For more than a century, biologists have treated teeth as strictly oral equipment - no matter the animal. A new study of the spotted ratfish (a shark relative commonly found in Puget Sound) blows that assumption wide open.



Adult males of this shark species grow rows of hooked, barbed “teeth” on a cartilaginous forehead appendage called a tenaculum, which they flare to spar with rivals and grasp mates during underwater courtship.



“This absolutely spectacular feature flips the long-standing assumption in evolutionary biology that teeth are strictly oral structures,” said lead author Karly Cohen, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://fhl.uw.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



“The tenaculum is a developmental relic, not a bizarre one-off, and the first clear example of a toothed structure outside the jaw.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-s-cousin-has-tenaculum">Shark's cousin has tenaculum</h2>



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotted_ratfish" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spotted ratfish</a> are chimaeras, a branch of cartilaginous fishes that split from sharks long ago. 



They’re compact - about two feet long - with a whip-like tail. In males, the unmistakable forehead “peanut” can extend into a spiny hook.



Like sharks and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-rays-were-more-diverse-than-previously-thought/">rays</a>, many chondrichthyan fishes are armored in tooth-like skin structures called denticles.



Ratfish are oddballs: aside from denticles on their pelvic claspers (another mating aid), their skin is mostly bare. 



That contrast made scientists wonder what, exactly, the tenaculum spines are. Are they denticles in disguise - or true teeth transplanted to the head?



“Sharks don’t have arms, but they need to mate underwater,” Cohen said. “So a lot of them have developed grasping structures to connect themselves to a mate during reproduction.” 



Ratfish have two: the forehead tenaculum and pelvic claspers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competing-theories-on-tenaculum">Competing theories on tenaculum</h2>



The researchers laid out two competing hypotheses. If the tenaculum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ghost-sharks-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-these-strange-and-elusive-sea-monsters/">spines were denticles</a>, they’d be skin-derived armor that just happens to look toothy. 



If they were genuine teeth, they would develop and regenerate using the same cellular machinery that makes jaw teeth.



To tease this apart, the team collected hundreds of ratfish in the shallows around the University of Washington's Friday Harbor Labs. 



The specimens were scanned with micro-CT, sampled tissues for gene expression, and compared the living fish to fossil relatives.



The researchers watched the tenaculum form in both sexes. 



In males, a tiny cell cluster between the eyes swelled into a white bump that anchored to jaw muscles, broke through the skin, and sprouted multiple rows of sharp elements. 



In females, the early cluster never mineralized, leaving only a developmental trace.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/tenaculum_ratfish_ct-scan_credit-Cohen-Nicklin_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/tenaculum_ratfish_ct-scan_credit-Cohen-Nicklin_1s.webp" alt="CT (computed tomography) scan of the adult male Spotted Ratfish frontal clasper (Tenaculum) covered in rows of teeth (rainbow colors). Credit: Karly Cohen and Ella Nicklin" class="wp-image-1984763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT (computed tomography) scan of the adult male Spotted Ratfish frontal clasper (Tenaculum) covered in rows of teeth (rainbow colors). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Karly Cohen and Ella Nicklin</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stem-cells-prove-tooth-identity">Stem cells prove tooth identity</h2>



The clearest evidence came from histology. Each row of tenaculum spines sits atop a ribbon of tissue called the dental lamina - an epithelial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stem-cell-therapy-improves-brain-activity-after-stroke/">stem-cell</a> niche that seeds new teeth in a conveyor belt inside the jaws of many vertebrates.



“When we saw the dental lamina for the first time, our eyes popped,” Cohen said. “It was so exciting to see this crucial structure outside the jaw.”



Dermal denticles don’t have a dental lamina. The team also found the classic “tooth toolbox” of genes active in the tenaculum but absent in skin denticles. They spotted similar head-mounted teeth in the fossil record of related chimaeras.



“We have a combination of experimental data with paleontological evidence to show how these fishes co-opted a preexisting program for manufacturing teeth to make a new device that is essential for reproduction,” said co-author Michael Coates of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en">University of Chicago</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-teeth-for-reproduction">Flexible teeth for reproduction</h2>



An adult male ratfish can stack seven or eight rows of these forehead teeth. Unlike our rigid canines, they retract and flex - handy when you’re trying to latch onto a mate while swimming.



The tenaculum’s growth schedule follows the maturation of the pelvic claspers, not the animal’s overall length. 



This suggests that the “migrant” tooth-forming tissue is now controlled by reproductive hormonal cues and local gene networks. 



Functionally, the system behaves like mouth dentitions in sharks: a renewable lamina constantly seeds replacements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-where-teeth-can-grow"><a></a>Rethinking where teeth can grow</h2>



Sharks are often the go-to model for tooth evolution because they churn out endless oral teeth and wear a coat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-denticles-reveal-human-impacts-over-centuries/">denticles.</a> This study widens the lens. 



The research shows that vertebrate “tooth programs” are modular and mobile. Under the right developmental signals, genuine teeth can be built well beyond the jaw margins.



Tissue samples from the tenaculum expressed the same core genetic toolkit seen across vertebrate teeth, demonstrating that these aren’t just spiky skin ornaments. "Vertebrate teeth are extremely well united by a genetic toolbox,” Cohen noted. 



“If these strange chimaeras are sticking teeth on the front of their head, it makes you think about the dynamism of tooth development more generally," said study senior author Gareth Fraser of the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-clues-from-ratfish-tenaculum">Ancient clues from ratfish tenaculum</h2>



Finding a working dental lamina outside the mouth suggests ancient flexibility in where and why teeth evolve - whether for feeding, defense, or, in this case, reproductive grip. 



The discovery also hints that evolution has repeatedly redeployed the same genetic circuitry to build similar hard parts in new places.



For paleontologists, the forehead teeth help reconcile decades-old fossils that hinted at non-oral dentitions in early jawed fishes. 



For developmental biologists, they invite a new question: What other “spiky structures” might secretly be teeth?



“Chimaeras offer a rare glimpse into the past,” Cohen said. “I think the more we look at spiky structures on vertebrates, the more teeth we are going to find outside the jaw.”



In other words, the next chapter in the story of teeth may not be written in the mouth at all, but on an unassuming little hook between a ratfish’s eyes - proof that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">evolution</a>’s dental toolkit travels farther than anyone imagined.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2508054122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Common fish found to have a very uncommon row of teeth on its forehead

For more than a century, biologists have treated teeth as strictly oral equipment - no matter the animal. A new study of the spotted ratfish (a shark relative commonly found in Puget Sound) blows that assumption wide open. Adult males of this shark species grow rows of hooked, barbed “teeth” on a cartilaginous forehead appendage called a tenaculum, which they flare to spar with rivals and grasp mates during underwater courtship. “This absolutely spectacular feature flips the long-standing assumption in evolutionary biology that teeth are strictly oral...

Scientists have known for years that marine animals such as shellfish and fish can ingest plastics and be contaminated by the countless bits of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-fish-red-sea/">microplastics</a> in our oceans. But new research now shows that microplastics can also be transported by insects through the air.

In a study published in <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Biology Letters</a>, researchers report that plastic may be entering the food chain from insects eating tiny pieces of plastics while they hatch in the water. Insects like mayflies, dragonflies, midges, and mosquitoes can transport plastic from water sources into the food chain on land. This occurs when the insects are eaten by animals – such as birds and bats – which can lead to health risks for these creatures.

Researchers at <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">Reading University</a> tested this by observing mosquito larvae eating tiny microbeads of fluorescent polystyrene while they were hatching in a controlled environment. Microplastics are defined as being smaller than 5mm, and they were easily detected in adult flies by the researchers. 

Microplastics can be made of polypropylene, polyethylene, and polystyrene – among other material. They often get into the environment by passing through household waste water in high concentrations. Synthetic clothes are a major source of microplastics, as are bottles and plastic bags after they are broken down. 

“While mosquitoes were used here as a model organism, any freshwater insect that can ingest MPs [microplastics] will likely equally transmit plastics into a terrestrial adult stage,” the authors say. “This has implications for organisms that feed on adult mosquitoes with aerial and terrestrial animals accordingly open to MP exposure.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microplastics spread through insects hatched in contaminated water

Scientists have known for years that marine animals such as...

A new study adds to the growing evidence that exposure to polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is harmful to pets and could increase the risk of endocrine disorders like hypothyroidism. 

PFAS are a large family of highly fluorinated chemicals used in everything from furniture polish to cookware to coatings that repel stains and water in carpet and clothes. 

The chemicals don’t break down and can accumulate in the environment and the body over time. 

Exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-pollutants-kidney-health/">PFAS is extremely common</a>, and research has found that PFAS can cause health problems in humans and animals, according to the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pfas/basic-information-pfas#exposed">Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)</a>. 

Now, new research from the <a href="https://calepa.ca.gov/">California Environmental Protection Agency</a> has found that PFAS chemical exposure can lead to endocrine disorders in cats over time. 

The researchers analyzed blood samples taken from senior cats in northern California and compared PFAS exposure between cats diagnosed with hypothyroidism and those without any endocrine disorders. 

The cats that had higher levels of PFAS exposure were more likely to be diagnosed with an endocrine disorder according to the study results. 

“Our lab has been investigating PFAS for years,” Miaomiao Wang, the lead author of the study, told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6186781/Study-warns-chemicals-common-household-products-cause-endocrine-disorder-cats.html">Daily Mail</a>. “Cats can be good sentinels to examine body burdens of emerging pollutants, including PFAS. The current study is only preliminary, however, and larger scale studies might be helpful to confirm our findings.”

A previous study found that dolphins are also at risk of exposure to endocrine disruptors as researchers discovered phthalate chemicals in a group of dolphins’ urine for the first time. 

The results of the studies show that PFAS exposure is a growing problem both for wild and domestic animals and for humans. 

Lab studies have shown that PFAS exposure can cause tumors, and lead to reproductive and developmental problems, liver and kidney problems, and immunological effects, according to the EPA.

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chemical pollutants in household products are harmful to cats

A new study adds to the growing evidence that exposure...

A recent study from <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/">The University of Western Australia</a> has revealed that the behavior of African mountain gorillas is strongly influenced by the tight bonds they form within groups. The researchers also that conflict is most likely to involve alpha male gorillas who act as the protectors of their close-knit communities. 

The investigation was focused on interactions between 10 groups of mountain gorillas in Rwanda over the course of a year. The experts combined their observations with data collected by the <a href="https://gorillafund.org/karisoke-research-center/">Karisoke Research Center</a> between 2003 and 2015.

The research team found that male <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mountain-gorillas-comeback/">gorillas</a> often engaged in aggressive fights to protect their communities. On the other hand, the experts discovered that bonds formed between former group members drastically reduced hostility between the familiar males. Such reunions often led to friendly behavior, such as grooming and playing.  


Study lead author Dr. Melanie Mirville explained that the bonds formed between gorillas were so strong that their interactions were usually peaceful, even after years of separation.

“What’s interesting is people often have the perception that gorilla behavior is very much influenced by competition for females or over a food source, but there’s also a good proportion of behaviour that is peaceful as a result of long-lasting social relationships,” said Dr. Mirville.

“As humans we are friendlier if we bump into someone we know in comparison to people we don’t know or trust. We also have an ongoing history of conflict and war, alliances and peace-making.”

“By understanding the intergroup behaviors of primates in response to their existing social history, we can better understand the complex origins of our own remarkable social behavior, including hostility to people or groups we are not familiar with.”

Dr. Mirville said that she never felt nervous while working with the mountain gorillas.

“The gorillas studied have been observed by researchers from their day of birth so they didn’t see us as a threat. You still want to keep a good distance from the group though; the alpha males can grow up to around 200 kg and can be very protective.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behavior</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

African mountain gorillas develop long-lasting friendships

A recent study from The University of Western Australia has...

Organically preserved Dickinsonia fossil from the White Sea area of Russia.

An international team of scientists led by <a href="http://www.anu.edu.au/">The Australian National University</a> (ANU) has identified the remains of the earliest known animal. The analysis of fat molecules in the fossilized remains revealed that the creature lived on the Earth approximately 558 million years ago.

The unusual animal, which is called Dickinsonia, grew up to 1.4 meters long and had an oval-shaped body covered in rib-like segments. Dickinsonia was part of the Ediacara Biota that lived on Earth 20 million years prior to the “<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-seek-solve-mystery-cambrian-oxygen-spike/">Cambrian explosion</a>,” which gave rise to more complex animals like the ones we have today. 

A Dickinsonia fossil found by ANU PhD scholar Ilya Bobrovskiy near the White Sea in the northwest of Russia was so incredibly well-preserved that the tissue still contained molecules of cholesterol.

Senior researcher Jochen Brocks is an associate professor in the ANU Research School of Earth Sciences.

“The fossil fat molecules that we've found prove that animals were large and abundant 558 million years ago, millions of years earlier than previously thought,” said Professor Brocks.

“Scientists have been fighting for more than 75 years over what Dickinsonia and other bizarre fossils of the Ediacaran Biota were: giant single-celled amoeba, lichen, failed experiments of evolution or the earliest animals on Earth. The fossil fat now confirms Dickinsonia as the oldest known animal fossil, solving a decades-old mystery that has been the Holy Grail of palaeontology.”

Dickinsonia fossils contain invaluable knowledge about both the old world dominated by bacteria and the more modern world of large animals that emerged 540 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion. According to Bobrovskiy, the team developed a new approach to study these particular fossils. 

“The problem that we had to overcome was finding Dickinsonia fossils that retained some organic matter,” said Bobrovskiy.

“Most rocks containing these fossils such as those from the Ediacara Hills in Australia have endured a lot of heat, a lot of pressure, and then they were weathered after that - these are the rocks that palaeontologists studied for many decades, which explained why they were stuck on the question of Dickinsonia's true identity.”


Scientific analysis is typically focused on the structure of fossils, but the breakthrough in the current study came from extracting and analyzing molecules from inside of the Dickinsonia fossil.

“I took a helicopter to reach this very remote part of the world - home to bears and mosquitoes - where I could find Dickinsonia fossils with organic matter still intact,” said Bobrovskiy.

“These fossils were located in the middle of cliffs of the White Sea that are 60 to 100 meters high. I had to hang over the edge of a cliff on ropes and dig out huge blocks of sandstone, throw them down, wash the sandstone and repeat this process until I found the fossils I was after.”

ANU led the research in collaboration with scientists from the Russian Academy of Science, the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, and the University of Bremen in Germany.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: The Australian National University (ANU)

Oldest known animal discovered from fossilized fat molecules

An international team of scientists led by The Australian National...

How did mammals develop such complex spines? When you look at mammalian vertebrae compared to reptiles, you can see a marked difference between the two classes of animals, and for years researchers were puzzled by this. 

A new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="http://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> and the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> found that the secret behind mammalian backbone evolution is all in the shoulders. 

The results of the study were published in the journal Nature. 

“If you look at animals today, mammals stand out because that they have backbones where you can clearly see different regions; the vertebrae in each region look different from those in other regions,” said Ken Angielczyk, a co-author of the study. “And now that we have a better understanding of how mammals' backbones evolved, it looks like those changes were closely tied to changes that were happening in the shoulders.”

Mammal spines are made up of differently shaped vertebra whereas reptiles seem to have a more uniform spine. 

The researchers led by Angielczyk examined the backbones of mice, alligators, lizards, amphibians, and fossils of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-evolved-shrink-size/">ancient mammal relatives</a> that were alive between 300 and 190 million years ago. 

The wide array of spines studied began to show a pattern and the researchers discovered that flexible shoulders started to evolved around 270 million years ago, at the same times that upper backbones started to change as well. 

“This study shows that changes to the blueprints important for building the mammalian back likely occurred many millions of years before the origin of mammals,” said Katrina Jones, a lead author of the study. “This demonstrates that evolutionary transitions can occur in surprising ways, which we would not expect from looking only at living animals. Often, fossils are the only direct evidence we have of the origin of animal groups and can change our understanding of the history of life.”

The change in backbones helped with mammal diversification, and an explanation for why mammals and reptiles have such different spines is that mammals move in so many different, complex ways compared to reptiles, amphibians, and birds. 

The broad range of movement among mammals around the world is a huge part of mammalian evolution and why we as humans eventually developed the ability to walk upright. 

“We use our backbones in very distinctive ways that are closely tied to our different modes of life,” said Angielczyk. “Cheetahs have flexible spines that let them conserve energy and take bigger strides, humans have unusual vertebral columns that let us walk upright, and whales have stiffer backbones with a few sections that are highly mobile so that they're better swimmers.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Field Museum

How ancient mammals evolved such adaptable backbones

How did mammals develop such complex spines? When you look...

The popular party drug <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-drugs-healing-powers/">MDMA</a> – also known as ecstasy – causes a rush of dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin in those who take it, resulting in feelings of emotional closeness and euphoria. Individuals under the influence may be more willing to connect and share with other people that they would while sober. This is one of the many reasons why it’s so popular in the clubbing and rave scenes. 

But how would octopuses react to MDMA – seems to be the question one group of researchers was brave enough to ask. Now, these researchers are reporting in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a> that a species of octopus considered to be largely solitary and asocial actually responds to MDMA in a similarly pro-social manner. 

First author of the study, Eric Edsinger, chose to study Octopus bimaculoides because it is possible to breed them and study their behavior in the lab. Furthermore, it’s the only species of octopus to have its genome fully sequenced, allowing scientists to make comparisons between the genes in octopuses and those in humans.

“Despite anatomical differences between octopus and human brain, we’ve shown that there are molecular similarities in the serotonin transporter gene,” says Gul Dolen of <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a>, stating that this gene encodes a transmembrane protein that serves as the primary binding site for MDMA. “These molecular similarities are sufficient to enable MDMA to induce prosocial behaviors in octopuses,” he adds.

When the researchers compared octopuses’ interest in other octopuses to their interest in novel objects under normal circumstances, they actually found that the octopuses had more interest in each other that previously thought – particularly in other females. And when they tested their interest in other individual while under the influence of MDMA, social behavior increased significantly. The octopuses spent more time with other individuals – including other males – while on MDMA, and also engaged in extensive exploratory ventral surface contact with one another.

While this study is interesting from a behavioral standpoint, it also shows a significant connection between human and octopus evolutionarily. Despite our distance from invertebrate species such as octopus on the evolutionary tree, we clearly share a common heritage that allows serotonin to have control over our social behaviors. The research team is now looking to sequence the genomes of two other species of octopus, and hope to gain more insight into the evolution of social behavior.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Thomas Kleindinst

Even octopuses become more social when on MDMA, study shows

The popular party drug MDMA – also known as ecstasy...

A new study examining what neural mechanisms influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rock-climbers-high-risk-climbs/">risk-taking behavior</a> in monkeys has led to new insights about how risks and rewards are evaluated in the brain. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">John Hopkins University</a> conducted the study which was published in the journal Current Biology. 

The results point to a specific area in the brain that drives risk-taking, and could one day help with treatments for risky behavior and addiction in humans. 

“People think risk attitude is always the same for individuals, but behavior researchers have found this isn't true - a person can be risk-averse for some things but inclined to risk in others, like someone who saves a lot of money but also skydives,” said Veit Stuphorn, a co-author of the study. 

Two rhesus monkeys were trained to gamble by taking bets against a computer for rewards of drinks of water. There were big bets that had higher payoffs, and smaller bets with more of a chance to win. 

The researchers found that the monkeys were big risk takers and preferred taking the bets with the biggest payoff. 

When the monkeys had a choice between a 20 percent chance to win 10 milliliters of water and an 80 percent chance to win three milliliters, the monkeys almost always took the bigger bet. 

The researchers found that the monkeys seemed to simply enjoy the excitement of the win and so the higher reward was more appealing, even if the monkeys weren’t thirsty. 

“The monkeys should rationally choose the 3 milliliters, but they always went with the riskier option,” said Xiamomo Chen, the lead author of the study. “They're like people who like to go to Las Vegas to play the slots, where there's a very high reward but a very low chance of winning it.”

An area of the prefrontal cortex of the brain called the supplementary eye field was identified as the main region that influences risk-taking behavior, and the researchers suppressed this area in the monkeys. 

When this region of the brain was temporarily inactivated in the monkeys, it drastically reduced the high-risk gambling preferences and the monkeys were 30 to 40 percent less likely to take risky bets. 

“This was truly unexpected, to find a brain section so specifically tied to risk attitude,” said Stuphorn. “The monkey's preference markedly changed from really liking risk to liking it much, much less.”

What was interesting was that suppressing this part of the brain didn't affect the monkeys’ ability to gamble or their memory of previous wins and losses. The monkeys were simply less likely to choose the risky bets with higher rewards. 

The researchers say that future studies could help improve our understanding of the neural mechanisms that drive risk-taking behavior in humans and create new treatments for addiction and risky behaviors. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gambling monkeys shed light on what drives risk-taking

A new study examining what neural mechanisms influence risk-taking behavior...

According to the <a href="http://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>, ivory poaching was responsible for the loss of 111,000 elephants between 2005 and 2015. 

Even though the trade of elephant ivory has been illegal since 1989, it remains a major problem for elephant conservation today and there are just 415,000 African elephants left on the continent. 

Elephants face many threats and stressors including habitat degradation, interference from human activities such as tourism, and poaching, which has been one of the biggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-recovering-poaching/">drivers of population declines through the years. </a>

Even when large shipments of illegal ivory are seized by government operations, it can be difficult to track the ivory back to the regions it came from, where it was shipped from, and what ivory cartels are responsible. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> developed a new method that could help with quickly sorting through large-scale ivory shipments and identifying both where the ivory came from and the poachers involved using the DNA in the ivory. 

A study detailing the ivory DNA test method was published in the journal Science Advances, and by using this method, the researchers were able to pair ivory tusks together and link multiple ivory shipments over a three-year period to a network of dealers operating out of just a few African ports. 

“Our prior work on DNA testing of illegal ivory shipments showed that the major elephant 'poaching hotspots' in Africa were relatively few in number,” said Samuel Wasser, the lead and corresponding author. “Now, we've shown that the number and location of the major networks smuggling these large shipments of ivory out of Africa are also relatively few.”

Large ivory shipments are the norm in the illegal ivory trade, but by using DNA to link pairs of tusks together from the elephant it came from, it’s easier to link different shipments together and trace them back to the cartels responsible. 

The study builds on previous DNA testing work that Wasser and a team of researchers had previously developed that allowed them to identify what populations of African elephants were being targeted by poachers. 

Using DNA samples from elephant dung, the researchers created a genetic reference map. Testing elephant tusks in ivory seizures, the researchers were able to cross-reference the DNA with the map and identify which regions the elephant that the tusk belonged to came from. 

“We have neither the time nor the money to collect samples and extract DNA from every tusk in a shipment,” said Wasser. “We needed to find a way to sample only a fraction of the tusks in a shipment, but that method also needed to let us get a glimpse at the diversity of poached elephants within that shipment.”

The researchers identified pairs in large ivory seizures by sorting tusks based on diameter, color, and gum line (where the lip rested on the tusk). 

After DNA testing of tusks from 38 large ivory consignments, the researchers were able to match up 26 pairs of tusks from 11 different shipments. 

The researchers were then able to trace the shipments back to the three largest ivory cartels in Africa operating out of Kenya, Uganda, Togo. 

“We reveal connections between what would otherwise be isolated ivory seizures -- linking seizures not just to specific criminal networks operating in these ports, but to poaching and transport networks that funnel the tusks hundreds of miles to these cartels,” said Wasser. “It is an investigative tool to help officials track these networks and collect evidence for criminal cases.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Center for Conservation Biology/University of Washington

New DNA test of illegal ivory can track poachers responsible

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, ivory...

Experts have discovered a great white shark lair hidden in the Pacific Ocean. The region, located between Mexico’s Baja California and Hawaii, was previously assumed to be a barren habitat that was unable to sustain the diets of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/great-white-shark-cape-cod/">sharks</a>.

However, a recent expedition led by scientists at <a href="https://hopkinsmarinestation.stanford.edu/">Stanford University's Hopkins Marine Station</a> has uncovered a flourishing community of tiny marine creatures, including an abundance of squid and small fish, living well below the surface of the ocean in “mid-water” that lies on the edge of darkness. 

This mysterious region could ultimately provide scientists with invaluable information about the marine ecosystem and its future response to climate change.

Salvador Jorgensen is a research scientist at the <a href="http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> and one of the leaders of the expedition.

“The story of the white shark tells you that this area is vitally important in ways we never knew about,” said Jorgensen. “They are telling us this incredible story about the mid-water, and there is this whole secret life that we need to know about.”

Marine scientist Barbara Block has been using acoustic pinger tags to monitor great white sharks in the Pacific for 14 years. Block found that the sharks were leaving the West Coast to spend the spring and summer months in an area of the ocean that appeared to be inhospitable and barren in satellite images. 

To investigate, Block organized an expedition on the Schmidt Ocean Institute’s research vessel Falkor. The team tagged 36 local sharks with advanced monitoring equipment in the fall season before the vessel’s departure in the spring. 


The data recovered from the tags showed that the sharks were diving at depths that had rarely ever been observed in white sharks. According to Jorgensen, once they reached their destination in late winter and early spring, the sharks participated in “bounce dives” at around 1,400 feet below the surface during the day and at 650 feet at night.

In the remote mid-Pacific region, which Block has named the White Shark Cafe, the experts discovered a community of tiny light-sensitive phytoplankton, fish, squid, and jellyfish moving up and down in a dark layer of water. 

“It’s the largest migration of animals on Earth - a vertical migration that’s timed with the light cycle,” said Jorgensen. “During the day they go just below where there is light and at night they come up nearer the surface to warmer, more productive waters under the cover of darkness.”

Jorgensen said that it is a surreal deep water world populated by bioluminescent lantern fish and other species that have evolved amazing adaptations to darkness.

“What we’ve learned through the progression of our research is that this mid-water layer is extremely important for white sharks. They are swimming in these layers, tracking (prey) day and night...It’s a game of hide-and-seek.”

Block said that the expedition has provided experts with “a gold mine of data” that has doubled a 20-year dataset on white shark diving behaviors in three weeks. The findings, according to Block, “will help us better understand the persistence of this unique environment and why it attracts such large predators.”
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hidden great white shark feeding lair discovered in the Pacific

Experts have discovered a great white shark lair hidden in...

A population of sooty bush-shrikes located in the forests of Central Africa was recently distinguished as a new species named Willard's Sooty Boubou. However, an investigation has revealed that these birds are most likely already endangered due to pressure from agricultural development.


The birds were discovered in Africa's Albertine Rift region, which consists of a system of highlands that spread across six countries. 

Study lead author Fabio Berzaghi, who is now with the CEA Laboratory for Sciences of Climate and Environment in France, was with the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> at the time of the study. 

“The Albertine Rift is a crossroads of amazing biodiversity, dramatic and diverse landscapes, and heartbreaking social and political unrest. It goes from glaciers to volcanoes to plateaus to lakes, with a succession of vegetation types from high-elevation cloud forests to lowland tropical forests,” explained Berzaghi. 

“It is home to gorillas and forest elephants as well as a high number of endemic animal and plant species. Unfortunately, much of the region has gone through never-ending conflicts, with very negative consequences for both humans and biodiversity, and conservation involving local populations is paramount.”

The survival of Willard's Sooty Boubou is dependent on the region’s mid-elevation forests, which have been largely overlooked by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-odds/">conservation efforts</a>.

The research team used museum records and bird survey records to compare the range of the Willard's Sooty Boubou at approximately 1,200-1,900 meters to the Mountain Sooty Boubou at 1,800-3,800 meters.

The study revealed that there is very little overlap between the ranges of the two species. The experts found that 70 percent of the potential for Willard's Sooty Boubou lies outside of protected areas and has been converted to agriculture across Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda. The numbers for the Democratic Republic of Congo are only slightly better.

Rauri Bowie is an expert on African birds at the University of California at Berkeley who was not involved in the study.

“This paper provides additional data in support of the recognition of Willard's Sooty Boubou as a species distinct from Mountain Sooty Boubou,” said Bowie.”Clarification of the niche that Willard's Sooty Boubou occupies, that of mid-elevation forests, distinct from the higher-elevation Mountain Sooty Boubou, is important, because these habitats are among the most heavily impacted in Africa from agriculture.” 

“Conservation agencies have an opportunity to move beyond taxonomic debate and use the models derived from this species to improve conservation outcomes for not only this species, but also a broad set of mid-elevation Albertine Rift endemic vertebrates through protection of mid-elevation forests that have received relatively little protection in comparison to high-elevation montane habitats.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.americanornithology.org/content/condor-ornithological-applications">The Condor: Ornithological Applications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: J. Engel

Newly discovered African bird species is likely endangered

A population of sooty bush-shrikes located in the forests of...

Students of natural selection will know that animals, plants, and other living things affect each other’s evolutionary trajectories. Prey species evolve cryptic coloration and cautious habits to avoid predators. Predators evolve exquisitely tuned senses that allow them to sense their hidden prey. Parasites diverge and end up specializing in one species or another. 

Sometimes, these relationships develop in tandem such that certain species are said to co-evolve. That is, their habits and interactions, over time, affect each other in perceptible, tangible ways. Species may in fact become dependent on one another for survival.

Some <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28698111">scientists have argued</a> that this is is the case with the bizarre Osage orange (Maclura pomifera), a species of North American tree that bears grapefruit-sized, knobbly green fruits named for the Osage tribe of Native Americans. Also known as the horse apple and bois d’arc (for its use in bow-making), the species is most closely related to figs, jackfruits, and mulberries in the family Moraceae. These enormous fruits appear to have no current dispersal agents, or animals that spread their seeds. Anyone who has a mulberry tree in (or anywhere near) their yard will be intimately acquainted with the dispersal phenomenon. Mulberry seeds excreted by the birds that feed on the fruits pop up as seedlings in even the most assiduously tended garden beds. 

While relatively widespread, the current distribution of the Osage orange is almost exclusively attributed to human intervention. At the time of European settlement of the Americas, they were restricted to the Red River Valley in Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, and maybe Kansas, Louisiana, and Missouri. Prior to the last ice age, however, these plants and their relatives were widespread throughout North America; there were some 7 species of Maclura.

Their current distribution is purely a function of their use as hedges by European settlers. Why might this once ubiquitous species have contracted to such a small fraction of its former range? Many scientists believe that the tree was once spread almost exclusively by herbivorous megafauna, likely wiped out by humans at the end of the last ice age some 11,700 years ago. 

Everything about the Osage orange, and similarly large-fruited North American trees such as the Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicus), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), paw paw (Asimina triloba), and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), suggests that it coevolved with massive herbivores. Its fruits are enormous in comparison to most species and it drops them when they are unripe or just ripe, indicating that their intended consumers were likely to pick them up from the ground rather than pluck them from its branches. 

Plants do not expend the enormous amount of energy that it takes to produce such large fruits without the promise of a payoff; attracting large herbivores who would be likely to spread its seeds might have constituted such a bargain for the Osage orange. Its fruits contain high levels of toxins that deter most smaller frugivores or compel them to eat only small portions. Those that do, such as squirrels and deer, either only feed on the fruit itself in situ or destroy the seeds, making them unlikely candidates for dispersal. 

And it sports an intimidating armature of spines that seem likely to deter large browsers and serve no apparent function in the current ecosystem. In contemporary ecosystems that feature large herbivores such as elephants, similarly sized fruits are often spread by them, notably wild gourds in the family Cucurbitaceae, which are relatives of the well-known squashes, cucumbers, and pumpkins in cultivation. 

All of this evidence combines to suggest that Osage orange fruits were likely ingested and then later excreted by large <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-evolve-defenses-herbivores/">herbivores</a> such as the American mastodon (Mammut americanum) and giant ground sloths (order Xenarthra), thus spreading their seeds. In the absence of such herbivores, their seeds were unlikely to spread by any other means than by water, explaining their persistence in river valleys. The extinction of these large mammals is tightly correlated to the arrival of humans in North America, who, according to a prevailing theory, hunted them out of existence using recently developed stone-tipped spears originating with the Clovis people. (Some studies have suggested that <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2011/111020/full/news.2011.606.html">even earlier cultures</a> contributed to this decline or that <a href="http://www.washington.edu/news/2001/10/24/blame-north-america-megafauna-extinction-on-climate-change-not-human-ancestors/">climate change was to blame</a> for their extinction.)

Studies and anecdotal evidence regarding large modern herbivores such as cows and horses that eat large fruits such as the Osage orange have corroborated the dispersal theory. Farmers note that horses are typically quite fond of the mysterious green globes and report that they often find new Osage orange seedlings far from the parent trees, but within their horses’ enclosures, suggesting that these modern equids are indeed dispersing the seeds just as their more massive predecessors did. 

A <a href="https://apps.sas.upenn.edu/caterpillar/index.php?action=retrieve&amp;article=Janzen%252C1982anachronisms.pdf">1982 study</a> in Costa Rica found similar effects from cows and horses on large fruited trees with no contemporary dispersal agents. Conversely, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Matthew_Moran2/publication/273910597_A_Test_of_Potential_Pleistocene_Mammal_Seed_Dispersal_in_Anachronistic_Fruits_using_Extant_Ecological_and_Physiological_Analogs/links/57f7a7bd08ae91deaa6061c4/A-Test-of-Potential-Pleistocene-Mammal-Seed-Dispersal-in-Anachronistic-Fruits-using-Extant-Ecological-and-Physiological-Analogs.pdf">other studies</a> have shown that modern elephants, while willing to eat some Osage oranges, did not significantly affect the germination of the seeds passed through their digestive systems.

Though they likely wiped out the Osage orange’s primary disperal agents, Native Americans may have actually been responsible for its persistence. According to one theory, the highly successful Spiroan culture had a monopoly on the production of bows from Osage orange wood, though to be the best material for these essential hunting tools. Osage orange wood is wonderfully flexible and is thought to be the most rot-resistant wood in North America. 

Bows made of Osage orange wood were discovered thousands of miles away from the source, suggesting active trading between Native American cultures. European settlers prized the tree for its dense and impenetrable branches, which could be shaped by pruning into a hedge “horse high, hog tight, and bull strong.” The tree’s current range is a function of its use in a government program intended to mitigate the effects of the Dust Bowl; a 100-mile-wide stretch of land bisecting the United States was planted with Osage orange hedges in a plan called the Great Plains Shelterbelt. Such hedges were also often used to contain livestock prior to the invention of barbed wire in the mid-1800s. Many persist in fragments to this day.

All of this, of course, is rather speculative. The animals that might prove this theory are long-extinct and cloning projects, while intriguing, are a ways off. Nonetheless, it is worth contemplating: are these plants in effect, as one writer put it, “<a href="http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/2001-61-2-anachronistic-fruits-and-the-ghosts-who-haunt-them.pdf">evolutionary ghosts</a>”?

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The curious case of the Osage orange and the megafauna extinction

Students of natural selection will know that animals, plants, and...

For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feed-livestock-reduce-land-use/">livestock farmers</a>, large carnivorous predators are more than a nuisance and can pose a major threat to a farmer’s entire livelihood. But the methods implemented to manage these predator encounters can have a ripple effect on the entire ecosystem. 

There exist many methods for reducing predator-livestock interactions, but new research shows that these methods and their effectiveness need to be thoroughly investigated before farmers implement them in their own herds. 

A collaboration of 21 researchers across ten countries examined 114 peer-reviewed scientific studies on different lethal and non-lethal methods to find the most effective ways to deter predators and improve human/carnivore coexistence. 

The findings were published in the journal PLOS Biology. 

While it’s important to protect people, and by association their livestock, from predators, it’s equally important to protect and conserve existing ecosystems and reduce population declines. 

However, farmers often use whatever methods they have found to be the most effective, lethal or not, with little consideration for the environmental impacts. 

“Too often our current practices are based on habit and history, not evidence,” said Lily van Eeden, a lead author of the study in a statement. “Continuing with ineffective management has social and financial costs for the rural communities who bear the impacts of predator attacks on their livelihoods.” 

This is what motivated the researchers to conduct the study, to prove the effectiveness of different methods and to highlight the lack of research on lethal and non-lethal methods for protecting livestock.

The researchers found that three non-lethal methods, guardian dogs, livestock enclosures, and fladry (hanging colored flags on rope fences to keep wolves away) were the most effective at protecting livestock. 

Other methods, both lethal and non-lethal, could have potential but there exists too little scientific evidence to back them. 

An organization called the <a href="https://defenders.org/">Defenders of Wildlife</a> is working to address this gap in research for non-lethal livestock management and the study authors say that thorough research should be a prerequisite to any large-scale implementation of new methods or policy changes. 

“We call on the scientific and agricultural communities to hold carnivore management to the highest standards of scientific integrity,” said Jennie Miller, a fellow lead author of the study and senior scientist at the Defenders of Wildlife. “When scientists, policymakers and livestock producers come together to make wise regulations, we'll save money, time, livestock and carnivores alike.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Methods to protect livestock can impact entire ecosystems

For livestock farmers, large carnivorous predators are more than a...

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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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