Frigid temperatures, dense coniferous forests, and cold winters are all common features of the taiga biome. Much of the world’s land is covered by this frozen biome and many fascinating, uncommon animals make their home here. Even though the taiga is such an important ecosystem in the northern hemisphere, not much is said about this forest biome, and many of the animals that live here seem completely mysterious. Here’s some information about what the taiga actually is, where you can find it, and the kinds of plants and animals you can find there.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/nature-3417266_1920-1024x602.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891877"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/cedriklesage-8298732/">CedrikLesage</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-is-the-taiga-biome">What Is the Taiga Biome?</h2>



Taiga biomes are the dense, evergreen forests of high latitudes in the northern hemisphere. In Canada and the US, the term "boreal forest" often replaces "taiga"; the two are actually the same biome. Whatever the name, these forests occur in subarctic regions, just below the arctic circle. Because of the massive amount of land the taiga covers, it is considered the world’s largest terrestrial biome. In fact, taiga covers 17 million square kilometers (6.6 million square miles) on three continents! Taiga is also one of the newest ecosystems in the world. Before 12,000 years ago, during the last ice age, all of the world’s land that is now taiga was underneath miles of ice. After the ice retreated, plants began to colonize the new real estate. Now, it is covered in dense forests.



<h2 id="h-taiga-climate">Taiga Climate</h2>



In general, the taiga is characterized by a very cold climate. It is the third coldest biome on earth, after the tundra biome and permanent ice caps. Average temperatures through the year range from -5 to 5 °C (23 to 41 °F), depending on location. But, the temperature range from the summer and winter months is huge. During the summer, a normal temperature would be 18 °C (64 °F). In contrast, a winter day would be closer to -20 °C (-4 °F). Temperatures in the Siberian taiga can easily get down to -50 °C (-58 °F) during the coldest part of the year! These frigid temperatures mean that animals adapted to taiga biomes can survive in subzero temperatures for much of the year.



Precipitation in the taiga is low. On average, precipitation is from 200-750 mm (7.9-29.5 in) per year. Most of the precipitation comes as snow which can stay on the ground for months until summer temperatures cause it to melt. However, in the coldest and northernmost regions, precipitation can persist and create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-permafrost-is-releasing-even-more-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">permafrost</a>. Fog is the other most important type of precipitation in taiga biomes, which helps trees reach their largest sizes, especially in coastal regions.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/night-4685148_1920-1024x682.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891879"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/rauschenberger-4614580/">rauschenberger</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-where-is-the-taiga-biome">Where Is the Taiga Biome?</h2>



You can find the taiga on two gigantic landmasses - North America and Eurasia. The country that has the most taiga is Russia, followed by Canada, and the United States. Taiga in Russia occurs in the vast region of Siberia - one of the most expansive and unpopulated places on earth. In Canada, the taiga occurs north of temperate deciduous forests in the east, and as an extension of evergreen forests in the west. Canada also has the most national parks in taiga biomes. Other countries have taiga, albeit much less, including the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/day-and-night-over-scandinavia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scandinavian</a> countries of Norway, Finland, and Sweden. Taiga occurs between 50°N and 70°N, and most of it is immediately below the arctic circle.



<h2 id="h-taiga-flora">Taiga Flora</h2>



The taiga is home to many plants that are adapted to cold temperatures and a short growing season. Because North America and Asia used to be connected via the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/bela/learn/historyculture/the-bering-land-bridge-theory.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bering land bridge</a>, both of these continents share many of the same species. The short growing season and oblique sunlight greatly limit photosynthesis in the taiga. In general, the taiga is dominated by evergreen conifers. The coniferous trees that show up the most are spruce, pine, and larch. Many deciduous trees are present as well, such as birch, alder, willow, and poplar. Despite the presence of these trees, deciduous forests are less common than evergreen forests in the taiga. The diversity and species assemblages change depending on the region. Some have mixed stands containing a few species, while others are dominated by a single species.



One of the most common trees in the taiga occurs in easter Siberia. The Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii) is an incredibly widespread tree, spanning from eastern Siberia, to Mongolia, northeastern China, and North Korea. In the taiga, the Dahurian larch experiences some of the coldest temperatures the taiga has to offer. It’s also a unique conifer in that it’s actually deciduous, dropping its needles in the fall to withstand the cold, dry winter.



In Canada and the US, the taiga is full of evergreen trees like balsam fir (Abies balsamea), black spruce (Picea mariana), tamarack larch (Larix laricina), and hemlock (Tsuga spp.). Groundcover includes various wildflowers and shrubs. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lichens-thrived-after-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lichen</a> is also abundant in the taiga, along with mosses and other bryophytes, and mushrooms like morels.



<h2 id="h-animals-of-the-taiga-biome">Animals Of the Taiga Biome</h2>



Many mysterious creatures make their home in the taiga. Due to the cold temperatures, all of the animals that live in this biome must be adapted to frigid conditions in one way or another. Many of the following animals are pretty common, but some are truly enigmatic inhabitants of the taiga biome.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/tiger-6175826_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891880"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Cle+Na">Cle Na</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-siberian-tigers">Siberian Tigers</h3>



Siberian tigers are one of the most endangered <a href="https://www.wcs.org/our-work/wildlife/big-cats" target="_blank" rel="noopener">big cats</a> in the world. They’re also the world’s largest cat, growing to be a whopping 300 kilos (660 pounds) and 3 meters (10 feet) long. These huge, top predators are incredibly important animals in the taiga. They occur primarily in eastern Siberia, but some make it down to northern China and North Korea. Thanks to the low human population of eastern Siberia, these tigers are well protected from threats in the Russian taiga. Still, humans pose a great threat to these animals through poaching and habitat destruction.



<h3 id="h-crossbills">Crossbills</h3>



In the summer, the taiga is rich in birds. Most, however, vacate the taiga towards the end of summer and migrate somewhere warmer. The crossbill is one of those brave birds that decide to stay in the taiga during summer. They have distinctive, crossed beaks (hence their name) which allow them to pry open cones to eat the enclosed seeds. Their beak grants them the ability to survive in the taiga during the winter months when most other birds would be helpless.



<h3 id="h-boreal-chorus-frogs">Boreal Chorus Frogs</h3>



Not many amphibians live in the taiga thanks to its cold, snowy winter and short summers. The boreal chorus frog is one of them and seems to thrive in this unforgiving biome. This tiny frog species is native to central Canada and makes its home not only in taiga but further north in the tundra, too. They are tiny frogs, measuring at most 4 cm (1.5 inches) in length. In the winter, they hibernate underneath the deep snow. However, in the spring, they emerge from their slumber and begin to breed. A breeding population of boreal chorus frogs erupts in loud, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/photosmultimedia/sounds-chorusfrogs.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">prolonged calls</a> that echo through the taiga.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/great-grey-owl-hybrid-3016287_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891881"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/georg_wietschorke-3238642/">Georg_Wietschorke</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-great-gray-owls">Great Gray Owls</h3>



Great gray owls live mainly in the taiga biome of North America, Scandinavia, and Russia. Like all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-owls-greatly-benefit-from-yosemites-fire-management-strategy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">owls</a>, they are efficient hunters, catching prey silently and effortlessly amongst dense trees. They aren’t the largest owl species, but they are one of the largest birds in the taiga. Their hearing is so sharp, they are able to pinpoint the location of prey even under deep snow.



<h3 id="h-lynx">Lynx</h3>



Lynx are elusive, predatory cats with characteristic pointed ears. There are four species, two of which live in the taiga - the Canada lynx in Canada and Alaska, and the Eurasian lynx in northern Europe and Asia. These mysterious animals hunt small to medium mammals like snowshoe hares and minks, but some are brave enough to even hunt deer.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/animal-1660429_1920-1024x675.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891882"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/danielbrachlow-2171695/">DanielBrachlow</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-wolverines">Wolverines</h3>



Wolverines are part of a group of animals called mustelids, which make up the family Mustelidae. Minks, martens, otters, stoats, and weasels are all different types of mustelids, but the wolverine might just be the most mysterious mustelid. The wolverine is one of the largest species in the family and is renowned for its ferocity and strength. Wolverines mainly scavenge for their food but are capable of hunting live prey. Thanks to their brazen attitude, they can take on prey much larger than themselves, such as deer.



<h3 id="h-martens">Martens</h3>



Another member of the mustelid family, martens are much smaller than their wolverine cousins. Like many members of this family, the American marten is entirely opportunistic, feeding on pretty much whatever it wants whenever it is available. Their diet is highly dependent on the seasons, eating fruit, fish, foliage, insects, and small rodents whenever each food item is most abundant.



<h3 id="h-moose">Moose</h3>



Moose are some of the largest animals in the taiga, even compared to bears and tigers. These truly massive animals live all throughout the taiga - from eastern Canada to Alaska, and across the water from Siberia to Scandinavia. Despite their size, moose are still prey for top predators like tigers and wolves. They are also important herbivores, eating even woody stems of plants during the winter when no fresh, green leaves are present.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/bear-2400929_1920-1024x576.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891883"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/lynnea-1528424/">lynnea</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-salmon">Salmon</h3>



<a href="https://pacificwild.org/salmon-a-keystone-species/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Salmon are keystone species</a> in the taiga. These biomes often host countless rivers and streams, which salmon return to in order to spawn. As the salmon make their way upstream, many animals intercept the swimming creatures for a nutritious meal. Even though many salmon won’t make it to their ultimate spawning grounds, hundreds do. After the salmon spawn, they die. Dying salmon make an incredibly important food resource for countless animals such as bears and wolves, and the carcasses of the fish provide nutrients for scavengers like ravens and wolverines. This yearly influx of salmon makes them some of the most important species in the ecology of the taiga.



<h3 id="h-mosquitoes">Mosquitoes</h3>



Mosquitoes are some of the most hated animals on earth - and also the deadliest thanks to the diseases they help spread. In the taiga biome, they are abundant. In Alaska alone, there are more than 30 species of mosquitoes. During the relatively warm summer months, mosquito populations explode. Even though their presence is unwelcome to many mammals like caribou, they are a vital food resource for birds and amphibians like frogs. Their sheer abundance alone gives rise to the argument that mosquitoes, like salmon, are keystone species in the taiga.



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Mysterious Creatures of the Taiga Biome

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Bottlenose,Dolphin,(tursiops,Truncatus)

At some point, you've likely heard unbelievable stories about dolphins acting in complex and unusual ways. While they can jump through hoops and sing dolphin songs, does this mean they are actually smart?



<h2 id="h-a-brief-background-on-bottlenose-dolphins">A Brief Background on Bottlenose Dolphins</h2>



Bottlenose dolphins are beautiful and complex creatures. Let's first take a deep dive into their habitat, taxonomy, life history, and body characteristics.



<h3 id="h-bottlenose-dolphin-habitats">Bottlenose Dolphin Habitats</h3>



The common bottlenose dolphin is an incredibly versatile creature. It lives just about everywhere with <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/common-bottlenose-dolphin#:~:text=Bottlenose%20dolphins%20are%20found%20in,offshore%20in%20the%20open%20ocean." target="_blank" rel="noopener">warm ocean water</a>, from coastal California to the Mediterranean, from Peru to Australia. They live in places with drastically different ecology, such as the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, the Indian Ocean, and even off the coast of New York. This dolphin's range does not extend into cold, arctic waters.



Coastal bottlenose dolphin populations are easier to see, and therefore better researched than open ocean populations. Bottlenose dolphins will live out on the continental shelf and also in the deep sea marine environment. These deep ocean-dwelling dolphins are much larger than their coastal water counterparts. As far as we know (our data of marine animals is always very limited), the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/es/species/22563/156932432" target="_blank" rel="noopener">IUCN Redlist</a> lists bottlenose dolphins as a species of least concern. However, numerous threats endanger certain coastal populations of bottlenose dolphins, including noise pollution, climate change, entanglement with fishing nets, bycatch hunting, and chemical pollutants. In the U.S., bottlenose dolphins are protected by the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/marine-mammal-protection" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Marine Mammal Protection Act</a>.



<h3 id="h-bottlenose-dolphin-taxonomy">Bottlenose Dolphin Taxonomy</h3>



The scientific name for the bottlenose dolphin is Tursiops truncatus. Bottlenose dolphins are marine mammals in the class Mammalia. They are in the cetacean order of mammals, which includes whales, porpoises, and dolphins. The taxonomic family that bottlenose dolphins fall under is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/delphinidae" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Delphinidae</a>. This family contains about 35 ocean-dwelling dolphin species. Fun fact: did you know that 'killer whales' are actually the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/dolphin_porpoise.html#:~:text=The%20orca%2C%20or%20killer%20whale,far%20more%20prevalent%20than%20porpoises.&amp;text=Generally%20speaking%2C%20dolphin%20bodies%20are,also%20more%20talkative%20than%20porpoises." target="_blank" rel="noopener">largest member</a> of the dolphin family?



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/shutterstock_1686429787.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891372"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/KaterinaBranchukova">KatBranchArt</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-bottlenose-dolphin-life-history-and-body-characteristics">Bottlenose Dolphin Life History and Body Characteristics</h3>



Female bottlenose dolphins <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/95/2/357/866085" target="_blank" rel="noopener">reach sexual maturity</a> earlier than male bottlenose dolphins. The females usually reach this maturity between 5-14 years and males between 7-15 years. The oldest recorded bottlenose dolphin was an impressive <a href="https://sarasotadolphin.org/fb15/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">67 years old!</a>&nbsp;A more typical dolphin's lifespan is about 40 years. The gestation period for a female bottlenose dolphin is about <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4650159/#:~:text=The%20gestation%20period%20for%20dolphins,of%20ultrasound%20examination%20%5B8%5D." target="_blank" rel="noopener">12.5 months.</a>



Bottlenose dolphins have a dorsal fin on top of their backs, one flipper on each side, and a blowhole. As a top predator in ocean ecosystems, bottlenose dolphins use echolocation (like bats) to find their prey. These generalist dolphins <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5595343/#:~:text=Bottlenose%20dolphins%20consumed%20mainly%20fish,N%2C%2023.08%25O)." target="_blank" rel="noopener">prefer to eat protein-rich fish</a> but will eat crustaceans, octopuses, and other marine animals if needed. Their ability to adapt to a wide variety of foods is one aspect of their intelligence we will explore.



<h2 id="h-how-can-we-measure-smartness-in-other-animals">How Can We Measure Smartness in Other Animals?</h2>



If I had a superpower, I would want to talk to animals. I think some of them could provide thoughtful conversation. I'm sure that dolphins would be one of those creatures. Sadly, no one can really talk to dolphins, so it is difficult to figure out whether they have complex thoughts.



This is the real crux of the issue. Humans have a hard time measuring how 'smart' one person is compared to another. We have IQ tests that supposedly determine this human intelligence. However, that test is coming under <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6927908/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">increasing scrutiny</a> for only measuring one kind of intelligence. Someone who gets top scores on an IQ test may not have the mental skills for building a table, catching a fish, or raising a child. If we have such a hard time predicting human smartness, how can we ever measure animal smartness?



This is all to say that our assumptions of what is 'smart' beyond our human selves in the animal kingdom may be totally wrong. But when you see an elephant painting or a gorilla using sign language, it's easy to understand that some animals have particularly strong mental abilities. Bottlenose dolphins are one of those animals.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/shutterstock_1929565964-1024x539.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891373"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/BlueRingMedia">BlueRingMedia</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-bottlenose-dolphins-have-big-brains">Bottlenose Dolphins Have Big Brains</h2>



A bigger brain seems it should imply a smarter animal, right? Well, it's not that simple.



An initial measure of an animal's intelligence was the weight of its brain compared to its body. A high brain weight to body ratio was presumed to reveal a 'smarter' animal. In many cases, this is true. But in some, it's not. The <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-anatomical-property-of-the-brain-in-tree-shrew-a-A-photo-of-tree-shrew-in-daily_fig1_318581892" target="_blank" rel="noopener">tree shrew</a> has the highest brain-to-body ratio, but probably because it is a very small mammal.



Researchers eventually started using the brain encephalization quotient (EQ) instead of a simple brain-to-body ratio. Researchers plotted the brain-to-body ratios for many species of mammals and then drew a straight line that was the 'average'. This line demonstrates the predicted brain size for an animal of any mass. If the animal's brain is bigger than expected, their dot on the graph would be above this EQ line. Bottlenose dolphins are <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-dolphins-smart-how-are-dolphins-intelligent/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">second only to humans</a> on the EQ test. This means that their brains are far bigger than we would expect based on their body size.



Size is important, but so is the substance within the brain. The actual structure of the brain matters a lot in intelligence. Dolphins also have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1868071/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">highly developed brains</a> that commit energy to 'thinking' rather than just 'doing'. These dolphins also have a large number of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cne.22055" target="_blank" rel="noopener">special types of neurons</a> that are thought to make humans smart.



<h3 id="h-are-dolphins-conscious">Are Dolphins Conscious?</h3>



<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00359-013-0816-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener">With current research</a>, it is difficult to prove consciousness in dolphins. But that doesn't mean they aren't conscious of themselves. Perhaps we just haven't figured out how to measure dolphin consciousness yet.



An animal's ability to recognize itself in the mirror is a widely accepted test for intelligence. Recognizing oneself on the other side of a mirror shows a sense of self. Humans take about two years to reach the milestone of self-recognition. Dolphin babies are far quicker and can recognize themselves in the mirror <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0189813" target="_blank" rel="noopener">at seven months old</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/shutterstock_1514465597.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891374"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/FlorentRols">F Photography R</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-bottlenose-dolphin-social-structures-and-language">Bottlenose Dolphin Social Structures and Language</h2>



Bottlenosed dolphins' social structures are profoundly intricate. These dolphins gather in mixed-sex groups to hunt. These <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/96/3/481/905030" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dolphin pods are fluid</a>, with members moving between pods. Some dolphins move around a lot, but others seem to prefer more long-term relationships. The pods also don't seem to be hierarchical. Maybe dolphins share knowledge by moving between these pods? Dolphins seem to be unique individuals as well as social beings. Dolphins also have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-have-human-personality-traits/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">unique personality traits</a> that map neatly onto the 'big five' human personality traits.



In addition to complex social structures, bottlenose dolphins use language to communicate with one another. They apparently use <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/289/5483/1355" target="_blank" rel="noopener">unique whistling sounds</a> as humans use names. A unique whistle corresponds to one individual dolphin within the group. Secondly, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405722316301177" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Russian researchers</a> found that bottlenose dolphins in the Black Sea communicate in sentences up to five words long.



You can communicate a lot in five words. Cozy mountain tent with coffee. Riding bike with scary cars. See that? What could the dolphins be saying...



<h2 id="h-top-examples-of-bottlenose-dolphins-being-smart">Top Examples of Bottlenose Dolphins Being Smart</h2>



Sometimes science can be a little dry for the subject matter. While scientists are trying to determine bottlenose dolphin smartness, there are plenty of fun anecdotes from around the world that confirm dolphins have a very high baseline for intelligence.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/shutterstock_127531127.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891375"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/ftlaudgirl">FtLaud</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-bottlenose-dolphins-use-pufferfish-to-get-high">Bottlenose Dolphins Use Pufferfish to Get High</h3>



Some bottlenose dolphins like to adventure into the world of altered reality. Some people have seen groups of bottlenose dolphins delicately <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/where-do-pufferfish-live/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">passing around a pufferfish</a>. Pufferfish have deadly toxins that can kill humans. However, the dolphins seem to have figured out how to get a small enough dose that they get some sort of intoxicating effect from the pufferfish. The fact that many bottlenose dolphins can partake in puffer-puffer-pass without any of them chomping down and killing themselves with toxin demonstrates some sort of sophisticated communication and understanding of reality, right?



<h3 id="h-bottlenose-dolphins-in-florida-use-mud-as-a-net">Bottlenose Dolphins in Florida Use Mud as a Net</h3>



Bottlenose dolphins in the Florida keys team up to chase schools of fish into very shallow water. One member of the group then flips up mud in a circle around the fish. The fish then freak out and try to jump over the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260338052_MUD_PLUME_FEEDING_A_UNIQUE_FOR-_AGING_BEHAVIOR_OF_THE_BOTTLENOSE_DOLPHIN_IN_THE_FLORIDA_KEYS" target="_blank" rel="noopener">'net' of mud</a>. Unfortunately for the fish, plenty of dolphin beaks wait to catch them on the other side. This teamwork shows thoughtful, group-facilitated hunting techniques. I would call that 'smart', wouldn't you?



<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0174" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Dolphins in Brazil</a> cooperate with small-scale fishermen to catch fish from those fisheries.





<h3 id="h-dolphins-groups-can-change-their-behavior">Dolphins Groups Can Change Their Behavior</h3>



Bottlenose dolphins can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-change-their-behavior-to-adapt-to-coastal-development/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">drastically change their lifestyle</a> when confronted with adversity. When coastal development impacted a group of dolphins off the coast of Florida, they changed their feeding to times with little construction activity and found different foraging grounds. This example of highly adaptive behavior is one of the factors for why bottlenose dolphins live all over the world.



It should be interesting to follow the topic of dolphin smartness (and animal intelligence in general) into the middle of the 21st century. As science delves deeper into the mystery of dolphin brains and lifestyles, we may learn that we humans aren't as intellectually exceptional as we would like to think.



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Nematodes - not exactly a word many of us hear often unless we work in a lab or in the garden. But as it turns out, unless you are perusing the internet from the international space station, you’re surrounded by them even as you read these words.



Perhaps you heard a rumor at the flower shop. Maybe you’re in the midst of a biology class in school. It’s possible you’ve seen small cysts in the roots of your soybean bed. Whatever it is that inspired your internet query today, you’ve come to the right place to learn about nematodes. We'll discuss what they are, how they move and interact in the world, and the ways in which nematodes are part of your life - whether you like it or not. Let’s dig in.



<h2 id="h-get-to-know-nematodes">Get To Know Nematodes</h2>



Nematodes, also known as roundworms, or eelworms make up the phylum Nematoda. This phylum is a world-wide phenomenon, found almost everywhere in the world and ranging from mountaintops to freshwater streams and deep valleys, the tropics all the way up to the arctic,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microscopic-organisms-driest-places/">across the deserts</a>, and slurping around in bogs - anywhere where there is a sufficient amount of water to support their various life cycles and preferred habitats. There are an estimated&nbsp;<a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">12,000 species</a>&nbsp;on our planet and they are categorized with insects and other molting creatures in the clade Ecdysozoa. They are “<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">elongate, thread-like, and active animals”</a>&nbsp;that are also commonly found in the stomachs and intestines of birds, fish, and mammals. Most are cylindrical, though some species have females are that are spherical. Nematodes are one of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754014/">the most abundant&nbsp;</a>invertebrates on Earth.



But for how abundant they are, they can sure are hard to spot. While it is possible to see certain species of nematodes, most are slender and transparent. This makes them incredibly difficult to see with the naked eye.



Derived from the Greek word for thread, these tube-like organisms move like eels where they live. Most species of nematodes are free-living and feed off of fungi, bacterial, and algae microorganisms. They are highly successful parasites. This is because of their <a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">physiological elasticity: o</a>ne species is only found in vinegar. Another specializes in the niche-habitat of <a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">beer mats</a>&nbsp;at the local dive bar.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_1905527209.jpg" alt="pink nematode" class="wp-image-1890588"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Hussmann">Hussmann</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-nematode-life-cycle">Nematode Life Cycle</h2>



Often, the life cycle of a nematode is determined by six distinct stages:&nbsp;<a href="https://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/SCOUT/Nematodes.htm">egg, four juvenile stages, and adult</a>. The smallest free-living adult nematode is about 250 mm, but parasitic nematodes can be as smaller than 2 mm. In most species, females and males occur, though reproduction often happens without males and these animals are frequently hermaphroditic. Once an individual produces eggs, their life cycle is complete. Species can produce anywhere from 50 - 500 eggs per female - though some can produce&nbsp;<a href="https://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/SCOUT/Nematodes.htm">up to 1,000</a>.



More specifically, in the example of the soybean cyst nematode, eggs develop within a cyst. According to&nbsp;<a href="https://www.plantpath.iastate.edu/scn/life_cycle">Iowa State University</a>, inside each egg is an unhatched juvenile. A nematode’s body wall is composed of an underlying cell layer&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3282284?seq=1">called a cuticle</a>, and once the juvenile eggs hatch, they can penetrate the cell walls of the soybean root (similar to other soil nematodes). Once in the root, the juvenile develops into an adult male or adult female. The females eventually break back through the root’s surface but remain connected while the adult males leave the root system. The male and female will mate and the female will lay eggs, eventually dying and hardening around the egg sack as a tough cyst.



<h3 id="h-other-life-cycles">Other Life Cycles</h3>



Understanding the life cycles of different invertebrates is interesting. They might help you pass a biology exam, but it’s so much more than that too. Take Caenorhabditis elegans - it is one particularly famous species in the study of nematology in the last 25 years. Nematologists around the world are working to sequence the entire genome of this species. Oddly, it has no obvious economic benefit or parasitic threat to us. Why is that?



It shares&nbsp;<a href="https://cbs.umn.edu/cgc/what-c-elegans">many of the same biological characteristics</a>&nbsp;that are central problems in our own biology. The worm begins as a single cell, undergoes complex development, maintains a nervous system, and exhibits behavior capable of learning. While it has yet to demonstrate consciousness, the parallels of this species with our own life cycle are eerily similar and “provides researchers with an ideal compromise&nbsp;<a href="https://cbs.umn.edu/cgc/what-c-elegans">between complexity and tractability</a>”. In studying and understanding animals as small as nematodes, we can better understand ourselves.



<h2 id="h-parasites-in-humans">Parasites in Humans</h2>



People shudder at the thought of small critters living inside the body. Nematodes abound as parasites in mammals, and that includes Homo sapiens as well. These nematode parasites are documented In texts dated as early as 1550 BC for their plaguing presence in the human body. Another name for these pests is "lesion nematodes."



Some historians have inferred that the “fiery serpent” of the Bible that bedeviled the children of Israel after they crossed the swampy terrain of the Red Sea may have been the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">Guinea Worm</a>&nbsp;Dracunculus medinensis, which can grow over 12 inches in length in your intestines - a terrifying legend from antiquity that is very much real in that part of the world today. You’ve probably heard of hookworm before as it&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8261/">is a nematode parasite that commonly causes diarrhea</a>, malnutrition, and other infective, escalating medical conditions in marginalized communities, especially in areas that don’t have access to a clean water supply.



The largest parasitic nematode we know of is Placentonema gigantissima. It is a marine species documented to be over 8 meters long and living in the placenta of a sperm whale - a terrifying image to behold.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_1820971748.jpg" alt="nematode drawing" class="wp-image-1890589"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/KaterynaKon">Kateryna Kon</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-parasites-in-plants">Parasites in Plants</h2>



Parasitic nematodes (such as&nbsp;Ditylenchus spp.) aren’t only after animals, however. Some species wreak havoc on your garden as well and are major agricultural pathogens or plant parasites. These destructive creatures are much, much smaller - often invisible to our eyes. Generally, if you can see a worm-like crawler in your garden or compost,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">it isn’t actually a nematode</a>. But plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) are&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">ubiquitous in agricultural soils</a>&nbsp;and can cause significant crop damage.



Most species of plant-parasitic nematodes&nbsp;attack by&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">using their needle-like stylets</a>&nbsp;to pierce and kill root cells. Species that use this type of feeding method include lesion (Pratylenchus) nematodes, lance, stunt, and sting nematodes. The species that inspire the fiercest loathing in farmers and the harshest economic impacts include the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)&nbsp;and the soybean cyst nematode because their feeding style allows them to establish permanent feeding sites and&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">complete their life cycle</a>&nbsp;without killing nearby cells.



A nematode infection, by&nbsp;<a href="http://nemaplex.ucdavis.edu/Taxamnus/G060mnu.htm">Heterodera species</a>&nbsp;and others, in plants will look a lot like inhibited root growth and root function and may resemble environmental stressors such as drought and nutrient-deficient soil. Yields will decline and plant appearance can be yellowing, wilting, and stunted.



Oftentimes, though the nematodes are invisible to our eyes, we can inspect root systems of evidence of cysts and&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">pale female bulbs</a>&nbsp;that are big enough for us to observe right out of the ground (or pot).



By the time you notice the effects of these parasites upon your plants, it’s probably too late to take action. Nature is as beautiful as it is cruel. Crop rotation techniques can be <a href="https://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/FSA-7550.pdf">an effective</a>&nbsp;means of nematode control (without using nematicides) and a way to mitigate similar sorts of crises that result in crop losses.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_499829854.jpg" alt="root parasite" class="wp-image-1890590"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Jean+Faucett">Jean Faucett</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-benefits-of-nematodes">The Benefits of Nematodes</h2>



But, not all nematodes are scary snake-like parasites slithering in your intestines or invisibly depleting your garden or fields. As one of the most variable groups of animals, there are incredibly helpful species as well. Beneficial nematodes are used intentionally by organic gardeners and farmers to great effect.



So, what’s so good about nematodes and why do organic growers use these small creatures? First of all, it’s important to understand that these tiny creatures play a critical role in the decomposition and recycling of nutrients in various ecosystems. For example, nematode populations are richly abundant in arable soil. There can be over 3 billion nematodes in one acre of land, calculated to a depth of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">20 centimeters</a>, and they are usually most abundant in the upper layers of soil where organic matter, plant roots, and other resources are most abundant.



And those same parasitic tendencies that make certain species of nematodes dangerous to us or to plants? There are other nematodes that go after the insect pests that we want to control organically with the same vigorous energy. Beneficial feeding nematodes will devour up to&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">200 different species of insects</a>, regulating adult bugs and also larvae, juvenile insects in grub stages that can ruin your neat rows of veggies and annual flowers.



Collaborating with beneficial nematodes might save your lawn. And more importantly, when you&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-plant-an-excellent-pollinator-garden/">finally tear up your lawn</a>&nbsp;of Kentucky bluegrass (the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/monocrops-theyre-a-problem-but-farmers-arent-the-ones-who-can-solve-it/2014/05/09/8bfc186e-d6f8-11e3-8a78-8fe50322a72c_story.html">largest mono-crop</a>&nbsp;in North America and a huge detriment to our ecological health) and replace it with native perennials and water-saving landscaping techniques, beneficial nematodes will be a sustainable link in the bio-niche of your home.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_420833719.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1890591"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Jes+Abeita">Jes Abeita</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-how-to-use-nematodes-in-your-garden">How To Use Nematodes in Your Garden</h2>



To use beneficial nematodes in your garden is&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">really a pretty simple process</a>. Start by contacting a nearby organic gardening shop. Beneficial nematodes are popular and chances are, a good garden store will have them in stock during the growing season. Additionally, they are likely to have a whole plethora of other beneficial predators such as ladybugs and praying mantis sacks. If you aren’t able to find them in a store, you can order beneficial nematodes online as well. Most products will have specific directions on the bottle. Usually, you simply add the contents of the package or bottle into a spray bottle or a watering can mixed with water.



Different species of nematodes will prey upon harmful pests with an efficiency that is reminiscent of a good horror film.&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">Some ambush their prey</a>. Others lure them in. Heterorhabdtis uses a cruising strategy.



<h2 id="h-a-pollinator-friendly-option">A Pollinator-Friendly Option</h2>



Using beneficial nematodes won’t harm you, children, or pets. Chemical pesticides have a variety of horrible side effects on our bodies and the ecosystems we inhabit. These beneficial roundworms are an excellent alternative. Using beneficial nematodes won’t harm you, children, or pets. Plus, <a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">they won’t harm the friendly pollinators</a>&nbsp;you want to attract to your garden.



These are the sort of techniques we want to continue to cultivate and spread into popular gardening culture. This is especially urgent when you look at the concerning trends around endemic bee species and butterfly migration patterns across continents. Unless you’ve been living under a rock, you know things aren’t looking good for these hard-working and necessary insects that make our world so beautiful and actually account for&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-insect-pollinator-communities-boost-crop-production/">billions of dollars</a>&nbsp;in our economy each year. And if things aren’t looking good for them, they aren’t looking good for us.



Nematodes might feel out of the box to gardeners from older generations with a proclivity for Round-Up. But, these techniques will be part of how we save the birds, the bees, the butterflies - and ourselves - from catastrophe. Digging into regenerative, organic methods of gardening can be an empowering way to connect to where you live, take accountability for your impact on the planet, and combat the climate malaise that seeps into our culture. Try beneficial nematodes in your garden and then tell your friends!



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



Like most of life on earth, nematodes are fascinating and nuanced. We’re so quick to categorize our fellow ecosystem inhabitants as “good” or “bad". We conceptualize the natural world into polarized extremes, elements of an ecosystem to be protected or eradicated.



Hopefully, it is obvious that this is simply not the case. In understanding the different phyla and the wild world of creatures that interact in cahoots and also in adversity, we know that the web of life is an intricate dance that we must respect and study. In a deeper understanding of animals like nematodes, we gain insight into our own existence and utilize the benefits of these small thread-like creatures in innovative ways to enrich beauty and deepen our connection to the landscape and sustainable ecology.



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Nematodes

Nematodes - not exactly a word many of us hear...

African,Penguin,On,The,Sandy,Beach.,African,Penguin,(,Spheniscus

The African penguin, Latin name Spheniscus demersus, is a species of penguin endemic to the waters of South Africa. They are flightless birds that have evolved to thrive in their marine habitat. Highly <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4116197/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">social and vocal</a>, these penguins have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguin-foraging-behavior-habitat-health/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">tough battle</a> ahead to survive the human impact and the unfolding climate crisis of the Anthropocene.  
<h2>How Is It Different From Other Penguins?</h2>
There are <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/penguin#:~:text=Penguins%20are%20a%20family%20of,primarily%20in%20the%20Southern%20Hemisphere." target="_blank" rel="noopener">17-19 different species of penguins</a> in the world, all of which live in the southern hemisphere.  African penguins are distinguishable from other species in their appearance: these birds have a pale pink coloring around their eyes and <a href="http://www.penguins.cl/african-penguins.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a black facial mask</a>. 

The pink colorings around their eyes are actually sweat glands that are part of the birds’ <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/thermoregulation#:~:text=Thermoregulation%20is%20a%20process%20that,falls%20within%20a%20narrow%20window.">thermoregulatory system</a>. When temperatures rise, blood flow increases to these glands, causing the pink color to deepen. 

Less than two feet tall, their white underparts are spotted and also marked with a black band. These spotted patterns upon their breasts are unique to each bird, sort of like a human’s fingerprints. The African penguin’s color is an example of “countershading”, which is a protective adaption to certain environments. Their spotted-white underparts make it hard for predators to see them from under the water, and their black backs blend into the water from the sky, protecting them from predators in the air. 

Other common names for the African penguin include cape penguin, jackass penguin, black-footed penguin, and South African penguin. 

The African penguin’s feeding style is classified as a “pursuit diver”. This means that the birds’ underwater propulsion is possible due to their wings or feet. In the case of the African penguins, their wings operate like flippers, allowing the birds to move quickly and gracefully in the water. This swimming speed allows for a greater area in which to feed in comparison to species of birds that are only able to feed on the water’s surface. However, this evolutionary adaption for hunting in the water is why these birds are unable to fly. Because they are unable to fly, guilds of pursuit divers are not able to migrate as easily to other locations. 

African penguins' diet consists of squid and fish. 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1888405" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_252302530-1.jpg" alt="African Penguins" width="1000" height="728" />
<h2>Where To Find Them</h2>
Locals and tourists alike consider African penguins to be a charismatic species. The penguin's loud bray call, in particular, charms onlookers. Apparently, it sounds quite like a donkey. 

Populations of these birds can be found in <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026082526/http://www.dict.org.za/penguin.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener">South Africa, Namibia</a>, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Mozambique, and Gabon. 

This species of penguin is also a popular member of zoos around the world - it’s possible an African penguin could be close by, even if you live far away from South African waters! 

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1888406" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_494918926.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="591" />
<h2>African Penguins Are a Threatened Species</h2>
In the wild, African penguins <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4116197/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">live in colonies</a>, and these populations <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203072203/http://www.seaturtles.org/article.php?id=1800" target="_blank" rel="noopener">have declined by 95%</a> since the pre-industrial era.

Why is this the case? The answer is simple: us. As is so often the case, human impact, convenience, and cultural delicacies often <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7417240/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">come at the expense of the creatures around us</a>, to heartbreaking effect. 

Local communities have long considered African penguin eggs to be a delicacy. People legally collected these eggs and sold them well into the 1970s. The people who collected these eggs would smash older eggs before larger collecting efforts to ensure that the eggs they were harvesting were fresh. It’s a brutal approach, but it wasn’t only to meet the demand of nearby townspeople - beginning in the 1950s, <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/50557919/french-gourmet-finds-penguin-egg/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">French chefs</a> sought after the African penguin eggs, too, fueling cruel and unsustainable harvesting practices. 

The story gets bleaker, though. People began to harvest the penguin guano from islands where the colonies lived. Farmers then used the guano as fertilizer for their soil. These practices eliminate the necessary burrowing material available to the penguins. 

And then there are the oil spills. The African penguin’s habitat has been criminally polluted by petrochemicals via shipwrecks, oil spills, and tankards at sea where there are few regulations and even less accountability for companies and governments trafficking these resources. Arctic penguins’ exposure is both chronic and acute and is <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/50559428/south-africas-penguins-die-from-oil/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a crisis that spans decades</a>. Today, the penguins are an endangered species and included on the IUCN “Red List”. 

That’s not all. Fisheries near the colonies have had <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/54568076/penguins-elude-oil-spill-but-fishermen/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a drastic impact</a> on the availability of sardines and anchovy in the area - two of the main staples of the African penguin’s diet. This means the birds have to search farther offshore for food and otherwise settle for less nutritious food. Officials have experimented with restricting commercial fishing near the colonies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multi-drone-system-uses-a-unique-algorithm-to-survey-penguin-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to positive effect. </a>

<a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/african-penguin-on-sandy-beach-spheniscus-536915842">Image</a>
<h2>The Future Is in Restoration</h2>
Conservation efforts are ongoing and applaudable, but they will not be enough to save the African Penguin or any of the other species threatened by the climate crisis. We must require that governments invest in sustainable energy resources, that oil companies are held accountable for their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-crisis-antarctic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">unjust business practices</a>, and that individuals and communities around the world are incentivized to drastically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-temperature-has-been-steadily-rising-since-the-1850s/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">reduce their carbon footprint</a>. The future of the African penguin depends on this. And so do we. 

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What Is the African Penguin? Why Is it Endangered?

The African penguin, Latin name Spheniscus demersus, is a species...

Beneath the surface of the ocean is a vast and mysterious world of deep-sea wonders. Over the course of human history, we’ve learned a lot about these bodies of water and these discoveries have shaped tradition, migration, and science in tidal ways.&nbsp;



However, many people do not realize how little we know of the ocean - especially the deepest parts of our globe’s seabed.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-diving-into-the-deep-sea">Diving Into The Deep Sea</h2>



Over 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by the sea - <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects" target="_blank" rel="noopener">312,000,000 cubic miles of water</a>. Numbers like this can be difficult to wrap your mind around. Regardless, less than 5% of Earth’s oceans have been explored. That’s a lot of room for surprising secrets - many of which we clearly have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-species-discovered-in-the-deep-sea-near-japan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">yet to discover</a>.&nbsp;



Under the water’s surface, the light fades quickly, and at 650 feet, it is completely black. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-deep-is-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">deeper down you go</a>, the harsher the conditions become for survival, though plenty of creatures (many yet to be discovered!) have figured out how to do just that. It is a mysterious part of our planet, with secrets to be discovered with each dive. Here are seven facts you might be surprised to learn about these deepsea creatures and the habitat where they survive.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-secret-1-the-majority-of-life-on-our-planet-is-aquatic">Secret 1: The Majority Of Life On Our Planet Is Aquatic</h2>



Creatures of the deep sea might seem like distant anomalies to us humans, but as it turns out, we land-dwellers are the actual weirdos. The majority of life on earth is aquatic - and it’s these salty waters from which we all evolved. Scientists estimate that there are over <a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/nature/habitats/ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one million animal species</a> in the ocean - 95% of which are invertebrates, such as shrimp and squid. The deepest sea creatures are part of a vast ecological network of these expansive and mysterious oceanic ecozones.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_306095060.jpg" alt="deep sea jellyfish" class="wp-image-1887977"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Blue+bird">H.Tanaka</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-secret-2-aqua-incognito">Secret 2: Aqua Incognito</h2>



Even though we’ve sent a man to the moon and found a coronavirus vaccine in record time, science and discovery work still has plenty of mysteries to unearth and understand. This is especially true of Earth’s oceans since over 80% of the ocean remains <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">unmapped, unobserved, and unexplored</a>. This is because most parts of the ocean are difficult to get to, and it can be really expensive to do so. Scientists have relied on sonar mapping to explore many parts of the seafloor but this still leaves many questions unanswered.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-secret-3-creatures-of-mysterious-currents">Secret 3: Creatures Of Mysterious Currents</h2>



The deepest sea creatures live in what scientists sometimes call the “inner space” of the Ocean. Within this space, we know that there are hefty currents at work like “<a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/deep-sea/what-we-dont-know-about-deep-sea" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an engine that controls our climate</a>” though we still don’t understand the nuances of how this engine functions. As glaciers and polar ice melt accelerate due to climate change, we know that an excess of cold water is funneling into this inner space of the ocean. But how will that impact these currents? And eventually our entire planet? The impacts could be massive in scale. Because there is still so much to learn, we aren’t sure what to expect. But, at the current rate of carbon emissions, we will definitely find out, one way or another.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_361651271.jpg" alt="ocean above the Deepest Sea Creatures" class="wp-image-1887979"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Marcus+Brown">Marcus Brown</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-secret-4-slow-growers">Secret 4: Slow Growers</h2>



Deep-sea creatures are often <a href="http://www.savethehighseas.org/amazing-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">slow growers</a>. This is an adaptive trait in response to the limited food resources in such extreme conditions. This is also why so many of these swimmers have a very slow metabolism.&nbsp;



However, with human impact, these adaptive traits make many species vulnerable. In fact, some scientists compare deep-sea fishing to the harvest of old-growth forests for timber. We may be harvesting and disrupting delicate systems that we don’t yet have the science to understand. Only, deep-sea fishing might be worse - we can’t <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-02/osu-ldf021307.php#:~:text=Deep%2Dsea%20fishes%20grow%20slowly,to%2040%20years%2C%20Heppell%20said." target="_blank" rel="noopener">“replant” the fish</a> like we would trees.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-secret-5-longevity-in-the-deep">Secret 5: Longevity In The Deep</h2>



Due to many creatures’ slow growth, their life cycles are often longer too. Many deep-water fish species can live to 30 years of age or longer. The orange roughy, for instance, can live up to <a href="http://www.savethehighseas.org/amazing-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">150 years old</a>. These slow, long growers often have later maturity development which can result in low reproductive capabilities. This, paired with the fact that so many of the deep-sea species are endemic to their area, means that they are very vulnerable to environmental changes and <a href="http://www.savethehighseas.org/amazing-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extinction</a> even without human impact.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_378002446.jpg" alt="orange Deepest Sea Creatures" class="wp-image-1887980"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Zoonar+GmbH">Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-secret-6-deep-sea-coral-archive">Secret 6: Deep-Sea Coral Archive</h2>



If you’re unfamiliar with the ecology of coral reefs, you may be surprised to learn that coral is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-worlds-coral-dead/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">living, growing organism</a> in its own right.&nbsp;



As corals succumb to mass bleaching and die-off events due to human-caused climate change, it is especially concerning to discover that these very same organisms might hold clues to climate change solutions. Like a library or an archive, deep-sea corals <a href="http://www.savethehighseas.org/amazing-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">contain a record</a> of climate conditions that might provide valuable answers to how we might restore ecosystems to a healthy and sustainable balance of life.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-secret-7-deep-sea-hermaphrodites">Secret 7:&nbsp; Deep-Sea Hermaphrodites</h2>



Many fish in the deeper parts of the sea begin their lives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-can-change-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">as females</a>, but if a male is needed, are able to biologically transition in order to procreate. These hermaphrodite fish are born with both female and male reproductive organs - and it’s an ingenious adaption. While there might be "more fish in the sea”, the pickings can be incredibly slim when you’re swimming so deep. Mating behaviors have evolved to solve that problem with sex-change strategies.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/shutterstock_1705865143.jpg" alt="deep sea coral" class="wp-image-1887999"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Divefriday">Divefriday</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



The surprising secrets of the deepest sea creatures are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-deep-ocean-sediments-can-survive-boiling-hot-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">yet to be discovered</a>. And that’s the most exciting part about this area of study. It's also why it is so important for us to protect our planet and the oceans.



With unchecked human greed and consumption, we are destroying the secrets of these wondrous places. Unfortunately, we're going this before we have a chance to discover them. It is a dim prospect for the future, especially when some of the answers and lessons we must learn are lurking in these very ecosystems. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Seven Surprising Secrets of the Deepest Sea Creatures

Beneath the surface of the ocean is a vast and...

Common,Lionfish,{pterois,Volitans},Is,An,Invasive,Species,In,The

Invasive Species Introduction (Plants & Animals)

Asian carp in the Mississippi River. Kudzu vine in Fiji....

A,Macro,Head,Shot,Of,A17-year,Cicada.,They,Live,Underground

They have beady red eyes, they make an ominous buzzing sound, and they will emerge in the billions! That might sound like the start to a horror movie, but let’s instead have it be an introduction to the sweet insect celebrity of 2021...the cicada! Though the sentiment “the cicadas are coming” might sound like a warning and the name “Brood X” like something from a dystopian novel, we meet this phenologic event with more of mystic awe than a nervous foreboding. In short, Brood X includes the geographically largest group of periodic cicadas that have been living underground since 2004 and are expected to emerge during the spring of 2021. Here, we’ll share a bit about cicada ecology and answer some common questions about Brood X, so you can be just as excited for them as we are!





<h2 id="h-cicada-ecology">Cicada Ecology</h2>



There are over 3,000 species of cicadas, mostly comprised by the family Cicadidae (with two outlier species are in the family Tettigarctidae). All cicadas, however, are members of the Hemiptera order and are generally known as “true bugs” because of the rostrum mouthparts that allow them to suck sap from plants. Cicadas can be grouped as either annual or periodical. Annual cicadas reproduce and emerge every one to three years, and include the vast majority of Cicadidae members. Periodic cicadas display an amazing behavior of breeding in much longer cycles - after hatching from the eggs the baby cicadas will spend 13 or 17 years underground before emerging as adults.&nbsp;



&nbsp;While cicadas are found worldwide, the phenomenon of periodic cicadas only exists within seven species in the genus Magicicada all found in the eastern United States. With a large (<a href="https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publications/E-47/E-47.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">1.5-2 inches</a>) black body, orange veined wings, and red eyes, these cicadas also look distinct from their other relatives. So while this summer’s community of cicadas will include both annual and periodical species, you’ll be able to tell Brood X apart just by their appearance.



<h3 id="h-what-is-a-cicada-brood">What Is a Cicada Brood?</h3>



With some species emerging every 13 years and some every 17, entomologists needed a way to track the individuals’ life cycles that emerge in a given year. Each of these groups is called a brood and given a unique roman numeral (e.g. Brood I, Brood IV, Brood X). Remember though that there are seven species of cicadas that display this behavior. So these broods of periodical cicadas often include more than one species of cicada. Likewise, each species of cicada can be found in many distinct broods. For example, Brood X <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/periodical-cicada" target="_blank" rel="noopener">includes the species</a> Magicicada septendecim, Magicicada cassini, and Magicicada septendecula.



When one brood emerges, their offspring return for the same cycle of either 13 or 17 years. Brood X cicadas have been laying in wait underground since 2004. That puts our last 13 months quarantining during the pandemic to shame!



<h3 id="h-why-do-cicadas-go-underground-for-so-long">Why Do Cicadas Go Underground for so Long?</h3>



This question poses quite a mystery! With insects normally have such rapid turnover in their lifecycles, it seems quite strange that these few species would evolve to play such a waiting game. To answer it, we just have to consider the evolutionary pressures on an insect similar to this. They aren’t poisonous (in fact, they’re quite nutritious), and they exist in large numbers. The perfect food source!



Their underground trickery seems to be a way to give the slip to their more voracious predators. Without year-to-year consistency, animals that enjoy cicada snacks can’t rely on the periodic insects for prey. And when they do emerge, they do so at such a grandiose scale, that their predators can’t keep up. This is commonly called the <a href="https://cicadas.uconn.edu/stragglers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">predator-satiation hypothesis</a>.



<h3 id="h-cicada-life-cycles">Cicada Life Cycles</h3>



Periodic cicadas have the longest life cycle of any known insect. But though it differs in duration, it’s not a unique process. These bugs go through incomplete metamorphosis with the life stages of egg, nymph, and adult. To give you a better picture of a cicada’s life, let’s take a look at the parents of Brood X, and go back in time to the last time Brood X was around in 2004.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-egg">Egg</h3>



Seventeen years ago, newly emerged cicada adults from Brood X focused on their paramount task for this life stage: breeding. The males struck up their evening chorus to attract a silent female. After mating, the female will carefully split the bark of tender twigs and lay hundreds of eggs, in batches of <a href="https://ag.tennessee.edu/epp/pages/cicadas.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener">24-48</a>.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-nymph">Nymph</h3>



One to two months later the eggs hatch and rice-like nymphs drop to the ground. Though tiny, they have strong forelegs that they use to bury themselves between <a href="https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/ENT-58" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one to eight feet</a> in the soil. Just like nymphs of other insect species, this life stage is important for feeding and growing. But periodic cicadas just spend a bit longer as nymphs than the usual six-legged friend. Safely underground, that feed on plant and tree roots for the next 17 years.



<h3 id="h-adult">Adult</h3>



Now let’s return to 2021. After years of snacking and growing, the last instar of the cicada nymph digs its way out of the soil where it molts one final time to reveal the fully winged adult! Brood X emerges en masse to breed again!&nbsp;





<h2 id="h-brood-x-the-class-of-2021">Brood X: The Class of 2021</h2>



This might feel similar to a graduation announcement, and, in a way, it’s exactly that. The Brood X cicadas (also called the Great Eastern Brood) have been growing up for the past 17 years and have finally reached adulthood! And now they can throw their caps (aka shed their exoskeletons) and have the rager of their lives (aka their cacophony of noise the males make). We’re excited to celebrate them, and, to help spread the cheer, we’ve answered some of the most common questions about cicada entomology below.



<h2 id="h-when-will-the-brood-x-cicadas-come-how-long-will-they-stay">When Will The Brood X Cicadas Come &amp; How Long Will They Stay?</h2>



The Brood X cicadas will use soil temperature as a cue to help them know when to dig their way to the surface. When the soil reaches about 64 degrees Fahrenheit, the nymphs will begin to crawl towards the sun. But this level of thermo-tracking is not new to them. They have actually been using freeze and thaw cycles to track each of the past 17 years. Without calendars and push notifications, they need some way to count the days! For their range across the eastern U.S., you can expect them between <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/periodical-cicada" target="_blank" rel="noopener">April and June</a>, depending on latitude.&nbsp;



With the singular goal of reproduction in mind, adult cicadas only live for two to four weeks, just enough for the female to lay eggs. So just as quickly as the cicadas appeared, they will vanish.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-where-will-the-brood-x-cicadas-be">Where Will The Brood X Cicadas Be?</h3>



Geography sets Brood X apart from other groups of 17-year cicadas. In fact, the group has the largest range of any cicada brood! They will appear in parts of 15 states including Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, as well as Washington D.C.



<h3 id="h-what-s-all-the-racket">What’s All the Racket?</h3>



Even if you haven’t seen a cicada before, you’ve probably heard their mating calls. The drone of the male cicada can get close to <a href="http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_24.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener">100 decibels</a> - similar to a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hearing_loss/what_noises_cause_hearing_loss.html#:~:text=Sound%20is%20measured%20in%20decibels,immediate%20harm%20to%20your%20ears." target="_blank" rel="noopener">motorcycle</a>! So there’s no shame if you feel the need to cover your ears. In contrast to other noisy insects that use wings or legs to create sound, cicadas have specific organs totally dedicated to their serenade. Called tymbals, these structures are rib-like features that the cicada buckles together to create vibrations.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-are-cicadas-dangerous">Are Cicadas Dangerous?</h3>



When anything comes out in the billions, it’s natural to feel wary. But there’s nothing about cicadas to be worried about! You might start noticing a few more around, but apart from the ear-splitting evening song they pose no threat to humans. They won’t bite or sting and aren’t poisonous. In fact, full of protein and low in fat, cicadas could make a delicious and nutritious <a href="https://web.extension.illinois.edu/cicadas/edible.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">treat</a>!&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-plants">Plants</h3>



Though many often confuse cicadas with locusts because of their sheer numbers, they <a href="https://growingsmallfarms.ces.ncsu.edu/2013/04/should-farmers-gardeners-worry-about-17-year-cicadas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">don’t pose nearly as severe a threat</a> to crops. Since they rely on the sap from woody plants, they won’t even touch your herbaceous tomatoes and strawberries. If you have an orchard, you might take a little more caution. Especially if you have younger saplings, consider tossing some netting over them more the couple weeks the cicadas are out in force.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-pets">Pets</h3>



Another common concern surrounds pets. Oftentimes, dogs might find a fun game of chasing and catching cicadas, while some more adventurous canines even decide that a cicada is the dog biscuit of the century and chomp them up. The short answer is this is all fine. Cicadas are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-insects-food-source/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">edible</a> to dogs, just as they are to humans. Though they might get a tummy ache if they eat too many. So try to keep your pup from overindulging, and you should be ok!





<h2 id="h-good-luck-brood-x">Good Luck, Brood X!</h2>



With that, we wish Brood X an amazing year of cicada mania! We hope that their breeding season succeeds, that their songs echo through neighborhoods everywhere, and that their cicada babies hunker down for another nourishing and relaxing 17 years underground. ‘Til 2038, Brood X!



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Cicadas Are Coming: Brood X

They have beady red eyes, they make an ominous buzzing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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