Nematodes - not exactly a word many of us hear often unless we work in a lab or in the garden. But as it turns out, unless you are perusing the internet from the international space station, you’re surrounded by them even as you read these words.



Perhaps you heard a rumor at the flower shop. Maybe you’re in the midst of a biology class in school. It’s possible you’ve seen small cysts in the roots of your soybean bed. Whatever it is that inspired your internet query today, you’ve come to the right place to learn about nematodes. We'll discuss what they are, how they move and interact in the world, and the ways in which nematodes are part of your life - whether you like it or not. Let’s dig in.



<h2 id="h-get-to-know-nematodes">Get To Know Nematodes</h2>



Nematodes, also known as roundworms, or eelworms make up the phylum Nematoda. This phylum is a world-wide phenomenon, found almost everywhere in the world and ranging from mountaintops to freshwater streams and deep valleys, the tropics all the way up to the arctic,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microscopic-organisms-driest-places/">across the deserts</a>, and slurping around in bogs - anywhere where there is a sufficient amount of water to support their various life cycles and preferred habitats. There are an estimated&nbsp;<a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">12,000 species</a>&nbsp;on our planet and they are categorized with insects and other molting creatures in the clade Ecdysozoa. They are “<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">elongate, thread-like, and active animals”</a>&nbsp;that are also commonly found in the stomachs and intestines of birds, fish, and mammals. Most are cylindrical, though some species have females are that are spherical. Nematodes are one of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754014/">the most abundant&nbsp;</a>invertebrates on Earth.



But for how abundant they are, they can sure are hard to spot. While it is possible to see certain species of nematodes, most are slender and transparent. This makes them incredibly difficult to see with the naked eye.



Derived from the Greek word for thread, these tube-like organisms move like eels where they live. Most species of nematodes are free-living and feed off of fungi, bacterial, and algae microorganisms. They are highly successful parasites. This is because of their <a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">physiological elasticity: o</a>ne species is only found in vinegar. Another specializes in the niche-habitat of <a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">beer mats</a>&nbsp;at the local dive bar.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_1905527209.jpg" alt="pink nematode" class="wp-image-1890588"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Hussmann">Hussmann</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-nematode-life-cycle">Nematode Life Cycle</h2>



Often, the life cycle of a nematode is determined by six distinct stages:&nbsp;<a href="https://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/SCOUT/Nematodes.htm">egg, four juvenile stages, and adult</a>. The smallest free-living adult nematode is about 250 mm, but parasitic nematodes can be as smaller than 2 mm. In most species, females and males occur, though reproduction often happens without males and these animals are frequently hermaphroditic. Once an individual produces eggs, their life cycle is complete. Species can produce anywhere from 50 - 500 eggs per female - though some can produce&nbsp;<a href="https://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/SCOUT/Nematodes.htm">up to 1,000</a>.



More specifically, in the example of the soybean cyst nematode, eggs develop within a cyst. According to&nbsp;<a href="https://www.plantpath.iastate.edu/scn/life_cycle">Iowa State University</a>, inside each egg is an unhatched juvenile. A nematode’s body wall is composed of an underlying cell layer&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3282284?seq=1">called a cuticle</a>, and once the juvenile eggs hatch, they can penetrate the cell walls of the soybean root (similar to other soil nematodes). Once in the root, the juvenile develops into an adult male or adult female. The females eventually break back through the root’s surface but remain connected while the adult males leave the root system. The male and female will mate and the female will lay eggs, eventually dying and hardening around the egg sack as a tough cyst.



<h3 id="h-other-life-cycles">Other Life Cycles</h3>



Understanding the life cycles of different invertebrates is interesting. They might help you pass a biology exam, but it’s so much more than that too. Take Caenorhabditis elegans - it is one particularly famous species in the study of nematology in the last 25 years. Nematologists around the world are working to sequence the entire genome of this species. Oddly, it has no obvious economic benefit or parasitic threat to us. Why is that?



It shares&nbsp;<a href="https://cbs.umn.edu/cgc/what-c-elegans">many of the same biological characteristics</a>&nbsp;that are central problems in our own biology. The worm begins as a single cell, undergoes complex development, maintains a nervous system, and exhibits behavior capable of learning. While it has yet to demonstrate consciousness, the parallels of this species with our own life cycle are eerily similar and “provides researchers with an ideal compromise&nbsp;<a href="https://cbs.umn.edu/cgc/what-c-elegans">between complexity and tractability</a>”. In studying and understanding animals as small as nematodes, we can better understand ourselves.



<h2 id="h-parasites-in-humans">Parasites in Humans</h2>



People shudder at the thought of small critters living inside the body. Nematodes abound as parasites in mammals, and that includes Homo sapiens as well. These nematode parasites are documented In texts dated as early as 1550 BC for their plaguing presence in the human body. Another name for these pests is "lesion nematodes."



Some historians have inferred that the “fiery serpent” of the Bible that bedeviled the children of Israel after they crossed the swampy terrain of the Red Sea may have been the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">Guinea Worm</a>&nbsp;Dracunculus medinensis, which can grow over 12 inches in length in your intestines - a terrifying legend from antiquity that is very much real in that part of the world today. You’ve probably heard of hookworm before as it&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8261/">is a nematode parasite that commonly causes diarrhea</a>, malnutrition, and other infective, escalating medical conditions in marginalized communities, especially in areas that don’t have access to a clean water supply.



The largest parasitic nematode we know of is Placentonema gigantissima. It is a marine species documented to be over 8 meters long and living in the placenta of a sperm whale - a terrifying image to behold.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_1820971748.jpg" alt="nematode drawing" class="wp-image-1890589"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/KaterynaKon">Kateryna Kon</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-parasites-in-plants">Parasites in Plants</h2>



Parasitic nematodes (such as&nbsp;Ditylenchus spp.) aren’t only after animals, however. Some species wreak havoc on your garden as well and are major agricultural pathogens or plant parasites. These destructive creatures are much, much smaller - often invisible to our eyes. Generally, if you can see a worm-like crawler in your garden or compost,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">it isn’t actually a nematode</a>. But plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) are&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">ubiquitous in agricultural soils</a>&nbsp;and can cause significant crop damage.



Most species of plant-parasitic nematodes&nbsp;attack by&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">using their needle-like stylets</a>&nbsp;to pierce and kill root cells. Species that use this type of feeding method include lesion (Pratylenchus) nematodes, lance, stunt, and sting nematodes. The species that inspire the fiercest loathing in farmers and the harshest economic impacts include the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)&nbsp;and the soybean cyst nematode because their feeding style allows them to establish permanent feeding sites and&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">complete their life cycle</a>&nbsp;without killing nearby cells.



A nematode infection, by&nbsp;<a href="http://nemaplex.ucdavis.edu/Taxamnus/G060mnu.htm">Heterodera species</a>&nbsp;and others, in plants will look a lot like inhibited root growth and root function and may resemble environmental stressors such as drought and nutrient-deficient soil. Yields will decline and plant appearance can be yellowing, wilting, and stunted.



Oftentimes, though the nematodes are invisible to our eyes, we can inspect root systems of evidence of cysts and&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">pale female bulbs</a>&nbsp;that are big enough for us to observe right out of the ground (or pot).



By the time you notice the effects of these parasites upon your plants, it’s probably too late to take action. Nature is as beautiful as it is cruel. Crop rotation techniques can be <a href="https://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/FSA-7550.pdf">an effective</a>&nbsp;means of nematode control (without using nematicides) and a way to mitigate similar sorts of crises that result in crop losses.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_499829854.jpg" alt="root parasite" class="wp-image-1890590"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Jean+Faucett">Jean Faucett</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-benefits-of-nematodes">The Benefits of Nematodes</h2>



But, not all nematodes are scary snake-like parasites slithering in your intestines or invisibly depleting your garden or fields. As one of the most variable groups of animals, there are incredibly helpful species as well. Beneficial nematodes are used intentionally by organic gardeners and farmers to great effect.



So, what’s so good about nematodes and why do organic growers use these small creatures? First of all, it’s important to understand that these tiny creatures play a critical role in the decomposition and recycling of nutrients in various ecosystems. For example, nematode populations are richly abundant in arable soil. There can be over 3 billion nematodes in one acre of land, calculated to a depth of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">20 centimeters</a>, and they are usually most abundant in the upper layers of soil where organic matter, plant roots, and other resources are most abundant.



And those same parasitic tendencies that make certain species of nematodes dangerous to us or to plants? There are other nematodes that go after the insect pests that we want to control organically with the same vigorous energy. Beneficial feeding nematodes will devour up to&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">200 different species of insects</a>, regulating adult bugs and also larvae, juvenile insects in grub stages that can ruin your neat rows of veggies and annual flowers.



Collaborating with beneficial nematodes might save your lawn. And more importantly, when you&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-plant-an-excellent-pollinator-garden/">finally tear up your lawn</a>&nbsp;of Kentucky bluegrass (the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/monocrops-theyre-a-problem-but-farmers-arent-the-ones-who-can-solve-it/2014/05/09/8bfc186e-d6f8-11e3-8a78-8fe50322a72c_story.html">largest mono-crop</a>&nbsp;in North America and a huge detriment to our ecological health) and replace it with native perennials and water-saving landscaping techniques, beneficial nematodes will be a sustainable link in the bio-niche of your home.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_420833719.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1890591"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Jes+Abeita">Jes Abeita</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-how-to-use-nematodes-in-your-garden">How To Use Nematodes in Your Garden</h2>



To use beneficial nematodes in your garden is&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">really a pretty simple process</a>. Start by contacting a nearby organic gardening shop. Beneficial nematodes are popular and chances are, a good garden store will have them in stock during the growing season. Additionally, they are likely to have a whole plethora of other beneficial predators such as ladybugs and praying mantis sacks. If you aren’t able to find them in a store, you can order beneficial nematodes online as well. Most products will have specific directions on the bottle. Usually, you simply add the contents of the package or bottle into a spray bottle or a watering can mixed with water.



Different species of nematodes will prey upon harmful pests with an efficiency that is reminiscent of a good horror film.&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">Some ambush their prey</a>. Others lure them in. Heterorhabdtis uses a cruising strategy.



<h2 id="h-a-pollinator-friendly-option">A Pollinator-Friendly Option</h2>



Using beneficial nematodes won’t harm you, children, or pets. Chemical pesticides have a variety of horrible side effects on our bodies and the ecosystems we inhabit. These beneficial roundworms are an excellent alternative. Using beneficial nematodes won’t harm you, children, or pets. Plus, <a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">they won’t harm the friendly pollinators</a>&nbsp;you want to attract to your garden.



These are the sort of techniques we want to continue to cultivate and spread into popular gardening culture. This is especially urgent when you look at the concerning trends around endemic bee species and butterfly migration patterns across continents. Unless you’ve been living under a rock, you know things aren’t looking good for these hard-working and necessary insects that make our world so beautiful and actually account for&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-insect-pollinator-communities-boost-crop-production/">billions of dollars</a>&nbsp;in our economy each year. And if things aren’t looking good for them, they aren’t looking good for us.



Nematodes might feel out of the box to gardeners from older generations with a proclivity for Round-Up. But, these techniques will be part of how we save the birds, the bees, the butterflies - and ourselves - from catastrophe. Digging into regenerative, organic methods of gardening can be an empowering way to connect to where you live, take accountability for your impact on the planet, and combat the climate malaise that seeps into our culture. Try beneficial nematodes in your garden and then tell your friends!



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



Like most of life on earth, nematodes are fascinating and nuanced. We’re so quick to categorize our fellow ecosystem inhabitants as “good” or “bad". We conceptualize the natural world into polarized extremes, elements of an ecosystem to be protected or eradicated.



Hopefully, it is obvious that this is simply not the case. In understanding the different phyla and the wild world of creatures that interact in cahoots and also in adversity, we know that the web of life is an intricate dance that we must respect and study. In a deeper understanding of animals like nematodes, we gain insight into our own existence and utilize the benefits of these small thread-like creatures in innovative ways to enrich beauty and deepen our connection to the landscape and sustainable ecology.



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Nematodes

Nematodes - not exactly a word many of us hear...

When one thinks of an insect, they usually don’t picture a six-legged animal diving and swimming through water. Yet, the giant water bug has certainly made a name for itself doing so. The huge insect is an aquatic killing machine, as it swims through the water hunting small prey like fish, snails, and other insects. It goes by many names, including toe-biters, electric light bugs, and fish killers. Their many names and odd appearance leads to some confusion about what the critters actually are. Water bugs are often mistaken for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cockroaches-survive-anything/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">cockroaches</a> and other types of insects, so let’s clear up what exactly a water bug is, how to recognize one, and why they’re so cool!



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/water-strider-691039_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="water bug" class="wp-image-1886869"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/a_different_perspective-2135817/">A_Different_Perspective</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-is-a-water-bug-an-insect-what-kind">Is a Water Bug an Insect? What Kind?</h2>



Remember that insects are animals with a hard outer shell called an exoskeleton, six legs, and three body segments. Water bugs fit the insect bill in every way, so yes, they’re insects! Let’s go a little bit deeper, though. What kind of insect is a water bug?



Insects are in their own class of animals called Insecta, which contains many different orders. When we talk about types of insects, we usually refer to the taxonomic rank of order without even realizing it. Some of the most common insect orders are beetles (order Coleoptera), butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), and flies (Diptera). Water bugs are in the <a href="https://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Hemiptera" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">order Hemiptera</a>. These are called the “true bugs”, a funny name considering how colloquial the word “bug” is.



Water bugs, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-a-stink-bug-and-why-do-they-stink/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">stink bugs</a>, aphids, and cicadas, are all in the order Hemiptera. The order gets its name from having half (Hemi-) wings (ptera), because their forewings are only half membraneous, with the other half being hardened into a protective shield. Giant water bugs are in their own family called Belostomatidae.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/water-bug-1292227_1920-1024x575.jpg" alt="water bug" class="wp-image-1886870"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/brett_hondow-49958/">Brett_Hondow</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-does-a-water-bug-look-like">What Does a Water Bug Look Like?</h2>



Giant water bugs are quite easy to recognize. First of all, they’re huge. They are usually at least two centimeters long (1 inch) but can be much, much larger. The largest species can reach lengths of up to 12 centimeters (4.5 inches), easily the length of a human hand! Aside from being really, really ridiculously big, giant water bugs can be recognized by a big “V” shaped pattern on their back.



<h2 id="h-where-do-water-bugs-live">Where Do Water Bugs Live?</h2>



Water bugs can be found all over the world. One of the more familiar species is Lethocerus americanus which is common in Southern Canada and the United States.



Giant water bugs live in aquatic and semi-aquatic environments. You can find them in freshwater ecosystems of all kinds, including ponds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/salt-marsh/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">marshes</a>, the banks of rivers and streams, and more. They typically like to hang out right underneath the surface of the water where they hide amongst vegetation or loose rock in order to escape predation when they aren’t hunting.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/wasserlaufer-5372086-1024x632.jpg" alt="water strider" class="wp-image-1886871"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/siebeckdotcom-13589689/">siebeckdotcom</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-water-bug-behavior">Water Bug Behavior</h2>



Water bugs are famous mainly because of their hunting abilities. They have specialized limbs that allow them to be swim and hunt in the water with ease. For example, their hind legs are basically giant paddles. They are large and flat, and water bugs use these appendages to propel themselves through the water. They also have huge <a href="https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/terms/raptorial" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">raptorial forelegs</a> that snag and hold onto their prey, much like a praying mantis. These front appendages are what make water bugs such excellent hunters, as they are capable of catching prey much larger than themselves.



Once a water bug is holding its meal, it inserts a long, piercing mouthpart into its victim. First, saliva with digestive enzymes is injected into the prey. Then, the water bug sucks out the nutritious juices with its straw-like mouth. It's a rather gruesome end for the prey, but an effective method of eating for the water bug.



Despite their aquatic abilities, giant water bugs can’t actually <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-amphibians-breathe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">breathe underwater</a>. Instead, they take up air at the surface like a snorkel and hold their breath as they dive. They can also create an air bubble underneath their wings, which they slowly use up while they’re underwater. It’s important to note that, unlike most animals, insects breathe through tiny holes in their abdomen. Other arthropods like spiders are able to do this as well, making them some of the first-ever scuba divers in the natural world!



Giant water bugs are also good parents, which is an unusual trait among insects. The male water bug cares for the eggs, often carrying them on his back before they hatch.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/water-2808949_1920-1024x576.jpg" alt="water striders" class="wp-image-1886873"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/ddzphoto-5605533/">ddzphoto</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-should-i-be-afraid-of-water-bugs">Should I Be Afraid of Water Bugs?</h2>



The short answer is: No! Water bugs are vital parts of a healthy ecosystem and are mostly harmless to humans. However, they are known to bite humans, and this behavior is what gives them the name "toe-biters". Unfortunately, their bite can be quite painful. Luckily, it’s not all that common to be bitten by these bugs, and they only bite to defend themselves if they are handled or messed with. They prefer to escape the situation first, using a bite only as a last resort.



<h2 id="h-in-conclusion">In Conclusion</h2>



Giant water bugs are nothing to be afraid of unless you are a small insect or fish living underwater. If you’re a human, they are fascinating and charismatic insects that deserve more recognition. The large insects have a super interesting natural history and are a vital part of aquatic ecosystems. Now you know what they are, where to find them, and how they live!



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What Is a Giant Water Bug?

When one thinks of an insect, they usually don’t picture...

Stink bugs are common pests that exist in homes, garages, yards, and pretty much anywhere humans live. If you’ve ever stepped on one, you’re probably familiar with the unpleasant stench they emit. Or maybe you tried to remove one from your bedroom, only to be thanked with a foul-smelling odor. Whatever the case, stink bugs stink. But what is a stink bug exactly? And why do they stink? In this article, we’ll get to the bottom of this smelly issue and make sure you know exactly what these smelly critters are, how to recognize them, and why they stink.

[caption id="attachment_1884209" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884209 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/bug-1613450_1280.jpg" alt="stink bug" width="1280" height="753" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/brett_hondow-49958/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Brett_Hondow</a> via Pixabay[/caption]
<h2>Is a Stink Bug a Bug?</h2>
The short answer is yes! Now for the long answer, and a quick lesson in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-classify-life-taxonomy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">taxonomy</a>.

Stink bugs are a type of insect, in the class Insecta. Like all insects, stink bugs have six legs, two wings, and a hard exoskeleton. Within the class Insecta, there are many different Orders. Insect Orders include Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Coleoptera (beetles), and Orthoptera (grasshoppers). Stink bugs are in the Order Hemiptera, also known as “true” bugs. That’s right, there are insects that taxonomists consider “true bugs," which means butterflies, beetles, and grasshoppers aren’t technically bugs! The word “bug” has become colloquial and is now used to describe pretty much any creepy crawly thing.

Anyways, back to the stinky matter at hand. Stink bugs are a <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/true-bugs" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">type of true bug</a>, which is characterized by having two wings hardened at the base. There are many types all over the world, and pretty much any smelly insect in the Order Hemiptera is what we call a stink bug.

[caption id="attachment_1884210" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884210 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/stink-bug-4970553_1280.jpg" alt="stink bug green insect hemiptera" width="1280" height="960" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/makrowelt_wald4tel-15752355/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">makrowelt_wald4tel</a> via Pixabay[/caption]
<h2>How Do You Recognize a Stink Bug?</h2>
Stink bugs have a very distinctive shape. They have a shield-shaped body, with a characteristic “V” pattern on the back. Most are brown or green in color, but occasionally they can be more <a href="https://everyone.plos.org/2013/05/09/color-and-iridescence-in-the-stinkbug/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">metallic or bright colors like red or blue</a>. Finally, look for a long mouthpart on the bottom of the bug’s body. This is a good way to distinguish a stink bug from a harmless beetle (which doesn’t have the long mouthpart) if you’re not entirely sure.
<h2>Why Do Stink Bugs Stink?</h2>
Like pretty much any animal, stink bugs need to protect themselves. Since they can’t bite or sting like many other insects, they need another strategy to deter predators. As it turns out, producing a foul-smelling odor is a pretty effective way of deterring other things from eating you. When threatened, they produce smelly chemicals with a special gland located on their abdomen. You can think of stink bugs as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/the-science-behind-the-smell-of-a-skunk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">skunks</a> of the insect world!

[caption id="attachment_1884211" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1884211 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Halyomorpha_halys_and_Plautia_stali.jpg" alt="brown marmorated stink bug invasive pest" width="1024" height="768" /> Image by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alpsdake" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Alpsdake</a> via Wikimedia Commons[/caption]
<h2>An Invasive Problem</h2>
Although many bugs produce smelly odors, there is one species that is perhaps the most infamous of them all. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stink-bugs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The brown marmorated stink bug</a> (Halyomorpha halys) is native to Asia but is now considered an invasive species in the US. It was first found in Pennsylvania in 1998, so they are actually relatively recent introductions to North America. After their introduction, they spread rapidly through the US and can now be found in pretty much every state, as well as parts of Canada and Mexico.

The brown marmorated stink bug is a common pest in many homes. They make their way into houses in the fall when temperatures start to drop and hibernate inside until temperatures warm up again. This makes spring the worst time for them as they begin to wake up and start mating.

An easy way to remove the pests from your home is to use a vacuum. This way, there’s no risk of the bug releasing its foul stench in your home. 

Brown marmorated stink bugs are also a huge agricultural pest. They feed on unripe fruit and frequently overrun orchards and farms, and are very hard to eradicate once established. At one point, scientists tried to introduce a wasp to hunt and control the stink bug’s population. Before the project ended, however, <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/08/scientists-spent-years-plan-import-wasp-kill-stinkbugs-then-it-showed-its-own" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the wasp coincidentally showed up on its own</a>!

Hopefully, by now you know what a stink bug is, how to recognize one, and why they stink (both literally and metaphorically). Keep an eye out for the brown marmorated stink bug in your home next spring!

[Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/brett_hondow-49958/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Brett_Hondow</a> via Pixabay]

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What Is a Stink Bug and Why Do They Stink?

Stink bugs are common pests that exist in homes, garages,...

Imagine this: it’s a Saturday afternoon, and you’re enjoying yourself in the park. You decide to have a seat in the grass under a tree. The sun is shining, there’s a nice breeze, and everything is perfect. The next day, you have a slight itch around your ankles. Then you notice it around your waistband. Suddenly, you’re digging your fingernails into your skin like there’s no tomorrow. Oh no, you have chiggers! If you’ve ever been unfortunate enough to experience these buggers, you're already familiar with the horribly itchy bites they deliver.



But what even is a chigger and where do they live? Why was I chosen as their target? Am I going to experience this misery for the rest of my life? These are some questions you may ask yourself during a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.medicinenet.com/bug_bite_treatment/views.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">post-exposure scratching session</a>. To help answer these questions, and to put a face to the name 'chiggers,' we’ve written a quick biography about the animal itself. We’ll also discuss where they live so you can try your best to avoid them in the future!



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1617052924-1024x724.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899045"/></figure>







<h2 id="h-what-is-a-chigger">What Is a Chigger?</h2>



We’ll mention a few taxonomic ranks in this description of chiggers, so if you want a quick taxonomy lesson before we continue,&nbsp;<a href="https://basicbiology.net/biology-101/taxonomy" target="_blank" rel="noopener">click here</a>. Biologically speaking, they are a type of arthropod in the phylum Arthropoda. Other arthropods include crabs, millipedes, beetles, and many other critters with a hard outer shell. Within the group of Arthropoda, chiggers fall into the class Arachnida, also known as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arachnids-spiders-scorpions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the arachnids</a>. Arachnids have 8 legs and include spiders, ticks, mites, and other creepy-crawlies that are the subject of many phobias. Chiggers are, in fact, a type of mite (they're sometimes called harvest mites). They reside in the family Trombiculidae, but since that name is rather hard to remember, we’ll stick with their common name for the rest of the article.



So, to review:&nbsp;chiggers are a type of mite and are closely related to spiders and ticks.&nbsp;There are many species of mite that we call chiggers - over 3,000 species! Although, only about 15 of these red bugs cause horrible itching in humans.



Perhaps the worst thing about chiggers is that they are nearly microscopic. Even at their largest, it's incredibly hard to see them with the naked eye. Usually, they will just look like a tiny red dot moving about on a surface. This makes spotting them almost impossible, so it’s best to just understand what type of habitat they like to live in to avoid contact altogether.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1317752612-1024x678.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899047"/></figure>



<h2 id="h-where-does-a-chigger-live">Where Does a Chigger Live?</h2>



To have any chance of avoiding chigger bites, you need to know where they live. If you were hoping you reside in a place without chiggers, tough luck. They live&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-cosmopolitan-species.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">all over the world</a>. They can be found on 6 continents in nearly every&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-system-developed-or-monitoring-the-worlds-biomes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">biome</a>. Luckily for many of you, they are most prevalent in tropical regions and warmer parts of temperate regions. Cold temperate and arctic regions are still home to some species of chiggers, but their bites are quite uncommon.



Although their distribution is incredibly wide (including most of North America), chiggers won’t live in every type of habitat. They mostly like to reside in wet, overgrown areas like pastures and grasslands, and among the leaf litter on the forest floor. But they can still be found in more manicured grassy areas like lawns and in parks. Throughout their entire life cycle – at least when they are not biting humans – they rarely venture more than a foot off the ground. You won’t ever find them in the vegetation of shrubs or trees. Still, that leaves a lot of room for chiggers to roam.



In temperate regions, chiggers are most abundant in the early summer after temperatures start to rise. Of course, your exposure is also influenced by chance. You may be lucky enough to lay down in wet grass and find no chiggers, or unlucky enough to get them while walking across a dry lawn in late summer.



<h2 id="h-what-makes-a-chigger-bite">What Makes a Chigger Bite?</h2>



Now let’s talk about why they bite. Like many other arthropods, chiggers have four distinct phases in life: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. Only the larval form of chiggers bite. This means that the egg, nymph, and adult form are completely harmless to humans! But let’s not cut them too much slack yet, we still have to discuss why, and how they bite.



After a larva hatches from an egg, it waits. When a prospective host (human, deer, dog, etc.) brushes by the chigger, the larva latches on and begins to find some skin to feed on. For some reason, they seem to prefer spots on the body that are close to clothing, like the waistband or socks. Here’s where the graphic stuff comes in - reader beware!



The larva then pierces the surface of the skin and deposits&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-digestive-plant-enzymes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">digestive enzymes</a>. The digested soup of skin cells is then slurped up by the larva, and this can go on for two or three whole days. Once the larva has its fill, it detaches from the body and falls back down to the ground, where it continues its life cycle. After detachment, the skin becomes red and itchy.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1675849252-1024x681.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899046"/></figure>



<h2 id="h-how-can-i-avoid-chiggers">How Can I Avoid Chiggers?</h2>



If that last paragraph made you squirm, you may be wondering how best to avoid the horror of chigger bites. If it didn’t, you may still want to follow this advice to save yourself from days of itchiness.



The best thing to do is to avoid exposure altogether.&nbsp;Now that we know chiggers like to live in moist grassy areas, you may want to think twice before taking a nap directly on the grass after a warm summer rain. Instead, bring a blanket. Long pants and a long-sleeved shirt can help to keep the intense itching at bay.



Insect repellant&nbsp;(especially those with DEET) is also a tried and true method to avoid chiggers. Before you walk through some tall grass or hike through the forest, spray some bug repellent just around your ankles and on your shoes. This will prevent them from latching onto your feet and crawling up your legs to find a suitable biting spot.



Antihistamines&nbsp;are a great tool if you find yourself already bit. Other over-the-counter remedies like calamine lotion or hydrocortisone, permethrin, or benadryl can also help to soothe the welts and blisters that can form.



Hopefully, this article didn’t discourage you from enjoying the park on a beautiful late summer day. Enjoy your outdoor adventures, but do watch out for the chiggers!



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Ouch! What Is a Chigger and Where Do They Live?

Imagine this: it’s a Saturday afternoon, and you’re enjoying yourself...

Bed bugs are a gross pest that no one wants in their home. Research indicates that in the 1940s and 1950s in America, <a href="http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/urban/bed_bug.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nearly 30% of homes</a> experienced a bed bug <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bed-bugs-increasingly-resistant/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">infestation</a> every year. Since the invention and common usage of many pesticides like DDT, the prevalence of outbreaks have dropped significantly. Even if this decrease is severe, the consequences of an infestation remain suboptimal. Today let’s explore why bed bugs are such a big problem.
<h2>Bug Bug Biology</h2>
The name “bed bug” typically refers to one of two species in the genus Cimex. These insects are 'ectoparasites'. This term is derived from two Greek words. The first is 'ecto', meaning outside or external. The second, 'parasite', refers to an organism that gains nutrients from a host at the host’s expense. This is precisely how bed bugs survive. They feed primarily on the blood of humans while they sleep.

Both species of bed bugs, Cimex lectularius and Cimex hemipterus, <a href="http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/urban/bed_bug.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">are similar in appearance</a>. They measure about a quarter of an inch long, about ⅓ the diameter of a penny. They typically are reddish-brown, have a flat body, and possess non-functional wings (thankfully). A bed bug can <a href="https://www.epa.gov/bedbugs" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">live up to roughly 16 weeks</a>.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1881490 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/kjh.jpeg" alt="single bed bug" width="259" height="194" />
<h2>Cimex Lifestyle</h2>
Contrary to popular belief, bed bugs spent very little of their time actually attached to their hosts. They are typically active at night when they will feed on humans. Bed bugs prefer open and exposed skin, so they will commonly bite the face, arms, and upper torso. These bites usually will not turn red, but they will swell. Bed bugs <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bedbugs/symptoms-causes/syc-20370001" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rarely bite the armpits and behind the knees</a>, making this a good diagnostic distinction between them and other types of pests.

Sometimes, bed bugs are solitary creatures. Usually, though, they congregate in groups called <a href="http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/urban/bed_bug.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">harborages</a> These can be found anywhere that is dark and damp in a home. Most commonly harborages reside in cracks in walls and furniture, behind wallpaper, and under carpeting. The reason they don’t spend much time on humans is simple: they don’t have the body for it. They lack appendages that would allow them to cling to clothes like mites or fleas.
<h2>Signs of Infestation</h2>
You wake up one day and notice some itchy bites on your neck. Are they from bed bugs? While contacting an exterminator will likely give you the fastest and most accurate answers, here are a few things to look for when investigating.
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Itchy spots or bites that are roughly in line with each other</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Foul odors emanating from corners of carpet, wood, or furniture</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Reddish/brown spots on mattresses and sheets</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Leftover fecal matter in tight spaces</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Recent travel to hostels, hotels, or other areas of high traffic</li>
</ul>
<h2><img class="alignnone wp-image-1881577 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/hotel-bedroom-1024x683.jpg" alt="hotel room, common place for bed bugs" width="1024" height="683" /></h2>
<h2>Prevention</h2>
Unfortunately, there is not a lot to be done in the way of preventing bed bug infestations. Bed bugs don’t really care about the cleanliness of their environment. This means maintaining a very clean home won’t deter them. They just require somewhere warm that has a food resource nearby.

That being said, there are preemptive and preventative steps you can take, especially when returning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-feelings-knowledge-bed-bugs/">from traveling</a>. One of the easiest ways to introduce bed bugs into your home is to bring them back from vacation, a trip, or any other reason that you’re sleeping away from home. While the bugs can’t hitch a ride on your clothes directly, they can crawl into your luggage, backpack, or suitcase.

<a href="https://www.epa.gov/bedbugs" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Experts recommend</a> removing and washing the contents of suitcases immediately after returning from home. Leaving suitcases out in the sun for an afternoon can effectively kill bed bugs as well. If you are returning into a cold climate, leaving suitcases or luggage in a cold, dry location like a garage can effectively kill pests and eggs.
<h2>Removal</h2>
After a home experiences an infestation, it’s possible, although sometimes difficult, to remove the bed bugs. Calling a pest control expert can be an expensive but necessary step down the road. Before making a call, some of these steps can be taken first to alleviate the problem.
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Remove clutter from the infected room. Clothes on the floor, stuffed animals, and general clutter provide hiding places for the bugs. Make sure to remove these items without spreading them to other rooms!</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Launder all possibly infected garments. Sheets, blankets, pillowcases, etc. are all places that bugs could live. Make sure to wash these thoroughly.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Take apart dressers and bed frames. For particularly bad infestations, this step may be necessary. Bugs can hide in cracks in the wood and metal, so taking apart and cleaning these is a good step.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Call a professional. If none of these steps work, it may be time to call a professional.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
Have you found a particularly effective way to get rid of bed bugs? Let us know in the comments!

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Why Are Bed Bugs Such a Big Problem?

Bed bugs are a gross pest that no one wants...

With eight legs, multiple eyes, and fangs that can inject venom, spiders are a terrifying sight for some. Despite their menacing appearance, these little critters are important components to every ecosystem they’re found in. Many people refer to spiders and other creepy-crawly things as insects. They do have lots in common with insects, and they even look and behave a lot like our six-legged friends. But, are spiders insects?

Technically speaking, spiders are not insects! Why aren’t they exactly? We’ll look into a few main reasons why spiders and insects are so different. But first, let’s break down what spiders and insects have in common, which is actually quite a bit.

To understand the similarities and differences between spiders and insects, we have to cover a bit of taxonomy. Taxonomy is the science of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-classify-life-taxonomy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">classifying all living things</a>. Spiders, insects, fish, birds, and humans all fall into the Kingdom Animalia. Pretty much every animal is able to breathe and move, unlike plants and fungi. Additionally, animals are multicellular, unlike bacteria. Let’s dive deeper into the world of taxonomy and discover more about the classification of spiders and insects.

[caption id="attachment_1875952" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1875952 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/jumping-spider-feeding-on-fruitfly-jeff-burcher-flicker-1024x819.jpg" alt="are spiders insects, jumping spider" width="1024" height="819" /> Photo by Jeff Burcher[/caption]
<h2>Spiders and Insects Are Arthropods</h2>
Getting more specific, we move into the Phylum of Arthropoda. Spiders and insects are still together in this group, as are crustaceans, centipedes, and the <a href="https://www.fossilera.com/pages/about-trilobites" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">famous extinct Trilobite</a>. Arthropods are an incredibly successful group of animals and can thrive in the deep ocean, wet forests, and extremely hot deserts. But what makes an arthropod an arthropod?

First of all, arthropods are invertebrates. Unlike mammals, birds, and reptiles, they lack a spinal column. Instead, arthropods have super hard exoskeletons on the outside of their body, made up of stuff called chitin. Chitin is actually very similar to the material that makes up our very own hair and fingernails! In order to grow, an arthropod must shed its exoskeleton and create a new one. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bw1MFdlmWyA" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Here's an awesome video</a> of a cicada shedding its exoskeleton.

Another defining characteristic of an arthropod is having segmented legs. In fact, that’s exactly where the name arthropod comes from. Arthro means jointed, and pod means leg. There are a few other more technical characteristics of arthropods, but we won’t worry about those.

[caption id="attachment_1875950" align="alignnone" width="1300"]<img class="wp-image-1875950 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Spider-characteristics.png" alt="Are spiders insects, Spider anatomy" width="1300" height="996" /> (1) Four pairs of legs, (2) cephalothorax, and (3) abdomen[/caption]
<h2>Spiders Are Not Insects!</h2>
The next taxonomic level down is where spiders and insects lose their similarities. Spiders are in a class of animals known as arachnids. Spiders, scorpions, mites, and ticks are all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arachnids-spiders-scorpions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">different kinds of arachnids</a>. Perhaps the biggest difference between arachnids and insects are the number of legs they have. One of the defining characteristics of spiders and other arachnids is that they have 8 legs. Insects, on the other hand, only have 6. This difference may not seem that significant, but it’s one of the most important things that separate these two classes of animals!

Next up is the number of body segments. Spiders have two segments - the abdomen, and the cephalothorax (which is a combination of a head and thorax). Insects boast three distinct segments - an abdomen, a thorax, and a head. Although they serve essentially the same functions, the body segments are another characteristic that spiders and insects do not have in common.

On the topic of body parts, insects have developed <a href="https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/insect-flight" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">wings for flight</a>. Nearly all insect species are capable of flight - even ants, although it’s usually just the queen who's able to. Spiders and other arachnids are not able to fly. Which is good for us, because if they could, they would be about a thousand times scarier.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1875954 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/golden-orb-spider-281142_1280.jpg" alt="Are spiders insects, golden orb weaver" width="1280" height="851" />

Of course, the differences between spiders and insects don't stop there. They have very different roles in their ecosystems as well. Mainly, spiders are carnivores and hunt for their food, usually by using webs made of silk. Many insects (<a href="https://www.mnn.com/your-home/organic-farming-gardening/stories/7-things-you-never-knew-about-dragonflies" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">but not all of them!</a>) are herbivores and are often a tasty snack for other animals, including spiders.

So, now you know! Contrary to what many people believe, spiders are not insects. We’ll leave you with this super cool video of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peacock-spiders-mating-displays/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">peacock spider</a> dancing to attract a mate.

[embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_yYC5r8xMI[/embed]

Are Spiders Insects?

With eight legs, multiple eyes, and fangs that can inject...

First of all, what is hibernation?

Some animals give a whole new meaning to “sleeping in.” Hibernation is a behavior in many animals that allows them to enter an extended sleep-like state during the winter.

Though hibernation seems a lot like sleep, it is actually a unique state. During sleep, our bodies still function normally. Our heart rate drops and metabolism slows, these changes are minor.

Hibernation, on the other hand, is when animals enter a state called torpor for an extended period of time. Torpor is far more extreme than sleep. In torpor, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">metabolism drops below 5% of the normal level</a>. Most physiological functions grind to a halt or slow to a fraction of normal. Heart rates go below 10% of their normal level. Some animals take only one breath a minute. This state is so extreme, they may appear to be dead.

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Hibernate?</h2>
Hibernation occurs during the winter when resources are scarce and conditions extreme. Animals hibernate in order to conserve limited resources. By dropping their metabolism, many animals go for months at a time without needing food. Instead, they rely on the energy stored in their body fat.

This might sound pretty nice. You pack on calories, eating your fill and getting fat in the fall. Then you go to take a long nap through the winter, during which all that fat magically disappears. You wake up to springs flowers, plenty of food, and the prospect of a huge feast when it starts getting cold again.

However, hibernation requires careful preparation. In order to survive for extended periods with no food, animals need to focus on eating in the months before hibernation. It is also essential that they find a safe and warm place to hibernate.

I addition to saving on calories, hibernation can provide protection from predators. Though it might seem odd that sleeping provides protection, it actually makes sense. Hibernating animals are hidden, perfectly still and don’t sweat. Animals are <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1723/3355.short" target="_blank" rel="noopener">five times less likely to die</a> while hibernating.

&nbsp;
<h2>Which Animals Hibernate?</h2>
There are many different species throughout the animal kingdom that hibernate. Below are some of the most well-known or impressive hibernators.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872066 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/black-bear-1611349_1920-1024x729.jpg" alt="Black bear behind ferns looking at the camera" width="1024" height="729" />
<h3>Black Bears (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/american-black-bear-ursus-americanus/">Ursus americanus</a>)</h3>
Bears are certainly the most well-known hibernators. However, out of 9 species of bears, only 4 of them hibernate. These are the American Black Bear, Asiatic Black Bear, Brown Bear, and Polar Bear. Though hibernation is associated with them, Bears hibernation is not complete. Their body temperature does not drop to the temperature outside. They can also <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wake up during hibernation</a>. Females wake up to have their cubs during hibernation.

Human activity can influence bear hibernation. A recent study showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-food-bears-hibernate-age-faster/">eating human food makes bears hibernate for less time</a>. This can decrease the bear's lifespan and survival rate.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872067" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872067 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2048px-Common_Poorwill-1024x683.jpg" alt="Common poorwill on a hand with a black background" width="1024" height="683" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Connorlong90" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Connor Long</a>[/caption]
<h3>Common Poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii)</h3>
The common poorwill is quite unique. It is the <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">only bird that is known to hibernate</a>! Most birds deal with the extremes of winter by migrating south. The poorwill has evolved hibernation to avoid this arduous journey. The Hopi people have known about the poorwill’s hibernation for a long time, naming it “the sleeping one.” Poorwills generally hibernate from October to March.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872068 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/painted-turtle-565974_1920-1024x685.jpg" alt="Close up of a painted turtles head" width="1024" height="685" />
<h3>Painted Turtles (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/painted-turtle-chrysemys-picta/">Chrysemys picta</a>)</h3>
Turtles are reptiles and therefore are cold-blooded. This means they need external sources of heat in order to keep their body temperature and metabolism high enough to move. When temperatures get low, they are no longer able to forage. There are hundreds of species of turtles ranging across most of the earth, both on land and in the water. Each species deals with this problem differently.

The painted turtle survives the winter by hibernating. They remain below the ice of their ponds for months. They will often burrow into the mud at the bottom of lakes, using it to insulate themselves from the cold. Though these turtles need oxygen to survive, they are able to absorb dissolved oxygen through their skin. Even in the absence of oxygen, these turtles can live for over 100 days in water that is only 3°C. They do this by reducing their metabolism by as much as 99%. The cold water makes these feats possible. The low temperatures act like a fridge to slow down damage and growth in this state.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872069" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872069 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Fat-tailed_Dwarf_Lemur_Kirindy_Madagascar-1024x768.jpg" alt="A fat-tailed dwarf lemur on a branch at night" width="1024" height="768" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/42244964@N03" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Frank Vassen</a>[/caption]
<h3>Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemurs (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/western-fat-tailed-dwarf-lemur-cheirogaleus-medius/">Cheirogaleus medius)</a></h3>
The fat-tailed dwarf lemur is <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">another lonely hibernator</a>. They are one of only three primates that are known to hibernate. All of these species are lemurs, which live only on Madagascar.

The fat-tail lemur is tiny, weighing an average of 160 grams (less than half a pound!) Their fat-tail is more than just cute. It is an essential part of hibernation. They store much of the energy they need for hibernation as fat in their tail!

They can hibernate for as long as 7 months! These lemurs do take breaks from this extended hibernation. They will become active for periods of six to 12 days during these extended hibernations.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872070 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/garter-snake-3546237_1920-1024x686.jpg" alt="A garter snake on a rock with lichen" width="1024" height="686" />
<h3>Garter Snakes (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-garter-snake-thamnophis-sirtalis/">Thamnophis sirtalis</a>)</h3>
Snakes hibernation is called brumation, or wintering. As cold-blooded animals, they need to find a way to avoid the frost. The garter snake (and other species) form groups that hibernate together to protect each other from the cold. These groups are called “hibernacles” and <a href="https://animalsake.com/animals-that-hibernate" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sometimes have hundreds of snakes</a> twisted together. A mountain of slithering snakes is quite a sight! Stumbling upon a hibernacle could be quite the shock if you aren’t a fan of snakes.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872071 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bee-535247_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bumble bee on a white flower" width="1024" height="680" />
<h3>Bumblebees (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/small-garden-bumblebee-bombus-hortorum/">Bombus spp.</a>)</h3>
Bumblebees hibernate in a way consistent with their eusocial nature. The majority of the colony dies off in the winter. The queen survives, eating the nectar collected by her workers. When the spring comes, she starts a new colony.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872072 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Lithobates_sylvaticus_wood_frog-1024x768.jpg" alt="A close up photo of a wood frog" width="1024" height="768" />
<h3>Wood Frogs (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/wood-frog-lithobates-sylvaticus/">Lithobates sylvaticus</a>)</h3>
These tiny amphibians give a new meaning to the phrase “chilled to the bone.” They are literally <a href="https://www.kidactivities.net/animals-that-hibernate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">frozen and thawed every winter</a>! Unlike other hibernators, they don’t spend too much time trying to find a warm hole. Instead, they bury themselves in some leaves and let the cold make them into cute little ice cubes. When they thaw out in the spring they happily hop back out of their hiding places, good as new!

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Hibernation is a common adaptation to deal with the difficulties of winter. There animals from nearly every part of the animal kingdom that hibernate. It can even be argued that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-hibernate-underground/">plants hibernate</a>! Hibernation is also a fascinating phenomenon that may help us learn more about human metabolism.

&nbsp;

Which Are the Animals That Hibernate?

First of all, what is hibernation? Some animals give a...

Firefly

Early summer is a magical time. Tulips are blooming, birds are singing, it’s finally warming up, and the fireflies are out. Fireflies, also known as lightning bugs and many other names, are little insects with bioluminescent rumps. Their glowing abdomens may be yellow, green, or orange.

&nbsp;
<h2>Where to Find Fireflies</h2>
Fireflies are most commonly found in open fields or forest edges near standing water, depending on the species. They can be found from riversides in Asia to the open fields of Wisconsin. You can find fireflies in much of Europe, Central America, and South America as well. They prefer hot, humid climates.

If you’re looking for fireflies, your best bet is to head out to a field near the water on an early, warm, humid summer’s night. You won’t find fireflies in the western United States - but if you’re in the south, midwest, or northeast of the US, you’ll probably have good luck! 

Scientists don’t really know what many species of firefly eat. Their larval stages are usually predatory, eating snails and slugs. Adult fireflies might not eat at all since they’re only adults for a few weeks. Some species may eat pollen, plants, or other insects. 

There are over 2,000 species of firefly out there. All fireflies are beetles - and many fireflies don’t actually glow! The species of firefly in the western United States don’t glow.

Fireflies are quite picky about where they live. They’re in decline as cities grow around the world, partially due to light pollution that interferes with their mating ritual. They also won’t relocate if their chosen field is paved over; they just disappear.

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Do Fireflies Glow?</h2>
Most fireflies glow to attract mates. The males of each species have a specific flashing pattern to attract females. Some species of firefly even synchronize their flashes!

There are also some fireflies that use their flashes for a more sinister purpose. Some predatory fireflies mimic the flashing pattern and color of other species and then eat the prospective mates!

Larval fireflies also glow, though it’s unclear why as many of them live underwater or even underground.

&nbsp;
<h2>How Do Fireflies Light Up?</h2>
The glow that fireflies produce is actually the <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/14-fun-facts-about-fireflies-142999290/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">most efficient lighting source in the world</a> - 100% of the energy from the chemical reaction goes towards creating light rather than heat. Firefly lights are called “cold lights” for this reason. That’s important because if a firefly’s light organ heated up like a lightbulb, it would probably kill the firefly.

Firefly lights are produced via a chemical reaction between the enzyme luciferase, oxygen, calcium, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). All of this chemical mixing happens in the firefly’s light organ. Watch the video below to learn more.

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[embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFkGPT0gKiM[/embed]

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Where to Find Firefly Insects

Early summer is a magical time. Tulips are blooming, birds...

Humans have been genetically modifying organisms (GMO) for close to 10,000 years - starting with the domestication of wheat in southwest Asia around 7800 BCE. Since their explosion in the mid-1970s in the United States, GMO crops now account for practically all of the corn and soybeans planted each year in the country.

Plants are not the only organisms that scientists have their sights set on. A Belgian team <a href="http://www.ruthmueller.info/medical-entomology" target="_blank" rel="noopener">led by Dr. Ruth Müeller</a> aims to use cutting-edge genetic technologies to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-mosquitoes-malaria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitos</a>.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Is Malaria?</h2>
To understand why scientists want to eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitos, let’s first take a look at the disease. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Malaria</a> is “vector-borne,” meaning that living organisms can transmit the disease between humans.

While mosquitos are all members of the family Culicidae (which contains over 3,500 species), only one genus, <a href="https://www.who.int/features/qa/10/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anopheles</a>, can pass the parasite along. Only females of this genus are able to bite humans. When they do, they draw a minuscule amount of blood. During each bite, the mosquito ‘backwashes’ some of the blood from its previous bite into the new bite. If at any point the mosquito came in contact with malaria-containing blood, that mosquito can pass the disease onto its next victim.

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<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871890" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_2-1024x512.jpg" alt="red blood cells malaria" width="1024" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Genetics Vocab</h2>
How does Dr. Müeller’s team plan to eradicate these dangerous mosquitos? Before we get there, we need to understand some vocabulary:
<ul>
 	<li>Gene: a piece of DNA that codes for a specific trait, like hair color, eye color, or whether you have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-017-07792-7" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dangly earlobes</a></li>
 	<li>Allele: a specific variant of a gene, like red hair or blue eyes</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/gene-editing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gene editing</a>: part of a new wave of technologies that aims to change small parts of an organism’s DNA, sometimes as small as a single gene</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-effects-crispr-gene-editing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">CRISPR</a>: short for “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats” - a technology in development since 1993 that makes editing single genes possible by utilizing a pair of ‘genetic scissors’ to add or remove genetic information within an organism’s DNA</li>
 	<li>Gene drive: a technology that ensures a specific allele is passed onto almost all of an organism's offspring. Usually, half of an organism’s offspring will receive any given allele, but gene drives raise this percentage of offspring close to 100%</li>
</ul>
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&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871891" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_3-1024x512.jpg" alt="dna genetic engineering CRISPR" width="1024" height="512" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Müeller’s Plan</h2>
The Belgian team aims to stop the spread of malaria by stopping the spread of the mosquito that carries it.

Their first challenge was to use CRISPR to modify a gene. This gene, known as doublesex, is involved with the sexual development of mosquitos. “The females become a bit more male,” Müeller told NPR in an interview in February, likening them to “a kind of hermaphrodite.”

This modification of doublesex causes two deformations: one of the females’ mouths, making it impossible for them to bite humans, and another of their reproductive organs, rendering them unable to lay eggs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Keeping the Mutation Going</h2>
Mutating a single mosquito isn’t enough, though. Müeller’s team wants to enable the mutation to spread throughout entire populations of mosquitos. By utilizing a gene drive, the group hopes to ensure that the mutation will be passed onto each successive generation.

As Müeller puts it, “All the children — the mosquito children — have this modification.” Eventually, the team intends for the mutation to spread to the entirety of a wild population - eradicating every mosquito. This ecosystem-wide impact has raised significant concern.

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&nbsp;
<h2>The Controversy</h2>
While the possible, eventual results of Müeller’s research could benefit <a href="https://www.who.int/features/factfiles/malaria/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">roughly half of the world’s population</a> by reducing the threat of malaria, the issue is not so simple

Dana Perls, of <a href="https://foe.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Friends of the Earth</a>, worries about the unknown consequences, “This is an experimental technology which could have devastating impacts.” Friends of the Earth is just one of many international organizations that are concerned with the pace that GMO mosquito research is progressing. “We need to slow down. We need to hit the pause button on gene drives,” she adds.

Furthermore, what effect will eliminating a species of mosquito have on the environment? “It's difficult to see what the downside would be to removal, except for collateral damage,” says insect ecologist Steven Juliano in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2010/100721/full/466432a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2010 Nature article</a>. Scientists believe that the ecological harm caused by eliminating Anopheles would be far outweighed by the benefit of reducing the deadly human diseases they carry.

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<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1871892" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Img_4-1024x575.jpg" alt="swarm of GMO mosquitos" width="1024" height="575" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Next Steps for Müeller’s Team</h2>
Now that Müeller’s team has developed GMO mosquitos, they have already put their ideas to the test. Deep within a specially designed lab in Terni, Italy, their GMO mosquitos were released into populations of normal, healthy mosquitos.

Over the course of the next year, the team will track the spread of the doublesex mutation within this experimental lab population. She is excited, to say the least. “This will really be a breakthrough experiment,” says Müeller.

The group’s research is just one arm of the international organization <a href="https://targetmalaria.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Target Malaria's</a> global malaria reduction strategy. Other teams at the University of Cambridge, University of Notre Dame, and the University of Oxford - amongst others - are working towards similar goals to those of Müeller’s team.

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&nbsp;
<h2>GMO Mosquitos in the Future</h2>
What does this mean for the future of malaria on planet earth?

Although Müeller’s experiment is set to conclude in February of 2020, there is still much to be done. They plan to spend four to five additional years studying the possible long-term consequences of the mosquitos’ release into the wild, as well as understanding the necessary ecological and political hurdles they must clear in order to implement their vision.

The team does not expect their mosquitos to be released into the wild anytime soon. But their research is already happening, and it’s not too early for all of us to start asking questions about how it will affect our shared future.

&nbsp;

Why Are There GMO Mosquitos?

Humans have been genetically modifying organisms (GMO) for close to...

You may think of bees as annoying, stinging pests or cute, fluffy balls, but their most important role is as pollinators of food plants. There are <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">almost 20,000 different species of bees</a>, many of which provide essential services to humans and ecosystems. In the United States alone there are around 3,500 species.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Is a Bee?</h2>
Bees are a <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">group of animals</a> that include a handful of different families. The best-known group, Apidae, includes honey-bees and bumblebees and have a shared “hivemind.” These collective bees dominate most peoples image of bees. <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">However, 98% of bee species are naturally solitary</a>, living without a queen or hive. Many nest in the ground, others form biological plastics to keep their homes dry. The many adaptations of bees are impressive and contain an amazing amount of diversity.

Another common misconception <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/group/wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">is that wasps are bees</a>. Wasps share many characteristics with bees. Both wasps and bees are classified in the order Hymenoptera (along with ants.) There are 30,000 unique species of wasps. You can tell wasps from bees by their narrow waist that connects their abdomen to their thorax. Wasp nests are papery and made from wood fiber, compared to the waxy hives of bees.

&nbsp;
<h2>Are Bees Endangered?</h2>
In recent years, bee populations have been declining globally. Increased rates of colony collapse disorder, climate change, and other factors have contributed to these changes. These changes have sparked fear that bees may go extinct, leaving us without essential pollination services. As a result, researchers are even exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-robots-electronic-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">creating robotic replacements for bees</a>.

The American Fish and Wildlife Service has recognized the severe decline in some threatened wild bee populations. In 2016, seven species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-bee-species-put-endangered-species-list/">Hawaiian yellow-faced bees were placed on the endangered species list</a>. In 2017 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rusty-patched-bumble-bee-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the rusty patch bumble bee (Bombus affinis) was designated as an endangered species</a>. This was the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/u-s-lists-a-bumble-bee-species-as-endangered-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">first bumblebee species to receive this classification</a>. This provides these species some protection under the endangered species act.

In addition, <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=135293&amp;searchType=species" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists</a> 16 species of bees as vulnerable, 18 as endangered and 9 as critically endangered globally. However, these endangered species include American native bee species that are not on the endangered species list. Groups in California are <a href="https://newsroom.defenders.org/conservation-organizations-seek-protection-for-californias-endangered-bumble-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pushing to protect these species.</a>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869701 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bee-170551_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bee on a yellow flower" width="1024" height="680" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Do Bees Matter?</h2>
The great diversity among species of bees means that there is a great risk of losing species before we understand them. Many bee species have developed extremely complex and intricate relationships with plant species. These relationships provide pollination for plants that could otherwise never reproduce. With the loss of bees comes the loss of many plants.

The diversity and evolution of insects likely played a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollination-insects-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">major role in the evolution of flowering plants</a>. We could lose this diversity that has developed over hundreds of millions of years in just decades.

&nbsp;
<h2>Humans and Bees</h2>
Humans rely upon bees to pollinate our food, as well as the many flowering plants we grow for all sorts of uses. In the wild, bees play an essential role in keeping our natural lands healthy.

However, human impacts are a serious threat to many species of bees.

&nbsp;
<h2>The Biggest Bee in the Business</h2>
The western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most important pollinator for agriculture. These bees are cultivated on every continent except Antarctica. This species plays a huge role in the food supply. As a result, they are domesticated and bred at a large scale.

In recent years, colony collapse disorder has risen for unknown reasons, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-native-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">harming many apiarists and farmers</a>. Though honey bee populations have experienced substantial changes over the last few decades, they are not endangered.

&nbsp;
<h2>Are Pesticides Killing Bees?</h2>
One of the most likely culprits harming bee colonies is a common insecticide used on crops. Neonicotinoids are synthetic compounds derived from nicotine, a natural insecticide. These chemicals are often sprayed on seeds to prevent insects from eating them before they begin to grow. Studies have shown that these compounds may affect bees at extremely low concentrations. Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-pesticides-bee-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">these insecticides are neurotoxic to bees </a>and cause harm to colonies even in non-deadly doses.

&nbsp;
<h2>How Agriculture Harms Bee Diversity</h2>
The loss of bees is not enough to fully explain changes in pollination. Decreasing bee diversity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-losses-pollination-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">due to habitat fragmentation from agriculture may play a role</a>. In addition, many pesticides have non-lethal effects on bee behavior. This may cause bees to pollinate less effectively, and has the potential to change how our forests and grasslands are pollinated.

&nbsp;
<h2>Climate Change and Bees</h2>
Climate change also plays a significant role in threatening populations of bees and other pollinators. Changing seasonal trends in temperature, water availability, and season length can have significant impacts on flowering plants. Many of these species rely on these seasonal cues to know when to flower. Historically, pollinators have been in sync with these cycles. But when climate change disturbs these cycles, pollinators may emerge to find that all of the flowers have already bloomed, or that none are open yet. These complex relationships are difficult to predict, and changes to them ripple throughout the ecosystem.

&nbsp;

There are only a few bee species classified as endangered. However, the many sudden changes to their environment pose a real threat. The incredible importance of bees makes it essential that we find ways to protect them.

&nbsp;

Are Bees Endangered?

You may think of bees as annoying, stinging pests or...

Closeup,Of,A,Bombus,Terrestris,,The,Buff-tailed,Bumblebee,Or,Large

If you remember much from elementary school, you know bees are important. One of planet earth’s beloved beneficial pollinators, these busy bodies transfer pollen between plants, increase yields of crops and create the tantalizingly sweet and earthy elixir known as honey - a global market valued around <a href="https://www.statista.com/topics/5090/honey-market-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">7 billion US dollars</a>. 

Indeed, when you take a big-picture look at things, much of our society and culture is built around an on-going love story between bees and agriculture. This is because so much of human society is directly tied to agricultural systems that allowed for social expansion. 

Without beneficial pollinators like bees, who’s to say where homo sapiens might be today? Perhaps not so far from the caves of our <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/who-were-the-neanderthals.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">neanderthal relatives</a>. 

But as is often the case, this love story is not so simple. Let’s peel back some layers, and embrace the sticky details. It’s imperative that we do - for the bees and for us to survive. 

[caption id="attachment_1883569" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1883569 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/bees-4751541_1280-1024x690.jpg" alt="bees" width="1024" height="690" /> [Image via Pixabay user <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/terrianneallen-11192675/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4751541" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Terry Sharp</a>][/caption]
<h2>In The Bee-ginning</h2>
For over <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/11/humans-have-been-using-bees-least-9000-years#" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nine thousand years</a> at least, bees have been an integral part of human food culture. Reaching back to the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3758027/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">stone age</a>, the use of honey is depicted in paintings and in medicinal texts. Bees pollinate thousands and thousands of species of plants. 

These plants include potato, onion, cabbage, peppers, chestnuts, watermelon, cucumber, carrots, sunflowers. The list goes on. It’s very likely that most meals you eat are made possible by these bumbling friends. 

These agricultural collaborations are ongoing today. Every year, farmers spend millions of dollars to rent hives and pollinate their crops. Bees contributed <a href="https://cms.business-services.upenn.edu/morrisarboretum-blog/303-agriculture-and-bees-what-consumers-need-to-know.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">24 billion dollars</a> to U.S. agriculture in 2016. In the U.S. alone, bees also produced 161.8 million pounds of raw honey. These little guys just don’t stop. 
<h2>How does it work?</h2>
A bee collects pollen and nectar from a flowering plant. This happens <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-pollen-place-plants/">in nature</a> or in a curated, maintained farm field. Pollen from the stamen (the plant’s male reproductive organ) sticks to the little hairs on the bee’s body. 

The bee then transfers the pollen to the next plant it visits. Honey bees, in particular, provide up to 80% of pollination for cultivated crops. 

[caption id="attachment_1883570" align="alignnone" width="640"]<img class="wp-image-1883570 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/apiary-1867537_640.jpg" alt="bee hive" width="640" height="426" /> [Image via Pixabay user <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/pexels-2286921/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1867537" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pexels</a>][/caption]
<h2>Disaster For The Bees Is A Disaster for Agriculture</h2>
In 2006, beekeepers reported disturbing news: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/usda-suspends-national-honey-bee-report/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">colonies of bees</a> were disappearing. Hives were completely abandoned for reasons people could not yet explain. Fourteen years later, the causes of this colony collapse disorder are still unclear. 

Farmers continue to lose upwards of <a href="https://cms.business-services.upenn.edu/morrisarboretum-blog/303-agriculture-and-bees-what-consumers-need-to-know.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">45% of their bees each winter</a> - a heartbreaking statistic that is also quite terrifying when you reflect on the implications of a world without these pollinators. So much of the beauty we experience - and the food we eat - is thanks to bees. We have to find a way to protect them. 
<h2>Bee Aware</h2>
As is the case for ecosystems across the globe, the climate crisis will determine the fate of all of us - bees and people alike. Without swift and radical action in regard to sustainability on a global scale, the truth of it is that none of us stand much of a chance. 

If you care about survival, about flowers, fresh food on the table, healthy ecosystems, and beneficial insects, the most important action you can take is voting for leaders who will prioritize the planet’s health by holding corporations and Big Ag accountable for their pollutive and unethical practices. 

We need leaders who will introduce and pass effective legislation to reverse humanity’s current course. While it may already be too late, it is also criminal to do nothing in the present moment. 
<h2>Bee an Ally</h2>
A sustainable future will require systemic change. There are individual actions you can take as well. Consider tearing up your lawn and planting a pollinator garden of native plants to your area. Then convince your neighbors to do the same. 

Consider buying your produce from organic farmers who prioritize pollinator habitats and protective measures for the insects and birds of your region. 

If you’re especially concerned about bees, make sure you are not buying any plants or supporting any merchants who sell green goods that include neonicotinoids. 

Some farmers and growers commonly use this pesticide that is linked to declining bee populations. It is detrimental. Legislation restricts this in the European Union. The Trump Administration in the U.S. has <a href="https://news.bloombergenvironment.com/environment-and-energy/epa-curbs-use-of-12-bee-harming-pesticides" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rolled back restrictions</a>. This is unacceptable to any person concerned for bee populations. 

[caption id="attachment_1883571" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1883571 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/macro-4364962_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="bee and flower" width="1024" height="682" /> [Image via Pixabay user <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/edmondlafoto-7913128/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4364962" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">edmondlafoto</a>][/caption]
<h2>Keep Working</h2>
When it comes to the love story between bees and agriculture, we must believe in the power of a sustainable future. The story isn’t over yet. 

In a delightful twist, perhaps it is the spirit of the ever-busy honey bee that can provide the blueprint for what we as human beings must do to turn things around: keep going, keep working, spread beauty in the world, and do so together. 

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Bees and Agriculture: A Love Story

If you remember much from elementary school, you know bees...

Monarch butterflies are among the biggest, brightest fliers in North America. If you're lucky, monarch butterfly eggs might be developing in your neighborhood right now!

With lots of care and attention, you can raise these tiny butterfly eggs into brilliant, orange, and black butterflies.
<h2>The Lifestyle of a Monarch</h2>
Monarchs are unusual among butterflies for their amazing migration from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-vast-distances/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">central Mexico to Canada and back</a>. Even more impressive is that the migration cycle involves four generations of butterflies. This means that no single butterfly has ever done the entire journey, but somehow they find their way back and forth every year.

During the winter, monarchs huddle in a select few patches of pine trees in Mexico. They cling to each other to keep warm. As a result, they create huge hanging masses of butterflies.

It's a spectacular sight to see them in the winter because there are tens of millions of butterflies in these small areas of forest. Scientists estimate a density of 5,000 butterflies per square meter of ground area during the winter season!

[caption id="attachment_1884089" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884089 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/monarch-butterfly-5379358_1280.jpg" alt="monarch butterfly" width="1280" height="853" /> An adult monarch feeds on milkweed nectar. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/chesna-5611079/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Chesna</a> via Pixabay[/caption]

In the spring, they leave Mexico for the North, stretching from Texas to Maine to Saskatchewan. In the U.S. and Canada, they lay eggs and continue on their journeys.
<h2>How Are Monarch Populations Doing?</h2>
Monarch butterflies are in steep decline for a variety of reasons. A major issue is that milkweed, the only plant their caterpillars can live on, is sensitive to pollution. Wild populations of milkweed have declined across North America, leading to fewer places for monarchs to lay their eggs.

Widespread use of pesticides and herbicides, intensification of agriculture, and human development of wild places are all huge factors in milkweed decline.

As a side note, I live in California where there is a much, much smaller population of monarchs. Instead of hundreds of millions, this population is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterfly-populations-all-time-low/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">critically endangered in the tens of thousands</a>. California monarchs overwinter in California and spend the rest of their lives on the west coast.

[caption id="attachment_1884090" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884090 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/milkweed-2455863_1280.jpg" alt="Milkweed flower" width="1280" height="787" /> Milkweed flowers are gorgeous and geometric. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/leoleobobeo-1487549/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Jan Haerer</a> via Pixabay.[/caption]
<h2>What Is Milkweed? Why Do Monarchs Lay Butterfly Eggs on Them?</h2>
If you're hoping to raise monarchs, you must first <a href="https://www.saveourmonarchs.org/blog/how-to-identify-milkweed-plants-quickly-and-confidently#:~:text=Common%20Milkweed%2D%20Asclepias%20syriaca&amp;text=Underground%20stems.,%2C%20bumpy%2C%20rough%20and%20downy." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">learn about milkweed</a>. While there are a bunch of different species, they all look similar. They are herbaceous, perennial plants that usually grow in moderately wet places.

Milkweed will always create a white, sticky sap when you break the leaves or stems. In fact, this sap is toxic to many animals, which is why the monarchs eat it!

Monarch caterpillars aren't affected by the toxins, so they can munch milkweed and accumulate the toxins in their bodies. This prevents predation from birds and other potential predators.

To attract monarchs to your garden, plant lots of milkweed! It is a tough plant to start from seed, so most people buy milkweed from the nursery. In fact, urban and suburban areas present some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-landscapes-recovering-monarch-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">greatest opportunities</a> for milkweed restoration, and therefore monarch butterfly conservation.

Please don't buy the tropical milkweed! It has lovely orange and red flowers, but it doesn't die back in the winter like all the native milkweeds. As a result, the butterflies are tempted to stick around in the U.S. too long and miss their migration. Check with staff at your nursery to ensure what you buy is native milkweed.

[caption id="attachment_1884084" align="alignnone" width="1512"]<img class="wp-image-1884084 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IMG_7347.jpg" alt="milkweed sterilization" width="1512" height="1735" /> An example of how to sterilize your milkweed. The pyrex dish is full of a 10% bleach solution. Photo by the author.[/caption]
<h2>Harvesting Milkweed for Your Hungry Caterpillars</h2>
If you have more than a couple of caterpillars you will need regular access to a good source of milkweed. It's amazing how much plant matter these tiny insects can digest! Before you try to raise monarchs, you must figure out how to feed them.

Once you find your source, only harvest healthy-looking milkweed. Aphids will often take over a patch of milkweed. Milkweed covered in aphids is not as good for your precious caterpillars as healthy, green milkweed.

A variety of diseases and parasites infect monarch caterpillars. As a responsible butterfly parent, you should disinfect any milkweed you bring into your house. But before you disinfect, inspect the plants for any monarch butterfly eggs! If you find any, take them off and put them in with your other eggs.

An easy way to disinfect milkweed is to make a 10% bleach solution (1 part bleach to 9 parts water). Soak the milkweed in the bleach for 5 minutes. Thoroughly rinse the milkweed off after soaking until you can't smell any bleach.

Then, pat down the plants with a paper towel. If you are in a really humid environment, try your best to really dry off the milkweed. Too much humidity can be bad for the caterpillars.

[caption id="attachment_1884086" align="alignnone" width="745"]<img class="wp-image-1884086 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IMG_7391.png" alt="monarch butterfly eggs" width="745" height="700" /> Close-up of monarch butterfly eggs on small pieces of milkweed. Photo by the author.[/caption]
<h2>Collecting Butterfly Eggs Thoughtfully</h2>
Since monarchs are a very special species of butterfly that is critically endangered in California and in decline elsewhere, you want to be thoughtful when collecting their butterfly eggs. Don't collect more than you can handle! Start out with five or fewer and see how that works for you.

Monarchs typically lay their eggs on the underside of milkweed leaves. They are barely larger than the periods on this page. The eggs are white in color and can be very hard to spot!

When you find an egg, cut the entire leaf with the egg on it off the plant. Then, once inside, cut out a small square of around the egg. Tweezers are helpful to hold the square as you cut around it.

If you leave too much plant matter around the egg it could curl up as it dries. If it curls up too much, it could hinder the caterpillar from finding its way out.
<h2>Hatching Butterfly Eggs</h2>
Place your egg squares on a removable surface inside a Tupperware (which you have sterilized like the milkweed). Put the Tupperware in a place that doesn't receive direct sunlight in your home because direct sunlight can cook the eggs.

The caterpillars emerge from their eggs around five days after being laid. Fortunately, it is easy to tell when they get close to emerging. The tip of the egg will darken to a dark grey color about 12 hours before the caterpillar emerges.

If you check your eggs in the morning and the evening, you will be able to catch the butterfly eggs before they hatch.

Now, you must prepare another caterpillar chamber. I prefer to use a second Tupperware (again, sterilized) with a slightly damp paper towel in the bottom.

Take a few of your sterilized milkweed leaves and wrap the bases of the leaves in a damp paper towel. This will keep the leaves fresh for about three days. Place your newly darkened butterfly egg on top of one of these fresh leaves. Soon, you will have a baby caterpillar munching away!

Butterfly eggshells are full of great nutrients, so the caterpillars will usually eat their shells first. However, naughty caterpillars may eat another, unhatched egg if they stumble across it. In their first few days they can't move much, so placing the butterfly eggs an inch apart is sufficient to prevent cannabilism.

[caption id="attachment_1884080" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1884080 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IMG_7280.jpg" alt="hatched monarch egg" width="1024" height="1505" /> A caterpillar within hours of emerging from the monarch egg. Photo by the author.[/caption]
<h2>Caring For Your Teeny Tiny Caterpillars</h2>
It's best to always wash your hands before opening your butterfly cage or tending to the Tupperwares. Also, it is best to never touch the caterpillars with your hands.

I find it's best to always have tweezers around as I can do just about everything I need to with the tweezers. And just like everything else, sterilize your tweezers frequently.

You will be surprised by how tiny the caterpillars are when they emerge. During their first few days, you don't need to do much. Just let them eat their milkweed in peace. If you notice frass (caterpillar poop) building up on the paper towel, you can carefully change it by picking up the milkweed leaves by the end that is wrapped in paper towels.

One you feel like the caterpillars are big enough that you won't lose them in the butterfly cage, it's time to move them!

[caption id="attachment_1884082" align="alignnone" width="931"]<img class="wp-image-1884082 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IMG_7314.jpg" alt="monarch caterpillars" width="931" height="1043" /> Three medium-sized caterpillars eating milkweed. I transplanted these from the Tupperware when they were about 1/3 to 1/2 this size. Photo by the author.[/caption]
<h2>Transitioning to a Butterfly Cage</h2>
Instead of using individual leaves, you should use entire milkweed branches in your<a href="https://www.educationalscience.com/butterfly-cages" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> butterfly cage</a>. I wrap the milkweed stems in paper towels until they fit snugly into a flower vase, which I fill with water. You want to make sure no unfortunate caterpillar can fall into the water.

Again, choose a spot in your house that gets indirect sunlight for your cage. A north-facing window works best.

Caterpillars prefer temperatures from 70-85°F. Fortunately, this is the temperature of most homes in the summer.

Put some paper towels at the bottom of the cage. I change these paper towels every day to prevent the buildup of caterpillar frass. You can usually take the vase out of the cage while changing the paper towel. Keeping a clean butterfly cage ensures the healthiest butterflies!

To transfer your caterpillars from their second Tupperware to their cage, pick up the leaves with caterpillars on them, and find a sturdy place to balance them on the milkweed stem in the vase. They will find their way onto the new milkweed, but it may take a day. It's best not to disturb them.

[caption id="attachment_1884083" align="alignnone" width="1512"]<img class="wp-image-1884083 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IMG_7337.jpg" alt="monarch butterfly cage" width="1512" height="2016" /> An example of a full butterfly cage. Believe it or not, seven large caterpillars ate all of this milkweed within three days! Photo by the author.[/caption]
<h2>Hungry, Hungry Caterpillars</h2>
At this point, the caterpillars start to eat a lot. Never let them run out of food. This will stress them out (like it would stress you out!) and make them more prone to disease. When I notice their food getting low, I will introduce a second vase full of milkweed and make sure that they can wander from one to another.

Don't worry if sometimes your caterpillars don't move for a while. They shed their skin about five times throughout the two weeks they are in the caterpillar phase. This process can take many hours. When they shed their skin they are very still.

However, if you do notice a caterpillar looking<a href="https://monarchbutterflylifecycle.com/blogs/raise/monarch-diseases-parasites-prevention" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> strange or sickly</a>, isolate it immediately. It may be infected with some disease and could infect your other caterpillars. The best way to get rid of these poor guys is to freeze them and throw them away. It's the saddest thing, I know.

[caption id="attachment_1884085" align="alignnone" width="806"]<img class="wp-image-1884085 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IMG_7377.jpg" alt="j-hook caterpillar" width="806" height="788" /> A caterpillar in the 'J-hook.' The chrysalis is already forming inside this caterpillar! Photo by the author.[/caption]
<h2>J-Hooking and the Cocoon</h2>
When you can't imagine your caterpillars getting any fatter, they will spontaneously stop eating. This means they are getting ready to make their cocoon. Make sure they have a clear route to the top of the butterfly cage. If a few leaves of milkweed touch the side of the cage, that is good enough.

The caterpillars will meander to the top of the cage and search for their favorite chrysalis spot. Once they find this spot they will spend a while weaving a silk pad that they connect to in order to hang upside down.

They will hang upside down in a 'J' shape. This is called J-hooking. Once the caterpillar is in its J-hook, it has already begun to transform. Caterpillars will remain in their J-hooks for about a day.

It is critical that you do not interrupt the caterpillar from the moment it begins the J-hook to 2 days after it forms the chrysalis. They are super sensitive at this stage!

In a matter of minutes, the J-shaped caterpillar will shed its skin and turn into a bright green chrysalis. It is very easy to miss this! If you want to catch it, start paying very close attention once you notice their antennae begin to look deformed in their J-hook. That means they are very close to transforming.

[caption id="attachment_1884079" align="alignnone" width="1669"]<img class="wp-image-1884079 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IMG_1963.jpeg" alt="monarch chrysalis" width="1669" height="1211" /> Several caterpillars prepare to go into J-hooks. There are also three chrysalises in the picture. Photo by the author.[/caption]
<h2>The Chrysalis Waiting Game</h2>
Monarchs will spend 9-14 days in their chrysalis. There isn't much to do during this stage except wait. Always keep the door to your cage closed, because nasty wasps can lay parasitic eggs inside the chrysalises. However, these wasps can't make it through the fine mesh of a butterfly cage.

You will notice the chrysalis become translucent a few days before the butterfly emerges. Once the chrysalis is completely see-through, you can be sure the butterfly will emergy that day.

Important! Don't have any caterpillars in the cage where an adult will emerge from their chrysalis. The strange slime that comes out of the chrysalis may be heavily infested with an Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE) parasite.

If young caterpillars eat the slime, they will become sick. Also, clean your cage very well with bleach before raising another generation of butterflies.

[caption id="attachment_1884088" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1884088 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/monarch-butterfly-4835194_1280.jpg" alt="monarch emergence" width="1280" height="853" /> A butterfly will emerge from this chrysalis within 24 hours. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/lorrym-3465282/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lorry M</a> via Pixabay.[/caption]
<h2>The Emergence of the Monarch</h2>
The butterfly will look misshapen when it comes out of the chrysalis. Within a few hours, its wings should dry out and it will look like a normal butterfly. It is best to release the butterfly within 24 hours of it emerging.

The only exceptions to this should be if it is under 60°F outside. Monarchs can't fly very well in these cooler temperatures, so if you release it below 60°F, it might not make it.

Monarchs don't feed on their first day, and usually don't eat much on their second day, either. This means you won't have to feed them once they emerge.

To let them free, take the entire cage outside and open the door all the way. Let the butterfly come out on its own accord. As long as the other chrysalises are more than two days old, this gentle movement shouldn't disturb them.

Good work! You've introduced more butterflies into the world. That should feel great!

I hope you've learned a little bit more about raising monarch butterflies here! Please remember that it is very important to keep their cages, their milkweed, and your hands, and tweezers clean at every point in the process.

[Featured Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/publicdomainpictures-14/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">PublicDomainPictures</a> via Pixabay.]

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Monarch Butterfly Eggs and Raising Them

Monarch butterflies are among the biggest, brightest fliers in North...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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