Chimpanzees are not the usual suspects when we think about musical beats. Yet recent work suggests they use patterns that might rival the rhythms many of us tap with our fingers. 



Researchers have been eavesdropping on these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> as they drum on tree roots in forests across Africa. They believe this drumming could shed light on the roots of our own musical traits.



This investigation was steered by lead author Vesta Eleuteri, who is affiliated with the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>, Austria. She explains that the team set out to see whether certain groups had distinct drumming styles..



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-drum-rhythmic-beats-in-forests">Chimpanzees drum rhythmic beats in forests</h2>



One part of their <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00448-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> showed that different chimpanzee populations developed regular percussive timing. 



They were intrigued to discover that these patterns varied sharply between eastern and western <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a>, which was unexpected.



“We didn't expect to see such clear differences in rhythm,” said Eleuteri. She noted the parallels between these drumming traits and human music.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groups-have-unique-drumming-patterns">Groups have unique drumming patterns</h2>



These apes often strike large aboveground roots with their hands or feet. Observers report that the resulting pulses can be heard deep in the surrounding forest.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31918501/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> suggest they use these low-frequency beats to alert others to their location. Each community’s pattern seems to have its own identity, offering subtle cues to group members who might be far away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-use-distinct-drumming-styles">Chimpanzees use distinct drumming styles</h2>



Scientists noticed that western chimpanzees appear to drum more quickly. Their eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relatives</a> tend to insert short and long intervals, creating a different pulse.



Some researchers think these differences might help chimps manage their social spacing. They point out that each group’s drumming style could reflect unique communication needs.



“Making music is a fundamental part of what it means to be human - but we don’t know for how long we have been making music,” said Catherine Hobaiter, from the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Andrews</a>. 



She suggests that seeing such rhythmic organization in our closest relatives gives us clues about our shared past.



Some <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-abstract/68/1/201/1041058?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialists</a> believe these percussive qualities hint that musical roots stretch back millions of years. If chimps have intrinsic timing, our own ancestors might have tapped out beats before speech ever existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recording-chimp-drumming-poses-challenges">Recording chimp drumming poses challenges</h2>



Gathering these recordings in thick forests was tough. Teams dealt with patchy visibility and had to sift through hours of audio to isolate each drumming event.



Yet the acoustic clarity of those root strikes appears to carry well. Investigators suspect that might let group members stay aware of each other without daily face-to-face gatherings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drumming-reveals-cultural-insights">Drumming reveals cultural insights</h2>



Some think these varied beats could reveal how social structures shape cultural practices. Others see it as a window into early rhythmic skill that later blossomed into music.



Apes may not be forming bands, but they do offer glimpses into the building blocks of melodic expression. 



Observers hope this will spark fresh conversations about when and why our ancestors first started making organized noise.



Humans have always puzzled over how our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">musical talents evolved</a>. If an ape that shares much of our DNA relies on steady beats, then we might be tapping into a very ancient groove.



That possibility might open the door to deeper research on how rhythmic ability supports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group cohesion</a>. Song, dance, and shared drumming could have bridged gaps long before languages took shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-chimpanzee-drumming-patterns">Studying chimpanzee drumming patterns</h2>



Several labs aim to capture more detailed measurements of these drumming sequences. They want to see if local environments or group sizes lead to special patterns that differ from one site to another.



There is also interest in exploring how individual chimps learn these rhythms. If youngsters pick them up by mimicking adults, that might confirm a transmission process much like our own cultural traditions.



Experts emphasize that these findings are not about turning chimps into rock stars. They simply want to understand how drumming has evolved and how it connects to our musical identity.



Scientists suspect this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rapid-gestures-in-conversations-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beat-based communication</a> could explain how early hominins might have adapted similar behaviors for more complex messages. Those messages could have eventually led to chanting or vocal music.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



No one knows exactly why certain groups seem to sync their hits, while others favor a shifting tempo. Future work may focus on the social payoffs of uniform or varied drumming.



Many suspect the chatter of buttress drumming helped shape chimp interactions for ages. Knowing how those beats work might decode an ancient puzzle about the roots of music.



Plenty of folks wonder if we will ever see chimps expanding this behavior into new activities. Time will tell if there is more complexity lurking behind these drum-like signals.



For now, these revelations remind us that humans are not the only ones with a sense of rhythm. Chimps have a knack for turning tree roots into a forest-wide broadcast. There remains a world of possibility still truly waiting to be uncovered.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00448-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Chimpanzees use rhythmic drumming to communicate in forests

Chimpanzees are not the usual suspects when we think about musical beats. Yet recent work suggests they use patterns that might rival the rhythms many of us tap with our fingers. Researchers have been eavesdropping on these apes as they drum on tree roots in forests across Africa. They believe this drumming could shed light on the roots of our own musical traits. This investigation was steered by lead author Vesta Eleuteri, who is affiliated with the University of Vienna, Austria. She explains that the team set...

Tens of thousands of migratory birds that mysteriously dropped dead in the Southwest earlier this year apparently died of long-term starvation. According to the U.S. Geological Survey’s <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nwhc">National Wildlife Health Center</a>, most of the bird carcasses showed signs of starvation, including emaciation, severely shrunken breast muscles, empty stomachs, and kidney failure.

The USGS report suggests that a severe summer drought contributed to prolonged starvation among the birds. An unusual cold front followed the drought, and temperatures plummeted below freezing in early September.

The researchers said that the cold snap likely made things worse, causing the birds to become disoriented. Some were struck by vehicles, flew into buildings, or died from exposure to the cold weather. 

Although the experts could not identify a single, definitive cause of death, they were able to rule out disease and poisoning, according to the <a href="https://apnews.com/article/wildlife-health-wildlife-health-weather-new-mexico-0ec435b343f3285baa1a91e771c3f0b1">Associated Press</a>.

Many of the deaths may have also been tied to this year's devastating wildfire season. In September, Professor Martha Desmond of New Mexico State University speculated that the fires may have pushed some birds into early migrations that they were not physically prepared for, while others likely died from lung damage.  

“Birds who migrated before they were ready because of the weather might have not had enough fat to survive,” Professor Desmond told <a href="https://www.cnn.com/">CNN</a>. “Some birds might have not even had the reserves to start migrating so they died in place.”

The USGS team found no evidence of smoke poisoning in the birds. Regardless, Jon Hayes of the Audubon Society believes the fires played a role. 

“The birds could have been altering their migration path to avoid smoke plumes, thereby increasing the energy demand of their migration and causing exhaustion,” Hayes told Audubon Magazine. “The evidence they’ve shown regarding poor body condition could still fit that scenario, and so I think there’s still questions like the role of fire in particular.”

Many different types of migratory birds were found dead, including bluebirds, sparrows, blackbirds, flycatchers, and warblers. There were multiple reports by people who had witnessed strange behavior among birds leading up to the die-off. For example, birds that are typically seen foraging in shrubs or trees were observed chasing insects on the ground.

The first signs of the mortality event emerged on August 20, when about 200 dead birds were found at the White Sands Missile Range in southern New Mexico. Over the next few weeks, dead birds began turning up in alarming numbers across several states. 

In her interview with CNN, Professor Desmond said that many birds were lethargic and unresponsive, and were getting struck by cars in larger numbers than ever before. She added that at the missile range golf course, swallows were sitting on the ground letting people approach them.

Professor Desmond pointed to the role of climate change in this shocking mortality event. “We have lost three billion birds in the U.S. since 1970 and we’ve also seen a tremendous decline in insects, so an event like this is terrifying to these populations and it’s devastating to see.”

Experts warn that rising temperatures due to human-caused climate change will cause even more severe droughts in the Western United States. A recent study from Columbia University reports that the region is experiencing a 20-year megadrought that is on its way to becoming the worst in modern history. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shocking bird mortality event was caused by long-term starvation

Tens of thousands of migratory birds that mysteriously dropped dead...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, researchers report that the biggest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-in-low-quality-habitats-are-more-susceptible-to-disease/">bumblebees</a> take the time to memorize the location of flowers with the richest nectar. With a shorter flight range and less carrying capacity, smaller bees are not concerned with finding the best flowers.

Honeybees are known to perform "learning flights" after leaving flowers. The Exeter team discovered that bumblebees do the same thing, repeatedly looking back to memorize a flower's location.

"It might not be widely known that pollinating insects learn and develop individual flower preferences, but in fact bumblebees are selective," said study co-author Professor Natalie Hempel de Ibarra.

"On leaving a flower, they can actively decide how much effort to put into remembering its location. The surprising finding of our study is that a bee's size determines this decision making and the learning behavior."

The researchers designed an experiment in which captive bees visited artificial flowers that contained a sugar solution of varying concentrations. The experts found that, the larger the bee, the more its learning behavior varied depending on the richness of the solution.

Meanwhile, smaller bees invested the same amount of effort in learning the locations of the artificial flowers, regardless of whether the sugar concentration was high or low.

"The differences we found reflect the different roles of bees in their colonies," said Professor Hempel de Ibarra.."Large bumblebees can carry larger loads and explore further from the nest than smaller ones."

"Small ones with a smaller flight range and carrying capacity cannot afford to be as selective, so they accept a wider range of flowers. These small bees tend to be involved more with tasks inside the nest - only going out to forage if food supplies in the colony are running low."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Large bumblebees can find the best flowers

In a new study from the University of Exeter, researchers...

Bumblebees in low quality landscapes have higher levels of disease pathogens, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>. Increased pathogen loads were also found among bumblebees in areas with higher numbers of managed honey bee hives.

The low quality habitats observed in the study were characterized by a relative lack of spring flowers and suitable nesting areas. 

The researchers explained that the findings can be used to inform management practices and support the conservation of bee species that provide essential pollination services in natural and agricultural ecosystems.

"Recent worldwide declines in wild and managed bee populations have been attributed to several factors," said study lead author D.J. McNeil. "For example, extensive habitat loss and degradation has led to a lack of flowers and nest sites, which in turn has contributed to the loss of wild bee abundance and diversity."

McNeil noted that more recently, some bee losses - especially among honey bees and bumblebees - have been blamed on rising levels of novel bee pathogens, perhaps exacerbated by other factors that weaken bee immunity or resistance.

"Many of the factors known to undermine bee health, such as poor nutrition or exposure to pesticides, can increase susceptibility to disease. Bees are more likely to be nutritionally deprived in landscapes with fewer and less diverse flowering plants, and poor nutrition can reduce the immune response and increase pathogen and parasite loads."

According to study co-author Professor Heather Hines, the incidence and loads of a particular pathogen or parasite in bee populations are likely influenced by the composition of bee communities as well. She explained that the incidence of viruses and parasites in wild bumble bees was higher in the presence of honey bee colonies, which often harbor higher loads of pathogens that are transmissible to native bees.

"Given all these interacting factors, disease prevalence and virulence can be challenging to predict in wild bee populations," said Professor Hines. "Our study is among the first to use data from a large geographic scale to evaluate the relative role of landscape features on the distribution and loads of key pathogens and parasites in wild bees."

The study was focused on the common eastern bumblebee. The team collected specimens from diverse sites across Pennsylvania, including 38 of the state's 67 counties.

The researchers screened for three pathogens known to infect bees: deformed wing virus, black queen cell virus, and Vairimorpha - a microsporidian parasite. They also looked for the expression of a gene that regulates immunity. 

Using statistical analysis techniques, the experts linked pathogen loads to several environmental stressors, including floral abundance, nesting habitat quality, insecticide loading, climate conditions, and interactions with managed honey bees.

The results indicate that bumblebees collected in low quality landscapes exhibited the highest pathogen loads, and the main drivers were spring floral resources and nesting habitat availability. The team also measured higher loads of bumblebee pathogens where honeybee apiaries were more abundant.

McNeil said results of the study highlight the need to maintain and create high quality landscapes, such as those with abundant floral and nesting resources, to support healthy wild bee populations. The findings also draw attention to the value of spring floral resources.

"Our results suggest that it may be possible to predict potential risks from pathogens and parasites based on these landscape indices, which can help inform decisions as to where habitat restoration and conservation practices should be applied," said McNeil. "This is particularly timely in light of widespread population declines in many insect groups, especially pollinators like bumblebees."

The researchers hope to incorporate this information into Beescape, an online tool that allows people across the United States to evaluate their landscape quality. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Bumblebees in low quality habitats are more susceptible to disease

Bumblebees in low quality landscapes have higher levels of disease...

Scientists identify the proteins that allowed vertebrates to evolve. Most animal species are vertebrates, including mammals, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birdsong-frequency-is-influenced-by-sexual-selection/">birds</a>, fish, reptiles, and amphibians. Scientists at Kyoto University's <a href="https://www.icems.kyoto-u.ac.jp/">Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences</a> (iCeMS) have spent nearly four decades investigating how vertebrates evolved, and recently discovered a family of proteins that played a very important role. Scientists identify the proteins that allowed vertebrates to evolve

The study suggests that one transporter protein in particular, ABCA1, was critical for regulating the signals involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration. These processes were required for vertebrates to develop into more complex organisms.

The ATP-binding cassette proteins (ABC) are very similar across species, including in bacteria, plants, and animals. Different types of ABC proteins have different responsibilities, such as transporting nutrients into cells, exporting toxic compounds, and regulating lipid concentrations within cell membranes. Scientists identify the proteins that allowed vertebrates to evolve

Kazumitsu Ueda is a cellular biochemist at iCeMS who has studied human ABC proteins ever since he and his colleagues identified the first eukaryote ABC protein gene 35 years ago. 

"We believe ABC proteins must have played important roles in evolution," said Ueda. "By transporting lipids, they enabled plants and animals to thrive on land by protecting them from water loss and pathogen infection. They are also assumed to have accelerated vertebrate evolution by allowing cholesterol to function as an intra-membrane signalling molecule."

Some of the earliest organisms on Earth were likely formed of DNA and proteins surrounded by a leaky lipid membrane. As the organisms evolved, their membranes were strengthened to protect them from the external environment. What this means is that only those organisms that gained special ABC transporters - capable of carrying nutrients across the membrane - would have survived. 

ABC proteins also produced an outer membrane that protected cells from external stresses and removed harmful substances from inside.

Ueda and his team analyzed the roles of ABCA1, gaining deeper insight into how it regulates cholesterol. In particular, they found that ABCA1 exports cellular phospholipids and cholesterol outside the cell for generating high-density lipoproteins, or "good cholesterol."

According to the experts, ABCA1 constantly flops cholesterol from the cell membrane's inner leaflet to its outer leaflet, maintaining a lower concentration on the inner side. This process is temporarily suppressed when the cell is exposed to an external stimulus, like a growth hormone, which leads to an accumulation of cholesterol in the inner leaflet. As a result, proteins are recruited to the cell membrane. 

The researchers believe that ABCA1 allowed vertebrates to evolve complicated biological processes and sophisticated bodies.

"ABCA1 is very unique and its functions surprised us," said Ueda. "Cholesterol's role was thought to focus mainly on physically strengthening the cell membrane and reducing its permeability to ions. Our research suggests it played a more important role in vertebrates, accelerating their evolution."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/18733468">FEBS Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists identify the proteins that allowed vertebrates to evolve

Scientists identify the proteins that allowed vertebrates to evolve. Most...

In a new study from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>, researchers are describing a previously unknown flower species that dates back 100 million years. The analysis of a well-preserved specimen, which is encased in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ancient-marine-organisms-amber/">amber</a>, is also shedding new light on the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. 

Study lead author Professor George Poinar is an international expert in using plant and animal life forms preserved in amber to learn more about the biology and ecology of the distant past.

"This isn't quite a Christmas flower but it is a beauty, especially considering it was part of a forest that existed 100 million years ago," said Professor Poinar.

"The male flower is tiny, about 2 millimeters across, but it has some 50 stamens arranged like a spiral, with anthers pointing toward the sky."

A stamen consists of an anther, which produces pollen, and a stalk that connects the anther to the flower.

"Despite being so small, the detail still remaining is amazing," said Professor Poinar. "Our specimen was probably part of a cluster on the plant that contained many similar flowers, some possibly female."

The flower has an egg-shaped, hollow floral cup. This is the part of the flower from which the stamens emerge. The cup contains an outer layer consisting of six petal-like components known as tepals, and two-chamber anthers with elaborate pollen sacs.

In collaboration with experts at the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Professor Poinar and his team named the new flower Valviloculus pleristaminis. Valva is the Latin term for the leaf on a folding door, loculus means compartment, plerus refers to many, and staminis represents the dozens of male sex organs found on the flower.

The specimen was sealed in amber on the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana during the mid-Cretaceous period. Then, the specimen was carried on a continental plate across 4,000 miles of ocean from Australia to Southeast Asia, said Professor Poinar.

It has been a mystery to geologists when this chunk of land - known as the West Burma Block - broke away from Gondwana. While some believe it was 200 million years ago; others believe it was around 500 million years ago.

Since angiosperms only evolved and diversified about 100 million years ago, the West Burma Block could not have broken off from Gondwana before then, explained Professor Poinar. This is much later than the dates that were previously predicted.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.brit.org/journal-botanical-research-institute-texas">Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists describe a flower that lived 100 million years ago

In a new study from Oregon State University, researchers are...

The frequency at which birds sing depends mainly on body size, but is also influenced by sexual selection, according to a new analysis from the <a href="https://www.orn.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Ornithology</a>. The research suggests that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beavers-create-habitats-that-support-threatened-amphibians/">habitat</a> characteristics do not affect birdsong frequency, which contradicts a long-standing theory.

Many animals use acoustic signals for communication while finding a mate or avoiding predators. One of the fundamental characteristics of acoustic signals is the frequency of the sound.

In the forest, acoustic signals become attenuated because of sound absorption and scattering from foliage, which makes it difficult to communicate using high-frequency sounds. With this in mind, a theory emerged in the 1970s which predicts that animals living in habitats with dense vegetation emit lower-frequency sounds compared to those living in open areas.

To investigate, the researchers analyzed the variation in song frequency of more than 5.000 bird species, including 85 percent of all passerines. The team collected song recordings from xeno-canto, a citizen science repository of bird vocalizations, and from the Macaulay Library of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.

The study revealed that the peak birdsong frequency does not depend on habitat type. In fact, the findings suggest that species living in densely vegetated habitats sing at lower frequencies, which is the opposite of what was predicted by the theory. 

The researchers found that birdsong frequency strongly correlated with body size and shared ancestry. "Both limit the range of sound frequencies an animal can produce," said study first author Peter Mikula. 

According to the experts, heavier species sing at lower frequencies due to the larger vibratory structures of the vocal apparatus.

The study also showed that species in which males are larger than females produce songs with lower frequencies than what is expected based on their size. "This supports the hypothesis that the frequency of acoustic signals is affected by competition for access to mates," said study co-lead author Bart Kempenaers. 

Birdsong frequency may act as an indicator of an individual's size, as well as its dominance or fighting abilities. With this in mind, song frequency could influence reproductive success through competition with other males or by attracting more females. 

"Our results suggest that the global variation in passerine song frequency is mostly driven by natural and sexual selection causing evolutionary shifts in body size rather than by habitat-related selection on sound propagation," concluded study co-author Tomáš Albrecht.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birdsong frequency is influenced by sexual selection

The frequency at which birds sing depends mainly on body...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, experts have found that when it comes to brightly colored males, looks can be deceiving. The ornithologists report that the vibrant colors of superb fairy-wrens do not necessarily correlate with male quality. 

Among many animal <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/current-food-production-methods-threaten-thousands-of-species/">species</a>, the females prefer males with the most elaborate and dramatic appearance, and this preference drove the evolution of bright coloration. It is expected that brilliant colors are only acquired and maintained by "high quality" males with plenty of resources, sharp skills, or high social status. 

Females pursue high quality males to guarantee their offspring will have good genes and the greatest chance of survival. 

"We examined whether only the best quality males with excellent resources can produce the most vibrant colors and whether only the best quality males can maintain their colors in pristine condition," said study lead author Dr. Alex McQueen. "We also tested this in an experiment, by administering testosterone to some males which caused them to produce breeding colors in winter."

"Surprisingly, we found that all male superb fairy-wrens produced and maintained vibrant colors, regardless of their 'natural quality'. Also the males that had to produce breeding colors in challenging winter conditions displayed vibrant colors that were indistinguishable from other males."

Each year, male superb fairy-wrens transform their color by moulting from a brown plumage to an ultraviolet blue and black breeding plumage. The males flaunt their new feathers to impress females during elaborate sexual displays.

"We predicted that maintaining their colors would be especially important in this species for two reasons: first, males that are preferred by females produce their breeding plumage earlier than all other males, many months before the start of breeding, meaning that those early males display their breeding colours for the longest time each year; and second, ultraviolet blue feathers have been shown to readily fade over time in other birds," said Dr. McQueen.

For the investigation, the researchers measured the colors of specific wild male fairy-wrens several times a year. The experts also recorded how much time males spent preening when they were in their brown non-breeding plumage and colorful breeding plumage.

"We were very surprised to find that male breeding colors do not fade with time," said Dr. McQueen. "Despite keeping their colors in pristine condition, males did not spend more time preening while in breeding plumage."

Instead, the males "retouched" their breeding colors by replacing a few blue feathers at a time throughout the breeding season.

"Our study shows that the vibrant breeding colors of male superb fairy-wrens are unlikely to signal male quality to females," said Alex. "We also found that males are careful to keep their feather colors in excellent condition for sexual displays."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco">Behavioural Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Male fairy-wrens are not always what they seem

In a new study from Monash University, experts have found...

A few million years ago, a massive crocodile measuring more than five meters long dominated the waterways of southeast Queensland. The "swamp king" has been identified by experts at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> based on their analysis of fossils that were uncovered in the 1980s.

According to study lead author and PhD candidate Jorgo Ristevski, the researchers named the species Paludirex vincenti after Geoff Vincent, who discovered the giant fossilized skull near the town of Chinchilla.

"In Latin, 'Paludirex' means 'swamp king,' and 'vincenti' honors the late Mr. Vincent," said Ristevski. "For several years the fossilized skull was on display in the Queensland Museum, before it was donated to the Chinchilla Museum in 2011."

Ristevski said that the swamp king was "one intimidating croc." With a skull that measured around 65 centimeters, Paludirex vincenti would have had a body length of at least five meters, which is over 16 feet.

"The largest crocodylian today is the Indo-Pacific crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, which grows to about the same size," said Ristevski. "But Paludirex had a broader, more heavy-set skull so it would have resembled an Indo-Pacific crocodile on steroids."

In its time, Paludirex was one of the top predators in Australia, and would have been capable of preying on giant prehistoric marsupials. "The waterways of the Darling Downs would once have been a very dangerous place because of it."

Dr. Steve Salisbury, a senior lecturer in the UQ School of Biological Sciences, noted that various species of prehistoric crocodylians once existed in Australia.

"Crocs have been an important component of Australia's fauna for millions of years. But the two species we have today - Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus johnstoni - are only recent arrivals, and were not part of the endemic croc fauna that existed here from about 55 million years ago," explained Dr. Salisbury.

"Whether Paludirex vincenti went extinct as a result of competition with species like Crocodylus porosus is hard to say."

"The alternative is that it went extinct as the climate dried, and the river systems it once inhabited contracted - we're currently investigating both scenarios."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Five-meter crocodile was once the "swamp king" of Queensland

A few million years ago, a massive crocodile measuring more...

The global food production system must be changed to prevent widespread biodiversity losses, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>. The researchers determined that current food production methods are destroying the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beavers-create-habitats-that-support-threatened-amphibians/">habitats</a> of thousands of species. 

"We estimated how agricultural expansion to feed an increasingly wealthy global population is likely to affect about 20,000 species of mammals, birds, and amphibians," said study co-lead author Dr. David Williams. "Our research suggests that without big changes to food systems, millions of square kilometers of natural habitats could be lost by 2050."

Dr. Williams noted that nearly 1,300 species will likely lose at least a quarter of their remaining habitat to food production, and hundreds could lose at least half. 

"Ultimately, we need to change what we eat and how it is produced if we're going to save wildlife on a global scale. We need to alter both our diets and food production methods."

The researchers estimated how food systems would affect biodiversity at a finer spatial scale than previous studies. The findings are particularly relevant to conservation action, highlighting exactly which species and landscapes are likely to be threatened.

The experts used a new model that estimates where agricultural expansion and abandonment are most likely to occur. This data was combined with projections of how much land each country will need for food production.

The team investigated whether each individual animal species could survive in farmland. The study revealed that habitat losses could be especially severe in sub-Saharan Africa and in parts of Central and South America.

Furthermore, many of the species that will be impacted most by land use changes are not currently classified as being threatened with extinction, which means that there are no conservation plans to protect them.

"As international biodiversity targets are set to be updated in 2021, these results highlight the importance of proactive efforts to safeguard biodiversity by reducing demand for agricultural land," said study co-lead author Dr. Michael Clark of the University of Oxford.

"Discussions on slowing and reversing biodiversity often focus on conventional conservation actions, such as establishing new protected areas or species-specific legislation for threatened species. These are absolutely needed, and have been effective at conserving biodiversity."

"However, our research emphasises the importance of also reducing the ultimate stresses to biodiversity - such as agricultural expansion."

"The good news is that if we make ambitious changes to the food system, then we can prevent almost all these habitat losses."

Changes that could reduce future biodiversity losses include a transition to healthy diets, a reduction in food loss and waste, an increase in crop yields, and international land-use planning. 

By modeling the potential outcome of these food production changes, policy makers will be able to identify which efforts are likely to produce the greatest benefits in any given country or region.

For example, raising agricultural yields would be very beneficial for protecting biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa, but would not be advantageous in North America where yields are already high. By contrast, shifting to healthier diets would have major benefits in North America, but not in regions where meat consumption is low and food insecurity is high.

"Importantly, we need to do all of these things. No one approach is sufficient on its own," said Dr. Clark. "But, with global coordination and rapid action, it should be possible to provide healthy diets for the global population in 2050 without major habitat losses."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natsustain">Nature Sustainability</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Current food production methods threaten thousands of species

The global food production system must be changed to prevent...

Kangaroos have their own way of expressing themselves to humans, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a>. The research contradicts the idea that only domesticated animals like dogs and horses intentionally <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/spiny-lobsters-communicate-up-to-3-kilometers-away/">communicate</a> with people.

"Kangaroos are iconic Australian endemic fauna, adored by many worldwide but also considered as a pest," said study co-author Dr. Alexandra Green. "We hope that this research draws attention to the cognitive abilities of kangaroos and helps foster more positive attitudes towards them."

The study was focused on wild kangaroos in three locations across Australia. The researchers discovered that when kangaroos were trying to access food in a closed box, they gazed at a human.  

The kangaroos consistently used a steady gaze to communicate with a person instead of attempting to open the box themselves. This type of behavior is usually associated with domesticated animals.

During the experiments, 10 out of 11 kangaroos actively looked at the person who had placed the food in the closed box, while 9 out of 11 kangaroos also alternated their gaze between the box and the human, which is a heightened form of communication.

The research builds on earlier studies that investigated whether intentional communication is a result of domestication in animals such as dogs and goats. 

Study lead author Dr Alan McElligott, a professor of Animal Behavior and Welfare at <a href="https://www.cityu.edu.hk/">City University of Hong Kong</a>, previously reported that goats can understand human cues to gather information about their environment. The latest findings indicate that, like goats, kangaroos adapt their social behaviors to interact with humans.

"Through this study, we were able to see that communication between animals can be learned and that the behavior of gazing at humans to access food is not related to domestication," said Dr. McElligott. "Indeed, kangaroos - showed a very similar pattern of behavior we have seen in dogs, horses and even goats when put to the same test.

"Our research shows that the potential for referential intentional communication towards humans by animals has been underestimated, which signals an exciting development in this area. Kangaroos are the first marsupials to be studied in this manner and the positive results should lead to more cognitive research beyond the usual domestic species."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Kangaroos actively communicate with humans

Kangaroos have their own way of expressing themselves to humans,...

In a phenomenon known as the "sunk cost" effect, people follow through with things they have already invested in - even when those efforts are futile. Time invested in a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/positive-student-teacher-relationships-improve-long-term-health/">relationship</a> may cause us to stick with it longer than we should, while money dumped into a pointless project may encourage us to keep spending on it.

In a new study from <a href="https://www.gsu.edu/">Georgia State</a>, experts have demonstrated that humans are not the only ones to engage in such potentially self-defeating behavior, and that monkeys also have a tendency to persist at tasks they have invested in. 

The researchers have identified factors that could possibly play a role in the sunk costs effect. For example, humans and monkeys likely share an evolutionarily preserved mechanism that helps us balance the costs and benefits of our actions.

Both capuchin monkeys and rhesus macaques are housed at Georgia State's Language Research Center. The monkeys participate in entirely voluntary and non-invasive cognitive and behavioral research, explained study co-author Professor Sarah F. Brosnan, who has worked with some of the monkeys for over 20 years. "They're like my second set of kids."

For the investigation, 26 capuchin monkeys and 7 rhesus macaques were trained to play a simple video game. Using a joystick, the monkeys attempted to move a cursor onto a moving target and hold it there as the target kept moving. 

If the monkeys were successful, they heard a victory sound and were given a treat. Those who were unsuccessful did not get a reward before moving on to a new round, which lasted either 1, 3, or 7 seconds. 

"Monkeys have really quick reaction times on these games, so one second to them is actually a long time," explained Professor Brosnan.

Study lead author Julia Watzek noted that most of the rounds only lasted one second. "So if you didn't get a reward after that, it was actually better to quit and start a new round. That would likely get you a treat sooner than if you had kept going."

During the experiments, both species of monkeys showed sunk cost effects. "They persisted 5 to 7 times longer than was optimal, and the longer they had already tried, the more likely they were to complete the entire task," said Professor Brosnan.

The researchers found that uncertainty had a big influence on persistence. When the monkeys got a signal that additional work was required, they were less susceptible to sunk cost behavior, but they still demonstrated it.

According to Watzek, studying this phenomenon in animals teaches us something about how their minds work, as well as our own. 

Professor Brosnan said the findings suggest that this behavior is likely driven by evolution and deeply embedded across species. "The epitome of the sunk cost is I've invested so much in this, I'm just going to keep going." And this can really pay off when it comes to important tasks such as hunting prey, looking for a mate, or building a nest. "Sometimes, you just need to have patience."

The research also indicates that human concerns - like not giving up on something we have publicly committed to - are probably not the main drivers of sunk cost behavior. The study is also a good reminder that there are times when you have good reason to give up.

"We're predisposed to keep trying," said Professor Brosnan. "And when we find ourselves sticking with things, we should also be a little reflective. Do I have a good reason to keep trying? Or should I leave with no reward, because it will save me more in the long run? That's really hard to do. But hopefully we can use our cognitive abilities to help us overcome the emotional heartache of occasional sunk costs."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monkeys and humans keep trying, even when we should give up

In a phenomenon known as the "sunk cost" effect, people...

The remains of the oldest known shipwreck in southern Africa, including ivory from more than 100 elephant tusks, have been analyzed in a new study from <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>. The researchers used advanced testing methods to trace the tusks back to many distinct herds that once roamed West <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/african-forest-elephants-are-running-out-of-fruit/">Africa</a>.

In 2008, a vessel known as the Bom Jesus was found in Namibia. The Portuguese trading vessel had gone missing in 1533 on a journey to India while transporting the elephant tusks, forty tons of gold and silver coins, and other cargo. 

An international team of experts in Namibia, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States combined paleogenomic, isotopic, archeological, and historical analyses to determine the origin of the shipwrecked cargo. The findings are shedding new light on African elephants in both the past and present.

The researchers set out to identify the source of the elephant ivory, which was widely circulated in early Indian and Atlantic trading systems.

"Elephants live in female-led family groups, and they tend to stay in the same geographic area throughout their lives," said study co-author Alida de Flamingh. "We determined where these tusks came from by examining a DNA marker that is passed only from mother-to-calf and comparing the sequences to those of geo-referenced African elephants." 

Study co-author Ashley Coutu explained that comparing the shipwreck ivory DNA to that of elephants with known origins across Africa made it possible to pinpoint the geographic region and species of elephant that matched the shipwreck ivory.

"In order to fully explore where these elephant tusks originated, we needed multiple lines of evidence. Thus, we used a combination of methods and expertise to explore the origin of this ivory cargo through genetic and isotopic data gathered from sampling the tusks. Our conclusions were only possible with all of the pieces of our interdisciplinary puzzle fitting together," said Coutu.

The experts conducted isotope analyses of 97 tusks, which revealed that the ivory had come from African forest elephants. Their mitochondrial DNA traced them to 17 or more herds from West Africa, as opposed to Central Africa.

This was a surprise, said study co-author Shadreck Chirikure, because the Portuguese had established trade with the Kongo Kingdom and communities along the Congo River by the 16th century. "The expectation was that the elephants would be from different regions, especially West and Central Africa."

Four of the mitochondrial haplotypes represented by the tusks are still found today in modern elephants. The others may have been lost due to overhunting or habitat destruction, explained the study authors. The results of the genetic tests also indicate that the elephants lived in mixed forest habitat instead of residing deep in the rainforest.

"There had been some thinking that African forest elephants moved out into savanna habitats in the early 20th century, after almost all savanna elephants were eliminated in West Africa," said co-author Alfred L. Roca. 

"Our study showed that this was not the case, because the African forest elephant lived in savanna habitats in the early 16th century, long before the decimation of savanna elephants by the ivory trade occurred."

The new data can now be used to assist in tracing the source of confiscated illegal ivory, noted De Flamingh, and these findings are just the beginning in terms of what can be learned about elephants from studies of ivory.

"There is tremendous potential to analyze historic ivory from other shipwrecks, as well as from archaeological contexts and museum collections to understand the life histories of elephant populations, the skills and lifeways of the people who hunted and traded the ivory, as well as the many journeys of African ivory across the world," said Coutu. "The revelation of these connections tell important global histories."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shipwrecked ivory sheds new light on African forest elephants

The remains of the oldest known shipwreck in southern Africa,...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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