 million to 10.5 million. This news, brought forward by Dr. Habtamu Mellie Bizuayehu, a distinguished scientist from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a>, Australia, suggests a daunting task ahead for the global community.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-cancer-rates-in-men">Rising cancer rates in men</h2>



<p>Why are men more susceptible to this dreadful disease? The study identified several factors, including less participation in cancer prevention activities.</p>



<p>Other potential factors contributing to the increase of cancer among men include underutilization of screening and treatment options; a higher degree of exposure to cancer risk factors such as smoking, alcohol, and occupational exposure to carcinogens; and inherent biological differences.</p>



<p>This orchestration of causes calls for a more substantial, more inclusive approach towards men's health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-and-economic-divide">Age and economic divide</h2>



<p>In 2022, older and less privileged men were the hardest hit by cancer. The study revealed poorer survival rates among older men and those living in countries with a low human development index, a measure of health, education, and standard of living.</p>



<p>Cases such as pancreatic cancer, which are generally rare, showed up more frequently among this group.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-action">A call to action</h2>



<p>So, what can we do to prevent this bleak prediction from becoming our reality? Dr. Bizuayehu emphasizes a global and national collaboration, along with a coordinated multisector approach, to improve current cancer outcomes. </p>



<p>Implementing and expanding universal health coverage, bolstering health infrastructure, and creating more opportunities for medical and public health staff training can potentially revamp the existing cancer care landscape, he suggested.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focusing-on-the-underprivileged">Focusing on the underprivileged</h2>



<p>The focus should be on countries with a low and medium human development index - those with high unmet cancer service needs despite bearing a significant cancer burden.</p>



<p>By ensuring these regions have access to and use of cancer prevention, screening, diagnosis, and treatment options, we can bring about improved cancer outcomes equitably.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-on-cancer-and-men-s-health">Education on cancer and men's health</h2>



<p>Education plays a pivotal role in cancer prevention and health outcomes. Many men are unaware of the importance of regular screenings and proactive health measures. </p>



<p>Increasing awareness through community programs, social media campaigns, and educational workshops can empower men to take charge of their health.</p>



<p>Efforts should also be made to debunk myths surrounding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finasteride-regrows-hair-heals-prostate-boosts-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">masculinity</a> and vulnerability, encouraging open discussions about health issues. </p>



<p>Fostering a culture of health literacy can lead to early detection and improved prognosis, ultimately saving lives.</p>



<p>"A national and international collaboration, as well as a coordinated multisectoral approach, are essential to improve current cancer outcomes and to reverse the anticipated rise in cancer burden by 2050," said Bizuayehu.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Implementing and expanding universal health coverage and expanding health infrastructure and establishing publicly funded medical schools and scholarships for training medical and public health staff can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-dietary-changes-are-best-for-cancer-prevention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improve cancer care</a> and equity."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychosocial-dimensions-of-men-s-health">Psychosocial dimensions of men's health</h2>



<p>The psychological aspects of men's health cannot be overlooked in the fight against cancer. Societal expectations often dictate that men should display strength and stoicism, leading many to neglect medical help until it's too late. </p>



<p>Mental health issues, such as depression and anxiety, could exacerbate health challenges, including cancer. Therefore, integrating mental health support into cancer care is paramount. </p>



<p>Programs that address emotional well-being alongside physical health can create a holistic approach, facilitating not only the treatment of cancer but also supporting men’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-lifestyle-changes-could-prevent-half-of-all-cancer-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overall health journey</a>. </p>



<p>Dr. Bizuayehu advocates for mental health initiatives that target these unseen challenges, highlighting their significant impact on recovery and long-term survivorship.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-equity-in-men-s-cancer-prevention">Equity in men's cancer prevention </h2>



<p>The increase in cancer cases and deaths among men underlines an urgent need to address these trends. </p>



<p>We are called to ensure equity in cancer prevention and care among men globally, especially for those above 65 years who are projected to experience a more than two-fold increase in cancer cases. This isn't just a health issue. It's a ticking time bomb that we can't afford to ignore.</p>



<p>So, what is our course of action? How can we ensure that our fathers, brothers, sons, and friends have access to the care they need to lead healthy lives? </p>



<p>What steps are we willing to take today to close this gap? Through this powerful global study on men’s cancer, we are not only alerted, but we are also being challenged to rise to the task.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a class="" href="https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.35458" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Cancer</em></a>. </p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Men could face an 84% increase in cancer cases by 2050

A pivotal global study has painted a grim picture for...

Stern,Of,Large,Cargo,Ship,With,Smoke,Exhaust,Gas,Emissions

<p>Imagine the tranquility of a bright, sunny morning being disrupted by the loud bellowing of a massive ship's horn as it departs from the dock, leaving a trace of sulfur in its wake. </p>



<p>As the earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warmest year</a> on record, 2023 was characterized by such clamor, as more and more ships took to the seas.</p>



<p>But there's a twist. This time, nearly 20 percent of the year's record warmth was not caused by the grumbling engines of these vessels but the reduction in sulfur emissions from the shipping industry that occurred mainly in the northern hemisphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-emissions-in-ships">Sulfur emissions in ships</h2>



<p>Back in 2020, the <a href="https://www.imo.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Maritime Organization</a> took a significant step to curb pollution. They enforced regulations that deduced the sulfur content in global shipping fuel by about 80 percent.</p>



<p>Here's the interesting part: while the reduction did indeed lower the amount of sulfur aerosols being puffed into our atmosphere, it paradoxically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accelerated global warming</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-sulfur-cool-the-earth">How does sulfur cool the Earth?</h2>



<p>When ships burn fuel, they release sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. </p>



<p>This sulfur dioxide, when activated by sunlight, initiates a fascinating chemical dance in the atmosphere that results in the formation of sulfur aerosols. </p>



<p>Water droplets love to cling onto these aerosols, forming linear clouds known as "ship tracks".</p>



<p>Ever noticed how a cloudy day feels cooler than a sunny day? </p>



<p>That's because these clouds reflect sunlight, thus reducing the amount of heat that reaches the Earth's surface. So, the cloud count going down implies an inevitable rise in global temperatures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-future">Lessons for future</h2>



<p>The researchers made use of a machine learning approach to navigate a sea of over a million satellite images. They observed a 25 to 50 percent decline in visible ship tracks, and where the cloud count was down, the heat was up.</p>



<p>Visions of what the future holds, based on simulations of ship aerosols' effects in three climate models, suggest that we may be in for quite a heatwave. </p>



<p>Roughly half of the potential warming from the shipping emission changes materialized in just four years since 2020, according to the new study. </p>



<p>What's even more disconcerting is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-volcanic-past-reveals-the-shocking-reality-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more warming is expected</a> as the climate response continues to unfold.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ships-sulfur-and-temperature">Ships, sulfur, and temperature</h2>



<p>While sulfur emissions do contribute to temperature changes, they are not the sole culprit behind 2023's record warming. </p>



<p>Rather, changes in sulfur emissions are but one piece of a vast and intricate puzzle consisting of oscillating climate patterns and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-becomes-a-more-potent-greenhouse-gas-as-climate-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas concentrations</a>.</p>



<p>Aerosols, thanks to their cooling properties, play the role of a climate veil by hiding a portion of the warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions. </p>



<p>Problem is, while these aerosols can travel long distances and strongly affect the Earth's climate, they don't linger very long in the atmosphere. So when their concentrations decrease suddenly, temperatures can spike dramatically.</p>



<p>"Cleaning up air quality faster than limiting greenhouse gas emissions may be accelerating climate change," according to the study's authors. </p>



<p>In this era of rapid decarbonization, it is important to understand the potential magnitude of climate response.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-policy-implications">Navigating policy implications</h2>



<p>This research emphasizes the crucial link between environmental policy and climate science, highlighting the need for a holistic approach to address shipping emissions. </p>



<p>Policymakers should consider not only sulfur emissions but also their broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-just-experienced-its-hottest-day-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic impacts</a>. Balancing cleaner air with global temperature management is complex, and investing in alternative fuels is essential for sustainable maritime practices. </p>



<p>The findings call for collaborative dialogue among scientists, policymakers, and industry leaders to effectively tackle climate change mitigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sailing-into-the-unknown">Sailing into the unknown</h2>



<p>This research reveals that changes in ocean temperatures could result from modifications in ocean clouds. </p>



<p>These changes could be triggered incidentally by the sulfur associated with ship exhaust, or through deliberate climate intervention by reintroducing aerosols over the ocean.</p>



<p>However, several uncertainties linger. More precise data on ship positions and emissions, along with improved modeling that accurately represents potential oceanic feedback, could be the lighthouse guiding us towards a clearer understanding of the climate response to reduced sulfur emissions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Credit for this discovery goes to the formidable team at DOE's <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>. Under the leadership of Earth scientists Andrew Gettelman and Matthew Christensen.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL109077" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Reduced sulfur emissions from ships actually accelerated warming

Imagine the tranquility of a bright, sunny morning being disrupted...

<p>Starfish are often admired for their beauty and simplicity, but beneath the surface, they hold countless mysteries. </p>



<p>One of these mysteries was recently unveiled with the identification of a new starfish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-atlantic-sea-stars-are-crossbreeding-and-it-may-help-them-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> in Japan, drawing attention to the captivating and largely unexplored underwater world.</p>



<p>The discovery of the new starfish was largely thanks to the efforts of various organizations working in tandem. One institution that played a key role in this discovery was the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starfish-more-than-just-a-name">Starfish: More than just a name</h2>



<p>Before we get into the details of how this striking creature was found, let’s debunk a commonly held belief. </p>



<p>Despite their name, starfish are not truly fish. They are more akin to the prickly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchins-are-struggling-to-survive-because-they-cant-get-a-grip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea urchins</a> and squishy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-cucumbers-protect-coral-reefs-from-disease-and-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea cucumbers</a>.</p>



<p>Seemingly gentle and inactive when found stranded on a sandy beach, starfish are in fact significant predators, boasting up to 50 arms, capable of spanning a meter, and living for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interesting-facts-about-starfish">Interesting facts about starfish</h2>



<p>Starfish, also known as sea stars, are fascinating animals with extremely unique characteristics.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regeneration">Regeneration</h3>



<p>Starfish can regenerate lost arms. In some species, an entire new starfish can grow from just one severed arm, as long as part of the central disc is attached.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-brain-or-blood">No brain or blood</h3>



<p>Despite their complex behavior, starfish do not have a brain or blood. Instead, they use a water vascular system to circulate nutrients and oxygen throughout their body.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tube-feet">Tube feet</h3>



<p>Starfish move using hundreds of tiny tube feet located on the underside of their arms. These feet not only help them move but also allow them to grip surfaces and capture prey.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predatory-behavior-nbsp">Predatory behavior&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Many starfish species are voracious predators, particularly of bivalve mollusks like clams and oysters. They can pry open the shells with their strong arms and then evert their stomachs to digest the soft tissues inside.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starfish-species">Starfish species</h3>



<p>There are over 2,000 species of starfish found in all the world’s oceans, from tropical coral reefs to the deep sea.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-introducing-paragonaster-hoeimaruae">Introducing Paragonaster hoeimaruae</h2>



<p>Meet Paragonaster hoeimaruae, the newly discovered species of starfish. This distinctive creature belongs to the family Pseudarchasteridae and boasts a vibrant red and beige color, with five arms, spanning just over 10 centimeters. </p>



<p>The team gathered a variety of species from around Japan between 2021 and 2023. They were collected from shrimp and crab cages used by fishers in Hokkaido and Shizuoka prefectures, in northern and central Japan, respectively, and beam trawl surveys conducted by a Yamaguchi prefectural fisheries research ship. </p>



<p>"We discovered the starfish - newly named Paragonaster hoeimaruae - off the coast of the Izu Peninsula in the Sagami Bay, south of Tokyo. We also found another in the Sea of Japan, northwest of Yamaguchi Prefecture in southwestern Japan," noted lead researcher Itaru Kobayashi from the Misaki Marine Biological Station of the University of Tokyo. </p>



<p>"They were caught between 150 meters and 350 meters deep, have a well-proportioned body with five arms, and are a beautiful red on the surface and beige underneath."</p>



<p>The starfish's name, hoei, was taken from the fishing vessel Hoei-maru, which first collected the specimen. </p>



<p>Despite Japan being home to approximately 250 species of starfish, only four species of Pseudarchasteridae had been observed in Japanese waters until now. The astounding discovery of this new species highlights the rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1-8-million-species-are-yet-to-be-identified-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of marine life</a> in Japan.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-diversity-in-japanese-waters">Species diversity in Japanese waters </h2>



<p>Interestingly, the researchers also recorded other starfish species in locations different from where they had previously been found. One such starfish was Gephyreaster swifti, an impressively large starfish roughly 30 centimeters in diameter, found off the north coast of Hokkaido.</p>



<p>Until this moment, it had only been recorded across the Pacific west coast of the United States and Canada, all the way to islands in the Bering Sea to the north.</p>



<p>"About 250 species of starfish live around Japan, and we were surprised that one so large as this had been overlooked. Our research highlights how the diversity of species in Japanese waters is still underestimated," said Kobayashi. </p>



<p>The exciting research further highlights the value of community-driven scientific endeavors.</p>



<p>"These exciting discoveries show how important it is for fishers, aquariums, universities, and other research institutions to work together to better understand our oceans and marine biodiversity," said Kobayashi.</p>



<p>Paragonaster hoeimaruae is a testament to the beauty, mystery, and vastness of our oceans. It's a call to all of us to invest more effort into exploring our marine environment, ensuring its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deepwater-desperation-the-race-to-save-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preservation</a> for future generations.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <em><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00222933.2024.2377336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Natural History</a></em>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: I. Kobayashi</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

New starfish species discovered in Japan

Starfish are often admired for their beauty and simplicity, but...

<p>Have you ever noticed a baby babbling away at their favorite toy car, seeming to expect it to respond back? Or perhaps, you've been intrigued by their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-hear-far-more-speech-at-home-than-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to adapt</a> and learn from their environment? </p>



<p>Recently, a group of researchers at Cornell University delved into these very aspects of infant development. The study was led by Michael Goldstein, psychology professor and director of the Behavioral Analysis of Beginning Years (<a href="https://babylab.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">B.A.B.Y.</a>) laboratory at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>. </p>



<p>He and his team have been exploring the fascinating world of babies and their remarkable adaptability to learn language and social norms, with startling findings.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responding-to-the-babble-of-babies">Responding to the babble of babies </h2>



<p>At the heart of Goldstein's research was an unassuming remote-controlled car. This vehicle was programmed to approach babies and produce speech sounds in response to babbling. </p>



<p>The result? Within a mere 10 minutes, babies built strong expectations that the car would react to their vocalizations. </p>



<p>Astonishingly, when the car ceased responding, the babies reacted with intense spurts of babbling and play directed at the car - a stronger reaction than when they were interacting with people.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-is-everything">Timing is everything</h2>



<p>Goldstein's team discovered that, in the early stages of development, one of the main building blocks of learning where to direct one's attention depends on the concept of "contingency." </p>



<p>This term refers to caregivers' reactions that closely follow the baby's behavior. Going against the grain of what some developmental psychologists believe, the research showed that babies, particularly in their first year, are highly flexible in what they can learn from. In this case, they were learning from machines that lack human features.</p>



<p>"What’s built into the baby is to pay attention to timing, and the world takes care of the rest. Babies are learning machines, and it’s on the adults to be responsive in the right ways to drive that learning," explained Goldstein.</p>



<p>This discovery challenges some beliefs that infants, like other slowly maturing animals, depend on innate knowledge, such as face recognition, for learning. Goldstein's findings point towards a different direction. "We’re showing the opposite," he insists.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remote-controlled-car-and-babbling-babies">Remote-controlled car and babbling babies</h2>



<p>Expanding the scope of their experiment, more than 60 infants, aged 7 and 8 months, were introduced to a large playroom. </p>



<p>Inside, unfamiliar people or a remote-controlled car would respond to their babbling, replicating the same reactions their caregivers would. In some cases, the car or person responded following the baby's vocalizations, while in other situations, they responded sporadically and not triggered by the infant's sounds.</p>



<p>The researchers believe that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-do-babies-start-gaining-their-consciousness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptability the babies</a> displayed, which appears to start around five months, is beneficial while they learn how to learn. However, they hypothesize that this might fade as the babies gain language proficiency.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



<p>These findings could provide insight into the fundamental mechanisms of learning. Goldstein's lab is now focused on researching babies at risk for autism.</p>



<p>Unlike typically developing babies, these infants may prefer more predictable response rates, which could influence their learning processes. By understanding these preferences, experts hope to uncover important aspects of cognitive development and learning in children with autism.</p>



<p>This research aims to contribute to the broader knowledge of how different factors affect learning behavior and could lead to more tailored approaches in early intervention strategies for at-risk infants. Continued exploration in this area is essential for advancing our understanding of autism.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-context-in-learning">Role of context in learning </h2>



<p>Contextual factors also play a crucial role in how infants acquire language and social skills. Goldstein's research highlights that the environment in which a baby is situated can significantly influence their learning outcomes. </p>



<p>For instance, familiar contexts, such as the home environment, provide a richer tapestry of interaction, which aids infants in making connections between their vocalizations and responses from caregivers or toys. </p>



<p>When novel elements, like a remote-controlled car, are introduced into this familiar context, babies exhibit heightened levels of curiosity and engagement, further underscoring their remarkable capacity to adapt and learn from diverse stimuli.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-babbling-babies">A new perspective on babbling babies </h2>



<p>So, next time you see a baby having a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-babies-in-parentese-boosts-their-language-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">one-sided conversation</a> with a toy, remember, they might be picking up more than you think. </p>



<p>As Goldstein's study shows, babies are truly learning machines, constantly adapting and absorbing from their environment – even from a remote-controlled car. It's a reminder for us adults to interact with our little ones more consciously, tailoring our responses to facilitate their learning.</p>



<p>These findings were funded by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and are published in the journal Infancy, under the title “Contingency Enables the Formation of Social Expectations About an Artificial Agent.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/infa.12614" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Infancy</a></em>.</p>



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Babies need quick responses to their babbling to learn language

Have you ever noticed a baby babbling away at their...

<p>The concept of "crazy cat ladies" has been firmly etched into our cultural psyche through popular media, with iconic portrayals ranging from Eleanor Abernathy in The Simpsons to Angela Martin in The US Office.</p>



<p>Can you think of other such characters? The stereotypical portrayal often depicts such individuals as neurotic solitaires. But are these portrayals based on a shred of truth, or merely figments of creative imagination?</p>



<p>A recent study from Down Under suggests that there may, surprisingly, be a larger grain of truth to the stereotype than we initially thought.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crazy-cat-lady-phenomenon">"Crazy cat lady" phenomenon</h2>



<p>This distinctive study was led by two diligent psychologists, Jessica Oliva and Leah Michelle Baines, affiliated with <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a> in Queensland, Australia.</p>



<p>While their research did not specifically probe into the "crazy cat lady" phenomenon, it unearthed some eye-opening findings that lend credibility to its existence.</p>



<p>"Cat ownership positively predicted neuroticism," the experts noted in their report, which is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08927936.2024.2378592" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anthrozoos</a></em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facts-on-crazy-cat-people">Facts on 'crazy cat people'</h2>



<p>The study conducted by Oliva and Baines involved an in-depth survey of 321 Australian adults, a mix of dog owners, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-mourn-the-loss-of-other-pets-similar-to-human-grief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cat</a> owners, and those who didn't own pets.</p>



<p>Survey participants who owned both dogs and cats were asked to choose the pet they were closest to or spent the most time with, to be classified as a dog <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-experience-puppy-blues-with-a-new-pet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">owner</a> or cat owner. Overall, 60% of this group chose dogs.</p>



<p>Every participant was scrutinized for various personality traits that included extroversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and resilience. After accounting for other factors such as age and gender, the results were quite revealing.</p>



<p>Dog owners, it seems, bagged the prize for resilience. Simply put, they were evidently better at managing and adapting to challenging situations. Cat owners, on the other hand, portrayed heightened levels of neuroticism. </p>



<p>Interestingly, among cat owners, it was the women who outscored men on the neuroticism scale, giving some weightage to the crazy cat lady stereotype. But it's not a woman's game alone. The research also uncovered the existence of a "crazy cat gentleman."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeling-the-layers">Peeling the layers</h2>



<p>These findings may raise more questions than they answer. What's causing these differential behaviors among our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homeless-pet-owners-need-better-options-to-protect-their-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feline-loving and canine-adoring friends</a>? Could it be that people who are more introverted or neurotic choose cats, while the adaptable ones prefer dogs? Do our genes hold the key to this mystery?</p>



<p>"There is evidence to support the idea that genes guide ownership of a particular species," said Dr. Oliva. Another aspect to ponder is whether owning a cat can render someone more neurotic compared to owning a dog.</p>



<p>For instance, dogs need more outdoor time and hence, the owner naturally gets to spend more time outdoors, engage in social interactions, and potentially curb neurotic tendencies. In contrast, as cats are relatively low maintenance, their owners might not get the same level of social interaction.</p>



<p>Another angle Dr. Oliva brings to the light is the proven difference between "dog people" and "cat people."</p>



<p>"Dog ownership has been associated with reduced loneliness in people living alone during periods of prolonged isolation, like Covid lockdowns, suggestive of higher levels of resilience in dog owners," she noted.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



<p>To sum it up, the study intriguingly suggests that cat owners might be more prone to anxiety and stress than dog owners. </p>



<p>Whether this is down to temperament, genetics, or simply the nature and needs of the pet, requires further exploration. So, is the concept of crazy cat ladies (and gentlemen) a dramatic exaggeration, or mere art imitating life?</p>



<p>But remember, while these findings are fascinating to ponder, they are not universally true for every cat or dog <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/owning-a-pet-can-lead-to-more-restless-nights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">owner</a> out there. So, if you are a cat owner, don't worry - it doesn't mean you are neurotic. And if you are a dog owner, don't get too self-assured - resilience isn't a given. </p>



<p>At the end of the day, we are as beautifully unique and complex as the pets we adore. Let's embrace that.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a class="" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08927936.2024.2378592" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Anthrozoos</em></a>.&nbsp; </p>



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Are cat people really more 'crazy' than dog lovers?

The concept of "crazy cat ladies" has been firmly etched...

<p>Researchers have collaborated to explore the unique growth and development patterns of early mammals from the Jurassic period. </p>



<p>By examining growth rings in fossilized tooth roots, paleontologists have been able to determine the lifespan, growth rates, and even the timing of sexual maturity in these ancient creatures. Their findings have been published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado4555" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science Advances</em></a>.</p>



<p>“Never before have we been able to reconstruct the growth patterns of these early mammals in such detail,” said Elis Newham, the lead author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>. During the study, Newham was also a research fellow at the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/university/university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bonn</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-during-the-jurassic-nbsp">Mammals during the Jurassic&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experts focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teeth-fossils-prehistoric-dentistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossilized tooth</a> roots from various mammal species dating from the Early to Late Jurassic periods (200-150 million years ago) discovered at three distinct sites. </p>



<p>The fossils found in Wales are among the oldest known mammalian precursors from the Early Jurassic, while those from Oxfordshire, UK, represent a diverse range of early mammals that coexisted. The third site in Portugal provided fossils dating from the Late Jurassic.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synchrotron-x-ray-tomography">Synchrotron X-ray tomography</h2>



<p>To analyze the fossils, the team employed synchrotron X-ray tomography, a technique where electrons are accelerated to near light speed, offering several advantages over traditional X-ray imaging.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This method allows the fossils to be analyzed intact, without the need for slicing, and produces higher quality images than conventional X-ray microtomography.</p>



<p>“We use synchrotron x-ray tomography of annual growth increments in the dental cementum of mammaliaforms (stem and crown fossil mammals) from three faunas across the Jurassic to map the origin of patterns of mammalian growth patterns, which are intrinsically related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ear-canals-may-reveal-when-mammals-became-warm-blooded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian endothermy</a>,” explained the researchers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-growth-rings-nbsp">Microscopic growth rings&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Using this advanced imaging technique, the experts were able to observe microscopic growth rings in the fossilized root cement, the bone tissue that connects teeth to the jaw.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The rings are similar to those in trees, but on a microscopic level,” said senior author Thomas Martin from the University of Bonn's Vertebrates – Mammals working group.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Counting the rings and analyzing their thickness and texture enabled us to reconstruct the growth patterns and lifespans of these extinct animals.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jurassic-mammals-grew-more-slowly">Jurassic mammals grew more slowly</h2>



<p>The study revealed that the first signs of growth patterns typical of modern mammals, such as puberty growth spurts, began to appear around 150 million years ago.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Unlike today's small mammals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredible-discovery-some-mammals-attacked-dinosaurs-and-they-often-won-the-battle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early</a> mammals grew much more slowly but had significantly longer lifespans, living eight to fourteen years instead of the one or two years typical of modern small mammals like mice. </p>



<p>However, early mammals also took much longer to reach <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/respiratory-stress-is-linked-to-the-sexual-maturation-of-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual maturity</a>, often requiring several years, compared to the few months needed by their modern counterparts.</p>



<p>“Although all fossils studied exhibited slower growth rates, longer life spans, and delayed sexual maturity relative to comparably sized extant mammals, the earliest crown mammals developed significantly faster growth rates in early life that reduced at sexual maturity, compared to stem mammaliaforms,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinctive-life-history-patterns-of-mammals">Distinctive life history patterns of mammals</h2>



<p>The experts noted that the estimation of basal metabolic rates (BMRs) suggests that some fossil crown mammals had BMRs approaching the lowest rates of extant mammals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We suggest that mammalian growth patterns first evolved during their mid-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-extinction-may-hold-clues-about-our-oceans-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jurassic</a> adaptive radiation, although growth remained slower than in extant mammals.”</p>



<p>According to Newham, the findings suggest that the distinctive life history patterns of mammals, characterized by high metabolic rates and extended parental care phases for example, have evolved over millions of years. “The Jurassic period appears to have been a crucial time for this shift,” said Newham.</p>



<p>According to the study authors, the the mid-Jurassic radiation of crown mammals occurred coevally with the acquisition of the modern mammalian growth strategy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“However, physiological evolution followed a long-fuse pattern, with considerable developments remaining between the earliest crown mammals and extant species.”</p>



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Early mammals had slower growth rates and lived longer 

Researchers have collaborated to explore the unique growth and development...

<p>What if there were atmospheric anomalies resembling letters floating in the sky, subtly shifting and changing, that could profoundly impact our global communication signals?</p>



<p>This might sound like a line straight out of a science fiction novel, but it's just another fascinating phenomenon in the ever-mysterious world of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-rocket-launch-ripped-a-hole-in-earths-ionosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ionosphere</a>. </p>



<p>Floating 50 to 400 miles above our heads, directly beneath the lowest reaches of space, the ionosphere is a dynamic layer of Earth's atmosphere teeming with charged particles. </p>



<p>Jeffrey Klenzing, a research scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, noted that these discoveries are helping scientists see how complex Earth’s atmosphere is, while showing that it’s more variable than expected.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-superhighway-for-radio-signals">A superhighway for radio signals</h2>



<p>This charged plasma acts as a crucial superhighway for radio signals, which are instrumental in the functioning of navigation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/communications-satellites-may-disrupt-astronomical-observations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication satellites</a> orbiting our planet. </p>



<p>However, this fascinating layer of the atmosphere is not merely a conduit for signals; it is also home to a myriad of unsolved mysteries. One such enigma comes in the form of unusual alphabetic phenomena.</p>



<p>These mysterious X- and C-shaped formations have perplexed astronomers for quite some time and could potentially disrupt our sophisticated and highly dependent network of satellites.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formations-and-signals-in-the-atmosphere">Formations and signals in the atmosphere</h2>



<p>Traditionally, these X-shaped structures were observed in the ionospheric plasma following <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severe-solar-storm-will-generate-auroras-as-far-south-as-alabama/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar storms</a> or significant weather events on Earth. </p>



<p>For instance, massive eruptions, such as the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai eruption in January 2022, can create these formations by propelling particles into Earth's atmosphere, reaching as far as space. </p>



<p>Similarly, thunderstorms and hurricanes can generate pressure waves that travel upward to the ionosphere, potentially shaping these structures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-quiet-time-formations">Unexpected quiet-time formations</h2>



<p>But now, an intriguing discovery made by the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/gold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GOLD mission</a>, a NASA-orchestrated research initiative, has completely upended our previous understanding of atmospheric formations.</p>



<p>"NASA’s GOLD mission is the first one to observe the alphabetical shapes unambiguously," said Fazlul Laskar, lead author of a study on the X shapes and a research scientist at the <a href="https://www.cu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado</a>. </p>



<p>Surprisingly, the X- and C-shaped features have been observed even during "quiet times" when there were no apparent atmospheric disturbances. </p>



<p>"The (appearance of the) X is odd because it implies that there are far more localized driving factors," noted Klenzing.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unknown-origins-of-atmospheric-formations">Unknown origins of atmospheric formations </h2>



<p>The mystery deepens further when considering the phenomena's unexpected timing. Typically, the sun's radiation weakens at night, often causing low-density bubbles to form in the ionosphere during these calm periods.</p>



<p>Yet, these X and C formations have been detected during periods of solar tranquility, challenging our conventional explanations and prompting new questions about their origins. </p>



<p>"It’s a little like a tree growing in a windy area. If the winds are typically to the east, the tree starts to tilt and grow in that direction," said Klenzing. This analogy helps illustrate how atmospheric forces may shape these formations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interference-with-gps-signals">Interference with GPS signals</h2>



<p>Understanding the mysterious formations in the atmosphere has implications that extend far beyond mere scientific curiosity. Karan, lead author of the study on C-shapes, stated: "It’s really important to find out why this is happening."</p>



<p>The ionosphere's dynamic behavior can directly influence our global communication and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigation systems</a>. </p>



<p>For example, these curiously shaped crests and bubbles can interfere with the transmission of GPS signals, potentially leading to signal degradation or complete loss. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-consequences">Real-world consequences</h2>



<p>A notable instance of this disruption occurred during a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severe-geomagnetic-storm-alert-issued-sun-begins-erupting-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geomagnetic storm</a> on May 10, which resulted in difficulties with GPS guidance systems, as reported by the tractor company John Deere.</p>



<p>"During solar storms, that signal hits a ‘fog’ of charged particles and can be lost," explained Tim Marquis, a senior product manager at John Deere.</p>



<p>Such disruptions can have wide-ranging effects, given the pivotal role that GPS signals play in critical sectors like agriculture, shipping, transportation, and construction. </p>



<p>"There could be life-threatening impacts due to the sudden loss of GPS signals in aircraft, ships, and automobiles, which is even scary to imagine," said Karan.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-atmospheric-research">Future of atmospheric research</h2>



<p>The GOLD mission, along with future scientific endeavors, aims to unravel the complex and enigmatic mysteries of the ionosphere. </p>



<p>"One thing we need to have is a space weather forecasting system that could tell us when we are going to have problems with GPS signals," said Laskar.</p>



<p>There is great hope that a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of these atmospheric phenomena can pave the way for accurately predicting ionospheric dynamics. </p>



<p>Such predictive capability could be crucial in helping us anticipate and mitigate GPS signal loss and interruptions to satellite communications, ensuring a safer, more reliable interaction with our atmosphere and the technologies that depend on it.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio</p>



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Alphabet-shaped formations in the atmosphere have unknown origins

What if there were atmospheric anomalies resembling letters floating in...

<p>Once upon a time, around 135 million years ago, a unique crocodile roamed the seas during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spinosaurid-found-in-portugal-had-a-crocodile-like-skull/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age of dinosaurs</a>. This marine predator, recently identified as Enalioetes schroederi, offers a fascinating glimpse into the diversity and lifestyle of ancient marine creatures.</p>



<p>The discovery of this species unveils a new chapter in our understanding of prehistoric crocodiles. The tale is set in the shallow seas of Germany during the Cretaceous Period, when Enalioetes schroederi thrived. </p>



<p>The crocodile belonged to the unique Metriorhynchidae family, distinguished by their dolphin-like bodies, smooth scaleless skin, flippers, and a tailfin.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-well-preserved-three-dimensional-skull">Well-preserved, three-dimensional skull</h2>



<p>Metriorhynchids, primarily known from the Jurassic Period, hunted various prey - squid, fish, and even other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-known-marine-reptile-a-giant-ichthyosaur-has-been-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine reptiles</a>. </p>



<p>But as Earth moved into the Cretaceous Period, their fossils began to fade from the record. The well-preserved, three-dimensional skull of the Enalioetes schroederi stands as the most significant metriorhynchid discovery from this era.</p>



<p>Sven Sachs, the project leader from <a href="https://namu-ev.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld</a>, expressed his fascination. "The specimen is remarkable as it is one very few metriorhynchids that is known by a three-dimensionally preserved skull."</p>



<p>The exceptional condition of the specimen enabled CT scans, revealing hidden secrets of the internal anatomy of these marine crocodiles. The experts were able to reconstruct internal cavities and even the inner ears of the animal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-ancient-crocodiles">Evolution of ancient crocodiles</h2>



<p>Enalioetes sheds light on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-ecology-shaped-250-million-years-of-crocodile-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of metriorhynchids during the Cretaceous Period. Dr. Mark Young from the University of Edinburgh’s School of GeoSciences gives us a deeper understanding of the significance of the discovery.</p>



<p>"During the Jurassic, metriorhynchids evolved a body-plan radically different from other crocodiles - flippers, tailfin, loss of bony armor and smooth scaleless skin," explained Dr. Young. This transformation was driven by adaptations to an increasingly marine lifestyle.</p>



<p>Enalioetes had larger eyes and more compact bony inner ears than other metriorhynchids, which indicates it was a faster swimmer. These traits also suggest that the transformation of metriorhynchids continued into the Cretaceous.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tale-of-the-lost-and-found-fossil">The tale of the lost and found fossil</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the perfectly preserved skull and first neck vertebrae were discovered more than a century ago by German government architect D. Hapke in a quarry near Hannover. The specimen was assumed lost during WWII,  but was later rediscovered in the Minden Museum, Western Germany.</p>



<p>Initially studied by Henry Schroeder of the Prussian Geological Survey in Berlin, the species was eventually named in his honor.</p>



<p>The conclusions drawn from this discovery were possible only through a meticulous comparison of the newly found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pseudosuchians-ancient-crocodile-like-reptile-discovered-brazil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> with other museum collections. </p>



<p>This comparative study confirmed that the fossil belonged to a species new to science, reinforcing our curiosity and fascination with the world's prehistoric times.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ecological-role-of-an-ancient-crocodile">The ecological role of an ancient crocodile </h2>



<p>Understanding the ecological role of Enalioetes schroederi provides valuable insight into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/">prehistoric marine</a> ecosystems. </p>



<p>As a member of the Metriorhynchidae family, this ancient marine crocodile occupied a significant niche in the Cretaceous seas. With its streamlined body and adaptations for aquatic life, Enalioetes was likely an apex predator, preying on a variety of marine life, including fish and cephalopods.</p>



<p>Fossil evidence suggests that metriorhynchids, including Enalioetes, played a crucial role in maintaining the balance of prehistoric marine ecosystems. The hunting habits would have influenced the populations of their prey, helping to shape the biodiversity of their environment. </p>



<p>Furthermore, the presence of such predators indicates a thriving ecosystem with a range of prey species, underscoring the importance of these creatures in our understanding of ancient marine life.</p>



<p>Moreover, studying the dietary habits and ecological interactions of Enalioetes schroederi can shed light on how marine reptile predators adapted over time in response to environmental changes. As climate and sea levels fluctuated throughout the Cretaceous, these adaptations would have been critical for survival. </p>



<p>The fossil record not only provides a glimpse into the physical characteristics of these ancient creatures but also presents an opportunity to explore their behavior and ecological significance in the broader context of Earth’s history.</p>



<p>As researchers continue to analyze the find from Hannover, it opens up avenues for further studies into the evolutionary trends of marine reptiles and their ecosystems. </p>



<p>Image Credit: Joschua Knüppe</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2024.2359946" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Ancient crocodile had dolphin-like flippers and smooth skin

Once upon a time, around 135 million years ago, a...

<p>The moon has fascinated astronomers and poets alike for centuries, but did you know it also holds sway over the life-and-death struggles of some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> fish? As it turns out, for the sixbar wrasse, the moon's cycle plays a pivotal role in deciding their sex and survival.</p>



<p>Jeff Shima, an esteemed professor of ecology at Te Herenga Waka—<a href="https://www.wgtn.ac.nz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Victoria University of Wellington</a>, trekked into the depths of reef life to understand the spawning patterns of the sixbar wrasse. </p>



<p>His latest study illuminates how this fish species manipulates the moon's cycle to give their offspring the best chance at survival, and throws open the doors to some mind-boggling biological strategies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-moon-cycle-code">Cracking the moon cycle code</h2>



<p>It's no secret that sixbars spawn most often on a new moon. But here's the clincher: offspring born at this time are least likely to survive. A downright paradox, right? </p>



<p>Drilling deeper, Shima's research revealed that sixbar offspring born on a new moon needed to change their developmental rates. </p>



<p>"We've known sixbars spawn most often on the new moon, but this pattern has been particularly puzzling because&nbsp;offspring&nbsp;born at this time are least likely to survive. In contrast, offspring born closer to the full moon do much better.</p>



<p>"What we found is that in order to survive, sixbar offspring born on a new moon needed to alter their development rates, which ultimately shaped their sexual maturation and meant they were more likely to become male," said Professor Shima.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-gambles-and-the-reef-fish">Moon gambles and the reef fish</h2>



<p>It may sound like a high-stakes gamble. However, the study suggests that it might be a calculated risk. Surprisingly, the few babies who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-coral-reef-fish-survive-in-the-worlds-warmest-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manage to survive</a> are more likely to become male. And in the unique mating system of the sixbar wrasse, males have the advantage as they can produce many more offspring.</p>



<p>"Most of these babies won't survive, but the few that do are more likely to become male and that's akin to winning the lottery as males can produce many more offspring in the sixbar mating system.</p>



<p>"However, we think the spawning patterns of these fish may be calculated to spread their bets, with low-risk wagers (full moon spawning) coupled with some high-risk ones - in this case, spawning on the new moon."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-fish-in-the-company-of-the-moon">Reef fish in the company of the moon</h2>



<p>The moon's influence doesn't end here. Its cycle has also been linked to the growth rates of young sixbars. </p>



<p>"As larvae, sixbar wrasse can lengthen or delay their development to arrive at the reefs at the most opportune times, under cover of darkness," adds Shima. </p>



<p>The mystery of the lunar cycle and sea-life continues to unfold. Yet, the challenges in this delicate balance are many.</p>



<p>"Moonlight is affected by artificial light at night from coastal urban areas, as well as from dramatic changes in the distribution and intensity of cloud cover - a result of climate change," notes Shima.</p>



<p>"These human-induced changes in nocturnal illumination may have large, and largely unrecognized, consequences for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-corals-and-fish-in-an-exclusive-relationship-its-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth, survival</a>, and reproductive success of organisms in some areas."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-moon-phases-for-reef-fish">Importance of moon phases for reef fish</h2>



<p>The timing of spawning events for the sixbar wrasse is an elegant dance shaped by the rhythmic pulse of the moon’s phases. </p>



<p>As Shima’s research underscores, this synchronization is not merely coincidence; it reflects an evolutionary strategy fine-tuned over generations. </p>



<p>By aligning their reproductive cycles with the new moon, sixbars increase the chances of their eggs being released amid the ebb and flow of ocean currents, dispersing them across vast areas.</p>



<p>This strategy enhances genetic diversity, which is paramount for the species’ resilience against environmental changes and predation. The challenge lies in ensuring that enough offspring survive to continue this delicate balance, as the numbers are heavily skewed against them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-reef-ecosystems">Implications for reef ecosystems</h2>



<p>The implications of Shima's findings extend beyond the sixbar wrasse, touching upon broader conservation concerns within marine ecosystems. </p>



<p>With the moon's luminance swinging between extremes and the introduction of artificial light, there is an urgent call to preserve the natural darkness of coastal habitats. This artificial illumination can disrupt the delicate synchrony between spawning and survival, potentially leading to cascading effects on reef biodiversity. </p>



<p>The resilience of the sixbar wrasse, as unveiled in Shima's research, serves as a poignant reminder of how intricately connected the lives of marine species are to their environmental context. </p>



<p>Thus, understanding these interactions is critical for the effective preservation of not only the sixbar wrasse but also the rich tapestry of life within reef ecosystems.</p>



<p>The findings lead us to an intriguing question: Have some species evolved reproductive strategies that use the moon to determine the sex of their offspring? Has nature devised a celestial ballet between the moon and marine life?</p>



<p>While researchers work to unravel these mysteries, we might just have to be content with marveling at the intelligence of species like the sixbar wrasse, who've found a way to dance with the moon.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>----</p>

Some fish use the moon cycle to manipulate their offspring's sex

The moon has fascinated astronomers and poets alike for centuries,...

<p>The <a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) is responsible for ensuring the safety of the U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-climate-action-needed-to-secure-global-food-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food supply</a>, but a new study reveals that the agency has taken a hands-off approach when it comes to the safety of many additives already in our food.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-regulation-of-food-additives-nbsp">Self-regulation of food additives<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>Under current regulations, the FDA allows the food industry to self-regulate thousands of added ingredients. Companies decide on their own which ingredients are classified as “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) and whether to disclose their use and safety data to the FDA.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This self-regulation has led to many new substances entering the food supply without government oversight.</p>



<p>“Both the FDA and the public are unaware of how many of these ingredients - which are most commonly found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-processed-foods-are-harmful-to-nearly-every-part-of-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultra-processed foods</a> - are in our food supply,” said Jennifer Pomeranz, associate professor at <a href="https://publichealth.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU School of Global Public Health</a> and the study’s lead author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legal-loophole">A legal loophole</h2>



<p>Since 1958, the FDA has been responsible for evaluating the safety of new chemicals and substances added to foods. However, food safety laws distinguish between “food additives,” which require FDA review, and GRAS ingredients, which are exempt. </p>



<p>Initially, GRAS status was intended for well-known substances like vinegar, but since 1997, the FDA has allowed companies to determine whether new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-additives-linked-to-higher-risk-of-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substances</a> qualify as GRAS, often without notifying the FDA or sharing safety data.</p>



<p>Study senior author Dariush Mozaffarian, director of the Food is Medicine Institute at <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tufts University</a>, said that as a result of the FDA’s policy, the food industry has been free to “self-GRAS” new substances they wish to add to foods without notifying FDA or the public. </p>



<p>“There are now hundreds, if not thousands, of substances added to our foods for which the true safety data are unknown to independent scientists, the government, and the public.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-resources-needed-to-review-food-additives-nbsp">More resources needed to review food additives<strong>&nbsp;</strong></h2>



<p>The study highlights that the FDA lacks the resources and formal strategies needed to review existing food additives and GRAS substances. Even when new research suggests potential harm, FDA actions are rare.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In March, the FDA announced it would review 21 chemicals, including potassium bromate, a substance added to baked goods and drinks that has been linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-cancer-rates-in-young-adults-linked-to-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a>. Potassium bromate is banned in several countries, and states like California have also moved to ban it.</p>



<p>“This is a stark example of the FDA’s regulatory gap,” said Pomeranz. “We’re seeing states starting to act to fill the regulatory void left by the FDA’s inaction over substances increasingly associated with harm.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimal-oversight-of-food-additives">Minimal oversight of food additives</h2>



<p>The study also points out that the FDA’s oversight of GRAS ingredients is minimal. The agency rarely revokes GRAS status, and it doesn’t consistently review the safety of ingredients that may be safe in small quantities but harmful in larger amounts, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-caffeine-levels-reduce-the-risk-of-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caffeine</a>. </p>



<p>“In 1977, the FDA approved caffeine as a GRAS substance for use in sodas at a low level: 0.02 percent,” said Pomeranz. “But today, caffeine is added to energy drinks at levels far exceeding this, which is causing caffeine-related hospitalizations and even deaths.”</p>



<p>Emily Broad Leib is a co-author of the study and director of <a href="https://hls.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Law School</a>’s Center for Health Law and Policy Innovation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ensuring-a-safe-food-supply">Ensuring a safe food supply</h2>



<p>Leib argued that the sheer number of GRAS substances and food additives on the market - combined with the lack of knowledge about the existence of self-GRAS ingredients, insufficient resources, and documented time delays even for well-supported action - renders reliance on post-market authority flawed and unreliable to ensure a safe food supply.</p>



<p>The researchers recommend that the FDA and Congress take several actions to improve oversight, such as requiring companies to notify the FDA of GRAS ingredient use and share safety data before these ingredients are added to foods. They also suggest establishing a process to reevaluate the safety of existing GRAS ingredients and food additives.</p>



<p>“Both the FDA and Congress can do more to enable the FDA to meet its mission of ensuring a safe food supply,” concluded Pomeranz.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Hundreds of ingredients in U.S. foods are potentially unsafe

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for ensuring...

<p>Can we make Mars a bit friendlier for life as we know it? Ever since we learned how harsh and frigid the Red Planet is, the idea of terraforming Mars has been a hot topic of discussion in both science and science-fiction circles.</p>



<p>A team of scientists has come up with a fresh, innovative idea for terraforming Mars. They’re suggesting that we might boost Mars' temperature by over 50 degrees Fahrenheit by releasing engineered dust particles into its atmosphere. </p>



<p>This approach could trigger a greenhouse effect, trapping heat and making the planet more habitable. If it works, it might be a crucial first step toward turning Mars into a place where humans could eventually live.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proposal-to-terraform-mars">Proposal to terraform Mars</h2>



<p>Behind this innovative idea are Samaneh Ansari, a graduate student in Professor Hooman Mohseni's group at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>, and Edwin Kite, an associate professor of geophysical sciences at <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>.</p>



<p>So, what makes this method unique and promising? The resources necessary for this approach already exist on Mars, which is a far cry from earlier proposals that would require importing materials from Earth or mining rare Martian resources.</p>



<p>The proposed method is also touted to be 5,000 times more efficient than previous schemes, marking a substantial leap forward in our potential ability to transform the Martian environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-human-habitation-on-mars">Challenges of human habitation on Mars</h2>



<p>However, the question arises: Can humans ever stroll the Martian landscape without protection? The answer is not as easy. </p>



<p>While this method could lay the groundwork for making Mars habitable for microbes and food crops, it doesn't make the planet hospitable for humans right off the bat. </p>



<p>In theory, these crops could slowly introduce oxygen to the atmosphere, much like Earth's geological history.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-warming-up-mars">Challenges in warming up Mars</h2>



<p>Any plan to make Mars habitable has an array of challenges that must be addressed, including fatal UV rays, salty soil, and the planet’s exceedingly cold temperature. Mars' surface averages around -80 degrees Fahrenheit!</p>



<p>The proposed strategy uses Mars' natural greenhouse effect, wherein released material in the atmosphere traps solar heat at the surface. </p>



<p>But simple dust particles rich in iron and aluminum are not suitable to warm the planet. The story takes an interesting turn when these particles are engineered and given different shapes or compositions. These modified particles could potentially improve heat trapping.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-particle-design-to-warm-mars">Innovative particle design to warm Mars</h2>



<p>“How light interacts with sub-wavelength objects is fascinating. Importantly, engineering nanoparticles can lead to optical effects that far exceed what is conventionally expected from such small particles,” said study co-author Ansari Mohseni.</p>



<p>“We believe it is possible to design nanoparticles with higher efficiency, and even those that can dynamically change their optical properties.”</p>



<p>Take glitter, for example. The team designed particles similar to it in size but shaped like short rods, capable of trapping escaping heat and scattering sunlight towards the surface. </p>



<p>This approach could not only change how we see Mars but also opens up fascinating insights into how light interacts with sub-wavelength objects.</p>



<p>But will this revolutionary idea sail smooth? Maybe not. There are a lot of unknowns. For instance, how fast would the engineered dust cycle out of Mars’ atmosphere?</p>



<p>What would happen if the planet, once warmed, starts producing rain due to condensation around these dust particles? Tackling these potential issues would require more data from both Mars and Earth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-and-private-collaboration">Public and private collaboration</h2>



<p>As we ramp up efforts to terraform Mars, the partnership between public space agencies and private companies is more important than ever. </p>



<p>Organizations like NASA and the European Space Agency, teaming up with companies like SpaceX, can combine their resources and talents to push Martian exploration forward. This collaboration can speed up research and help us test terraforming ideas more effectively. </p>



<p>Plus, involving the public through educational outreach and citizen science projects can spark the curiosity of a new generation of scientists and engineers, encouraging them to tackle the exciting challenges of making Mars a friendlier place to live.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-considerations-in-warming-up-mars">Considerations in warming up Mars</h2>



<p>Amid the excitement surrounding terraforming, ethical considerations must also be addressed. The implications of altering an entire planetary ecosystem cannot be understated. </p>



<p>Questions arise about the potential impact on any existing Martian microbial life and the moral responsibility humanity holds when intervening in natural processes beyond Earth. </p>



<p>Additionally, as we pursue making Mars habitable, it is crucial to ensure that the exploitation of Martian resources does not mirror historical injustices experienced on Earth. </p>



<p>Establishing a clear framework of ethics and regulations governing terraforming efforts will be vital in guiding our stewardship of the Red Planet and safeguarding its integrity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-the-future">Hope for the future</h2>



<p>Despite the challenges ahead, the study leaves us with hope and intrigue. The new research has not only opened fresh avenues for exploration but also brought us one step closer to potentially establishing a sustainable human presence on Mars.</p>



<p>So, while we might not be packing our bags for a Martian trip just yet, the future does seem brighter - and just a bit warmer - for our celestial neighbor.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn4650#:" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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New plan to terraform Mars would make it habitable for humans

Can we make Mars a bit friendlier for life as...

<p>A recent study has stirred up conversations in scientific circles and even rippled out to capture public intrigue. The captivating subject matter? Intermittent fasting and its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-secret-ingredient-to-healthy-aging-your-midlife-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential anti-aging perks</a>—a topic far more digestible than the dread-spurred headlines of fresh diseases or impending pandemics.</p>



<p>Riding the wave of this eye-opening research were noteworthy scientists, directed by Dr. Ioanna Daskalaki and Dr. Ilias Gkikas. They worked under the guidance of Dr. Nektarios Tavernarakis of the <a href="https://en.uoc.gr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Crete</a> and FORTH, Greece.</p>



<p>The researchers partnered with Dr. Guido Kroemer's team at <a href="https://u-paris.fr/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Cité University</a>, France, and Dr. Frank Madeo's group at the <a href="https://www.uni-graz.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Graz</a>, Austria. Together, they took on the task of unraveling the enigma of aging and longevity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-intermittent-fasting">Decoding intermittent fasting</h2>



<p>Lately, Intermittent Fasting (IF) has been the buzzword. But what does it mean? IF is a pattern of eating that alternates between fasting and eating intervals. </p>



<p>It's more of a lifestyle choice than a diet, propelled by regimes like the 16/8 method and the 5:2 method. IF has won favor for its potential benefits in metabolic health, cellular repair, and speculated anti-aging perks. </p>



<p>In essence, intermittent fasting gives our bodies a much-needed hiatus to rest, reset, and repair, thereby fostering longevity and well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-the-cellular-cleanup-crew">Autophagy: The cellular cleanup crew</h2>



<p>In this enlightening study, the researchers underscored an incredible revelation: Intermittent fasting boosts spermidine levels. This naturally occurring polyamine bolsters our cells with phenomenal resilience and survival rates. This increase is facilitated by a process known as autophagy.</p>



<p>In plain terms, autophagy is like a cellular cleanup crew, eliminating unrequired or dysfunctional cellular components. </p>



<p>However, any disruption to autophagy, much like a congested garbage chute in a residential building, often paves the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japanese-diet-puts-the-brakes-on-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">way for aging</a> and the onset of age-related diseases, such as diabetes, heart diseases, cancers, and neurodegenerative diseases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spermidine-cells-valiant-defender">Spermidine: Cells' valiant defender</h2>



<p>In our cells' battle against aging, spermidine steps up as a valiant defender. As we age, our bodies produce less spermidine, which dwindles autophagic activity and heightens the risk of age-related diseases. </p>



<p>This theory was put through its paces using experimental models ranging from simple organisms like nematodes and yeasts to fruit flies, mice, and even human cell lines.</p>



<p>Across all these models, spermidine was a protective force. Intermittent fasting noticeably increased cellular spermidine levels, boosting autophagy, and excitingly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-diet-positively-influences-the-brains-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extending lifespan</a> in these organisms.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-tweaks-gigantic-impacts">Small tweaks, gigantic impacts</h2>



<p>Could our longevity actually be linked with our eating habits? The study certainly points towards that, echoing the time-honored wisdom, "You are what you eat." </p>



<p>It underscores the importance of maintaining cellular balance, a critical factor in slowing aging and promoting longevity. Consuming less calorie-dense food and adopting IF are suggested as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-can-reduce-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">powerful strategies</a>.</p>



<p>The consistency of spermidine's role in regulating autophagy and aging across diverse organisms emphasizes its fundamental role in maintaining cellular balance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-reaching-effects-of-intermittent-fasting">Far-reaching effects of intermittent fasting </h2>



<p>The repercussions of intermittent fasting stretch beyond merely enhancing autophagy and increasing spermidine levels. </p>



<p>Research indicates that this eating pattern positively affects several health markers, including insulin sensitivity, blood pressure, and inflammatory responses. Improved insulin sensitivity reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes, while lower blood pressure correlates with decreased cardiovascular events. </p>



<p>Additionally, the anti-inflammatory properties of fasting could strengthen the immune system, potentially reducing the prevalence of chronic diseases. </p>



<p>Significantly, these health markers mirror a holistic approach to well-being, underlining the idea that our dietary choices significantly shape our overall health journey.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intermittent-fasting-and-aging">Intermittent fasting and aging </h2>



<p>As scientific interest in intermittent fasting and its myriad benefits heightens, promising avenues for future research appear. Probing the molecular mechanisms behind increased spermidine levels during fasting could expose new therapeutic targets for age-related conditions. </p>



<p>Furthermore, longitudinal studies involving diverse populations will be key in determining the long-term effects of intermittent fasting on human health. </p>



<p>As we untangle the complexities around aging and cellular maintenance, continued exploration of lifestyle choices like intermittent fasting may shine a light on new routes for enhancing healthspan, the period of life spent in good health, especially pertaining to the aging global population.</p>



<p>These promising findings kindle hope for innovative strategies to arrest age-related decline, augmenting life expectancy and the quality of life for our elderly population. </p>



<p>As we anticipate more enlightening studies, it's a question worth mulling over - could simple adjustments to our diet and lifestyle guide us towards longer, healthier lives?</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41556-024-01468-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Cell Biology</a></em>.</p>



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<p>----</p>

Intermittent fasting slows aging by boosting cell health

A recent study has stirred up conversations in scientific circles...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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