Scenery,Of,The,Ice,Floe,Area,Of,The,Arctic,Ocean,

For years, climate scientists have struggled to explain the warming of the Arctic and why it is heating up three to four times faster than the planet as a whole. 



Traditional climate models capture some of that “Arctic amplification,” but they still fall short of the temperature spikes involving clouds which have been recorded in recent decades.



A new study from Kyushu University points the finger at an unlikely culprit: mixed-phase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-and-arctic-ice-clouds-an-unexpected-connection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clouds</a> that behave like a thermal blanket during the polar night, trapping more heat than most models assume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-arctic-s-thermal-blanket-matters"><a></a>Why the Arctic’s thermal blanket matters</h2>



Mixed-phase clouds - low-lying decks that contain both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-dust-plays-a-hidden-role-in-accelerating-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice crystals</a> and supercooled liquid droplets - dominate Arctic skies. 



In summer, when the sun never sets, they act like a parasol, reflecting incoming sunlight back into space and slowing surface warming.



In winter, when sunlight fades for weeks, those same clouds flip their role. With no solar rays to reflect, they trap long-wave radiation emitted by the ice and ocean below and reradiate it downward, warming the surface.



“However, how well these mixed-phase clouds trap heat depends on their ratio of ice to liquid,” explained lead author Momoka Nakanishi, a graduate researcher at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a>.



“The more liquid water the clouds contain, the better they are at trapping heat. But many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a> have a large bias in representing this ratio, causing incorrect predictions.”



Nakanishi and her adviser, associate professor Takuro Michibata of Kyushu University’s Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, suspected that inaccurate cloud physics might be hiding a large chunk of the Arctic’s missing heat.



To test the idea, they examined 30 leading climate models and compared their simulated wintertime cloud properties with a decade of satellite observations over the polar seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-heavy-models-miss-today-s-heat"><a></a>Ice-heavy models miss today’s heat</h2>



The comparison yielded a stark result: 21 of the 30 models over-predicted the proportion of ice crystals relative to liquid droplets in Arctic winter clouds. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-class-of-ice-called-ice-0/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice-heavy clouds</a> emit less infrared radiation back to the surface than liquid-rich ones, so models with too much ice systematically underestimate the present-day greenhouse effect of clouds.



“These ice-dominant models are not properly accounting for the present-day warming potential of the clouds during the winter. That’s why they cannot account for the rapid warming we are currently seeing,” Nakanishi said.



By adjusting the models to match observed ice-to-liquid ratios, the researchers closed much of the gap between simulated and observed warming. 



The finding suggests that fine-scale cloud microphysics - droplet nucleation, crystal growth, and the freezing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-beauty-revealed-in-ice-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-cooled water</a> - hold outsized influence over regional climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-arctic-clouds-on-the-ceiling">Warming Arctic: Clouds on the ceiling</h2>



Paradoxically, the same modeling error means many simulations may overstate future warming. In a warmer Arctic, mixed-phase clouds naturally shift toward higher liquid content, enhancing their heat-trapping ability in a mechanism known as cloud emissivity feedback.



But there is a ceiling: once a cloud becomes mostly liquid, it behaves like a near-perfect blackbody, fully absorbing and re-emitting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcare-reveals-the-power-of-clouds-and-aerosols/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermal radiation</a>. Beyond that point, additional warming does not greatly increase its greenhouse effect.



Many of the surveyed models, because they start out too icy, anticipate a larger future shift toward liquid content than observations justify. 



They therefore project a stronger, longer-lasting emissivity feedback and exaggerate the Arctic’s eventual temperature rise. Correcting present-day biases narrows that projection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-climate-prediction"><a></a>Implications for global climate prediction</h2>



Cloud processes remain one of the largest uncertainties in climate science. “The biggest uncertainty in our forecasts is due to clouds,” Michibata said. 



“Fixing these models is essential not just for the Arctic, but for understanding its impact on weather and climate change across the globe.”



The stakes extend well beyond the high latitudes. A warmer Arctic can warp the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet stream</a>, influencing extreme weather events in North America, Europe, and Asia - involving much more than clouds.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-alters-the-color-of-ocean-light-and-life-struggles-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea-ice losses</a> accelerate, opening shipping routes but also exposing darker ocean water that absorbs more heat. 



Permafrost thaws, releasing carbon and methane that further amplify warming. Getting cloud physics right will sharpen projections for all these knock-on effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cloud-radar-helps-prevent-arctic-warming">Cloud radar helps prevent Arctic warming</h2>



The team drew on satellite data from NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/cloudsat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CloudSat</a> and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/calipso/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CALIPSO</a> missions, which use radar and lidar to distinguish ice and liquid layers inside clouds.



They then compared these observations with outputs from models participating in the <a href="https://wcrp-cmip.org/cmip-phases/cmip6/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6</a> (CMIP6), the same ensemble that informs the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> reports.



By ranking models according to their liquid-fraction bias, the researchers could quantify how that bias translated into temperature error.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-toward-better-microphysics"><a></a>Next steps: Toward better microphysics</h2>



Fixing the problem will require both new observations and refined parameterizations of microphysical processes inside model grid cells.



Small-scale experiments using aircraft and ground-based lidar could reveal how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, humidity, and temperature cooperate to keep droplets liquid at −20 °C or colder - a common state in the Arctic. 



Incorporating those insights into global models could, in turn, tighten projections for mid-latitude storm tracks and even tropical rainfall.



For now, the study delivers a clear message: the Arctic’s runaway warming cannot be understood - or slowed - without an accurate account of what happens inside its low, grey winter clouds. Addressing that microscopic uncertainty could make a macroscopic difference for the entire planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0089" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</a>.



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Clouds also fuel Arctic warming, not just carbon emissions

For years, climate scientists have struggled to explain the warming of the Arctic and why it is heating up three to four times faster than the planet as a whole. Traditional climate models capture some of that “Arctic amplification,” but they still fall short of the temperature spikes involving clouds which have been recorded in recent decades. A new study from Kyushu University points the finger at an unlikely culprit: mixed-phase clouds that behave like a thermal blanket during the polar night, trapping more heat than most...

As cities expand, more of the surface area of the ground becomes covered with materials that are impervious to rainwater. In cities across the US, roads, rooftops, parking lots, sidewalks and driveways increased by an average of 326,000 hectares per year between 2012 and 2017.



These surfaces do not allow rainwater to percolate through and reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-remove-toxic-metals-from-soil/">soil</a> underneath. Instead, water that falls on these surfaces usually flows away into storm drains and sewer systems. If the downfall is excessive, the rainwater can cause local flooding that affects residents and may cause damage and destruction. In many cities, green infrastructure (GI) such as bioswales or channels with permeable surfaces, or interconnected networks of green space that conserve natural ecosystems, have been introduced into the worst affected urban areas to help with storm water drainage.



Although municipalities now can invest in green infrastructure to mitigate the effects of pluvial floods, they have to select the most appropriate areas in which to employ this technology. Cities including Portland, Phoenix and Atlanta have developed plans and invested in implementing GI but there is a perception that the deployment of the GI may not be equitable in terms of the socio-economic status, race or risk of the population.&nbsp;



A recent study by researchers from Portland State University considers demographic data obtained from the 2011 census along with an identification of the geographic areas prone to rainwater flooding in three US cities, namely Portland, Phoenix and Atlanta. This information is used to assess whether the GI is distributed in these cities in an equitable and appropriate manner in order to mitigate flood risks.&nbsp;



The researchers divided pluvial flood zones into four categories – Vulnerable, Managed,&nbsp;Prepared, and&nbsp;Low Concern&nbsp;– based on the potential flood area and the density of GI infrastructure. They then investigated how GI, racial groups, and economically disadvantaged groups are distributed with respect to the areas at risk of pluvial flooding.&nbsp;



Study lead author Arun Pallathadka is a PhD student in the Earth, Environment and Society program at Portland State University. According to Pallathadka, the research team found that the placement of GI in each of the cities did not consistently overlap with areas prone to rainwater flooding. Furthermore, non-white and low-income populations were found to be more vulnerable to flood risk. The results, published recently in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/landscape-and-urban-planning">Landscape and Urban Planning</a> indicated inequalities and the potential for discriminatory flood-risk management measures.&nbsp;&nbsp;



For example, in Phoenix and Portland, low-income and non-white populations were more likely to be exposed to pluvial flooding than were high-income and white populations. However, there has been increased investment in GI in these two cities, particularly in neighborhoods with higher populations of non-white and low-income residents, marking a transition to more equitable flood risk management.&nbsp;



In Atlanta, the risk of rainwater flooding was relatively low for non-white and low-income residents. In fact, the relationships were reversed, with white populations tending to be more exposed to pluvial flooding. However, GI usage is more frequent where the at-risk white population lives, indicating that there may be active efforts to manage flood risk in these communities. The researchers also found that GI investment increased over time in areas with predominantly white populations.&nbsp;



“Flooding is the costliest natural hazard,” said Pallathadka. “But when we talk about flooding, the focus is often on the floodplain, on rivers. But with climate change, we're expecting an increase in flooding associated with rainfall events. We wanted to know where the hotspots in cities are associated with a risk of flooding from rain, who are the people living in those communities, and where are cities placing infrastructure to help reduce the hazards.”



The researchers found that in Phoenix and Portland, non-white and low-income populations more often lived in areas classified as Vulnerable&nbsp;or&nbsp;Managed, in terms of flood risk, than white and high-income populations. In contrast, white and high-income populations more often lived in areas that were Prepared&nbsp;or&nbsp;of Low Concern. In Atlanta, non-white and low-income populations were more likely to live in&nbsp;Low Concern&nbsp;areas than were white and high-income populations, but white and high-income populations were more likely to live in&nbsp;Prepared&nbsp;and&nbsp;Managed&nbsp;areas.



In the past, urban planning has often been used as a tool, wielded by whites and the wealthy, for discrimination against ethnic minorities and impoverished groups. The results of the current study both reinforce and challenge the argument that urban resources are unequally shared.&nbsp;



The study authors have developed a system to categorize neighbourhood flood risk levels that can be applied by researchers, city planners and policymakers to other cities.&nbsp;This tool can be used to help guide future investments in GI such that neighborhoods most at risk of flooding from rainfall events will receive the required infrastructure.&nbsp;



The methods used by the team provide cities with a novel approach to assessing the need for GI in neighborhoods prone to rainwater flooding while also planning for the equitable distribution of those resources as they move ahead under the threat of increasing extreme precipitation events associated with a warming planet.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Do cities address the hazards of rainwater floods equitably?

As cities expand, more of the surface area of the...

Since the second half of the 20th century, scientists have discussed at length the negative impact of excess nitrogen on both terrestrial and aquatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-feces-can-harm-the-environment-and-disrupt-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a>. However, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abh3767">Science</a> argues that nitrogen insufficiencies in certain areas of the world could affect the proper functioning of ecosystems. 



“There is both too much nitrogen and too little nitrogen on Earth at the same time,” said study lead author Rachel Mason, a former postdoctoral researcher at the National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center.



During the 20th century, humans have more than doubled the global supply of nitrogen through agricultural and industrial activities. Most of this ended up in coastal waters, inland lakes, or streams, often resulting in harmful algae blooms, low-oxygen zones, and eutrophication. The negative impacts of excess nitrogen has led the scientists to consider this substance a dangerous pollutant.&nbsp;



However, nitrogen remains an essential element for plants and the animals that consume them. When fertilized with nitrogen, gardens, forests, or fisheries are much more productive. With declines in plant nitrogen, trees grow slower and their leaves become less nutritious for insects and their predators such as birds or bats. Moreover, less of this element can constrain the ability of plants to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and thus participate in climate change mitigation.



“When nitrogen is less available, every living thing holds on to the element for longer, slowing the flow of nitrogen from one organism to another through the food chain. This is why we can say that the nitrogen cycle is seizing up,” explained study senior author Andrew Elmore, a professor of Landscape Ecology at the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a>.



By reviewing long-term global and regional studies, the scientists found evidence of declining nitrogen availability in various terrestrial ecosystems. These worrisome declines are caused by multiple environmental changes, such as rises in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide, which help plant fertilization but, at the same time, dilute the nitrogen plants store. Other causes of this decline include increases in global temperatures, which affect plant and microbial processes associated with nitrogen supply and demand, or wildfires that can remove nitrogen from ecosystems and significantly reduce its availability over time.



“These results show how the world is changing in complex and surprising ways,” said study co-author Peter Groffman, a professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the <a href="https://www.cuny.edu/">City University of New York</a>. “Our findings show the importance of having long-term data as well as focused synthesis efforts to understand these changes and the implications they have for ecosystem and human health and well-being.”



Further research is needed to better understand the spatial and temporal patterns of nitrogen availability in order to efficiently direct global management efforts.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth has too much and too little nitrogen at the same time

Since the second half of the 20th century, scientists have...

Colombia is one of only 17 megadiverse countries in the world. It has an unusually high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-single-gene-could-control-biodiversity-in-an-ecosystem/">biodiversity</a> and is home to many rare and endemic species, including the pink river dolphin, cotton-top tamarin, giant capybara and Orinoco crocodile. Although the country’s biodiversity has been inadvertently protected by years of human conflict and governmental instability, Colombia is now at a crossroads where peace has brought agricultural expansion and a consequent threat to its precious biodiversity.



A recent study by researchers from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> has identified priority areas where the benefits of conservation actions would be the greatest, while the economic impacts from not developing the land for agriculture would be the least. This is largely in response to the findings of the IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) report of 2019 that pointed the finger at human land-use changes as the major cause of biodiversity loss around the world.



“We focused on the case study of the country of Colombia to demonstrate an approach to maximize the biodiversity benefits from limited conservation funding while ensuring that landowners maintain economic returns equivalent to agriculture,” said Leah Gerber, who was lead author of the IPBES report, and is a&nbsp;<a href="https://conservation-innovation.lab.asu.edu/leah-gerber/">professor</a>&nbsp;in the&nbsp;School of Life Sciences&nbsp;and founding director of the&nbsp;Center for Biodiversity Outcomes&nbsp;(CBO) at&nbsp;ASU.&nbsp;



In the study, Professor Gerber teamed up with Colombian native Camila Guerrero-Pineda, who, just three years ago, left her home country to join the ASU and hopefully make a difference back home in Colombia. The study developed a prioritization map showing areas of the country that were at highest risk of being developed agriculturally, and areas where biological diversity could be protected most effectively. &nbsp;



“It’s fair to categorize that Colombia is a megadiverse country,” said Guerrero-Pineda, who is first author on the publication. “It arguably has some of the greatest biodiversity in the world, given its size, and a lot of scientists and academics in Colombia fear the ecological consequences of human actions.”&nbsp;



Although years of guerrilla war, led by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), kept many forest areas from being settled and developed, the peace treaty of 2016 has led to the opportunity for agricultural expansion and to the consequent loss of vital habitats for the resident fauna and flora.



“FARC had a lot of control over the forests, and it prevented a lot of economic development,” said Guerrero-Pineda. “It also prevented a lot of scientific monitoring because scientists were afraid of going into the forests,” said Guerrero-Pineda. &nbsp;&nbsp;



FARC controlled the forests for coca leaf (the plant used to produce cocaine) production and the drug trade, which financed five decades of warfare. Coca tends to be grown in remote, isolated areas, away from roads. In fact, the ASU-led study found that the probability of forests being cleared for use in farming cattle and other crops decreases with increasing distance to roads, while the probability of transformation to coca plantations increases. One of the unplanned consequences of the way in which FARC operated was that development was limited and the spectacular biodiversity was preserved.



The presence of FARC was the most influential variable determining the fate of deforested areas, as the odds of forest conversion to coca crops over conversion to cattle or other crops in areas with presence of FARC was around 300 percent higher than the odds in areas where FARC was not active.



Gerber’s team feels that if no action were taken to change the current trajectory of farmland development, Colombia’s current biodiversity loss rate could increase by 50 percent by the year 2033. The challenge, therefore, is to balance the need to preserve biodiversity with the country’s need to develop economically.&nbsp;



In order to tackle this dilemma, the researchers applied a unique quantitative model that relates investment in conservation to national biodiversity outcomes.&nbsp;



“The methods developed here offer an approach to identifying areas of&nbsp;greatest conservation returns on investment by balancing cost of conservation action,&nbsp;measured as opportunity cost for agriculture, and biodiversity impacts,” said Guerrero-Pineda.



The declaration of any conservation area will come with inherent costs to people who would otherwise have developed and used the area for generating a livelihood. Therefore, the opportunity cost is a measure of foregone benefits that would otherwise have been derived by farmers who have now lost the opportunity to develop the land.&nbsp;



“Opportunity cost is what you're missing out on or what you're not doing because of a decision to do something else,” said Guerrero-Pineda. “What that means is that someone is not going to be able to use the land that is going to be used for conservation.”



Professor Gerber’s team modeled the opportunity cost of conservation (OCC) to agriculture as an approximation of the expected cost of compensating a landowner for avoiding conversion of their property. They assumed that deforestation can be counteracted by compensating the land owner, either by purchase – such as setting the sale value of a piece of land equal to its expected future cash flow – or in the form of continued payments for ecosystem services.



“Our strategy for targeting conservation funding involves first identifying regions with a high risk of forest conversion to agriculture (such as cattle ranching or other crops),” said Professor Gerber. “More broadly, the research agenda is around incorporating cost into decision-making to achieve the most outcomes, given limited resources.”



They found that the Andean region of Colombia contains the highest mean OCC, reflecting a very strong probability that the remaining forests in this region will be converted to agricultural lands. This was followed by the OCC in the Pacific, the Caribbean and the Orinoquía regions. The Amazon region had the lowest mean probability of conversion to agricultural land and the greatest percentage forest cover remaining. According to the team’s model, it also had a much lower OCC.&nbsp;



The researchers estimated that Colombia would have to invest US$37 - 39 million annually (in the best and worst-case scenarios of deforestation) to avoid further severe loss of biodiversity. According to them, this means an increase in its conservation spending of between 7.69 and 10.16 million USD per year. In total, preventing further biodiversity loss in Colombia would require between US$61 and 63 million annually, which is more than twice the amount spent on conservation before the peace agreement.



“One of the things we're excited about with this work is that it's a demonstration of the potential of this idea of using return on investment for thinking about allocated conservation resources,” said study co-author Gwenllian D. Iacona. “And so, we took these two high profile approaches that are out there, called the Waldron Model and the Species Threat Abatement and Restoration (STAR) metric, and we put them together so country-level decision makers can make the best-informed decisions at that type of scale.”



Professor Gerber’s team thinks they have developed a new blueprint, not only to aid Colombia but also to extend to other policymakers in other countries where biodiversity and economic development are in conflict.&nbsp;



The study results can also assist in the planning of land preservation and national parks. In Colombia, the National Natural Park System is working to declare five new protected areas, and to expand three more. This builds on evidence showing that more effective and lasting conservation outcomes are achieved when governance empowers local communities and supports their environmental stewardship, including indigenous communities, reserves and Afro-Colombian lands. &nbsp;



“I think Camila’s work really sets us up to assist entities, whether they be countries or companies, in quantitatively measuring the impact of conservation interventions on different metrics, whether they need biodiversity or climate mitigation, or other types of conservation strategies,” said Gerber. “I'm optimistic that we'll be able to build and scale this to improve conservation outcomes more generally.”



The research is published in the prestigious journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natsustain/">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Balancing agricultural expansion and biodiversity loss in Colombia

Colombia is one of only 17 megadiverse countries in the...

Humans all over the world produce billions of tons of solid waste annually, with 70 percent of this refuse ending up deposited in landfills, where it slowly decays. What at first sight may seem to be an inert accumulation of useless debris is in fact a complex ecosystem, with vast communities of microbes feeding on the waste and converting it into carbon dioxide and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-suggests-that-all-living-organisms-produce-methane/">methane</a>.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> (ASU) has explored the microbial communities residing in leachate (a liquid percolating through solid waste in landfills) at the Salt River Landfill in Scottsdale, and has argued that the methane produced by these microorganisms could be converted into carbon-neutral fuels and electricity, or even used without additional processing for heating homes.&nbsp;



“I think of a landfill as like a big carbon buffet to these microorganisms,” said study lead author Mark Reynolds, a researcher in Environmental Biotechnology at ASU. “Our trash is mostly paper-heavy and it’s really rich in cellulose and hemicellulose. These are readily degradable under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions.”



Municipal solid waste landfills accounted for over 15 percent of methane emissions in 2019, representing the third largest source of methane emissions worldwide. Most of the methane released by microorganisms in landfills is captured as biogas and subsequently flared off and converted into carbon dioxide. Although this method limits methane’s impact on the climate, it is only a short-term solution to the problem of emissions from landfills.



In addition to its negative impact on the climate, the lost methane is a missed opportunity to use a valuable resource. According to the researchers, about one-fifth of United States’ landfills could be suitable for methane capture and processing, if various hurdles (including economic ones) are overcome.&nbsp;



By understanding how microorganisms degrading municipal solid waste generate methane (particularly the methanogenic microbes Archaea – the real “workhorses” in the methane producing cycle), scientists hope to boost methane production. This gas could then be harvested and used to produce carbon-neutral fuels and electricity, or even to heat homes (without the need for additional processing).&nbsp;



Further research is needed to clarify the distinctions between various microbial communities that produce methane in landfills - such as that between arid landfill microbes and those residing in landfills from subtropical or temperate climates - and to explore the use of bio-stimulants or other techniques that could be employed to modify methane production.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/aem.02438-21">Microbial Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microbes in landfills produce valuable methane

Humans all over the world produce billions of tons of...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> has developed detailed maps of bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-levels-of-biodiversity-reduce-extinction-risks-in-birds/">biodiversity</a> across the entire United States in order to help conservation managers focus their efforts in areas where they are more likely to help endangered bird populations. 



Since many resources previously available to conservation managers – such as species range maps – are both too broad and not rigorously tested for accuracy, the new maps focus on individual counties or forests rather than on whole states or regions, and are based on both detailed observations of birds and various environmental factors that affect bird ranges, such as forest cover or temperature levels in specific areas.



“With these maps, managers have a tool they didn’t have before that allows them to get both a broad perspective as well as information at the level of detail that’s necessary for their action plans,” said study co-author Anna Pidgeon, a professor of Forest and Wildlife Ecology at UW-Madison.



“Across the world we’re seeing huge species losses. In North America, three billion birds have been lost since 1970. This is across virtually all habitat types,” added study lead author Kathleen Carroll, a postdoctoral researcher in Wildlife Conservation at the same university. “And we’re seeing a disconnect between what scientists produce for conservation and how that translates to boots-on-the-ground management.”



In order to address these problems, Dr. Carroll and her colleagues produced data-driven maps of bird biodiversity by extrapolating observations of birds from scientific surveys to mile-by-mile predictions of where specific species actually live. The predictions were based on factors such as rainfall, forest coverage, or the extent of human influence on the environment, such as the presence of urban areas or farms.



The scientists clustered individual species by habitat, diet, behavior, or conservation status, grouping them in “guilds” such as fruit eaters or forest dwellers.&nbsp;The final maps cover 19 different guilds at resolutions of 0.5, 2.5, and 5 kilometers. According to the researchers, the 2.5 km resolution maps provided the best balance of accuracy and usefulness for realistic conservation needs.&nbsp;



“We see this being really applicable for things like forest management action plans for the U.S. Forest Service,” explained Dr. Carroll. “They can pull up these maps for a group of interest, and they can get a very clear indication of what areas where they might want to limit human use.” In addition, these maps could also help private land conservancies decide where to prioritize their frequently limited resources to maximize biodiversity protection.&nbsp;



The researchers plan to extend their analyses down to individual species instead of guilds made up of different species in order to help conservation managers aiming to protect specific species improve their work.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/eap.2624">Ecological Applications</a> and the full set of maps are available for download from the open-access website <a href="https://datadryad.org/stash/landing/show?id=doi%3A10.5061%2Fdryad.vq83bk3v0">Dryad</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Maps of bird populations can help protect biodiversity

A new study led by the University of Wisconsin-Madison has...

April’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/longest-full-moon-of-the-year-will-peak-saturday/">full moon</a> – which will be brightest on Saturday, April 16, at 2.55 p.m. ET, but will appear full until Monday morning – is called the Pink Moon. This name is not connected to the moon’s color though, but to the blooming in the Northern Hemisphere of a brightly-colored flower, the wild ground phlox (Phlox subulata, also known as the “creeping phlox” or “moss pink”), which typically coincides with the arrival of this moon.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In the Christian tradition, the Pink Moon is known as the Paschal Full Moon, since Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the moon rises. For Hindus, this moon marks Hanuman Jayanti, the feast of the Hindu monkey deity Lord Hanuman. Buddhists of Sri Lanka call it Bak Poya, and celebrate Buddha’s visit to the country, where he prevented a war by settling the disputes between Sri Lankan chiefs.



According to the <a href="https://www.almanac.com/content/full-moon-april">Old Farmer’s Almanac</a>, Native American names for April’s full moon were homages to the coming of spring. Thus, the Dakota tribe called it “the moon when the streams are again navigable,” the Tingit dubbed it “the budding moon of plants and shrubs,” and the Oglala “the moon of the red grass appearing.” Other Native American names refer to the reappearance of certain animals, such as “the moon when the ducks come back” (Lakota), “the moon when the geese lay eggs” (Dakota), “the frog moon” (Cree), or the “fish moon” (among several coastal tribes). Various folklore traditions claim that the period from the full moon through the last quarter of the moon is best for killing weeds, cutting timber, pruning, mowing, and planting below-ground crops.



However, in some parts of the world, this moon does not mark the arrival of spring. In New Zealand, for instance, the Māori people's traditions connected to this moon reflect the fact that April is an autumn month in the Southern Hemisphere. The Māori call this moon “Paenga-whāwhā,” describing the period when it rises as a time when “all straw is now stacked at the borders of the plantations.”



Regardless of its various cultural or religious connotations though, April’s full moon will offer a spectacular view to people from both hemispheres. If the skies are not cloudy, people everywhere in the world can enjoy a beautiful astronomical event throughout this entire weekend.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Pink Moon will light up the sky this weekend

April’s full moon – which will be brightest on Saturday,...

Birds on the island of Hainan are looking and acting differently, and a new study has linked these changes to human activities. A team of experts led by <a href="https://www.xjtlu.edu.cn/en/">Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University</a> reports that birds on Hainan have evolved changes in body shape and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-with-vegan-diets-may-have-better-health-outcomes/">diet</a>, thanks to decades of development by humans.&nbsp;



With a unique tropical climate, Hainan is home to over 400 species of birds. Located in southern China, the island has experienced a massive economic and development boom over the last 20 years, and the impacts on biodiversity have remained unclear.



The researchers found that human activity has caused biotic homogenization in birds - which means that species are becoming increasingly similar.



For the investigation, the team analyzed the climate and land use changes across Hainan during two time periods separated by 15 years. According to the researchers, the results show that land use changes affect many aspects of biodiversity, such as decreasing species richness and species variability.



In addition, the increasing presence of human influences seems to help human-tolerant species out-compete native forest birds. The study also revealed that the effects of conservation measures are very complex.



“We found that extreme negative effects on biodiversity were averted by environmental legislation. However, we also recorded an increasing similarity between communities around the island and complex effects of human activities on biodiversity," said study first author Dr. Emilio Pagani-Núñez.



“We are showing that there is hope for biodiversity, that economic growth and enhanced biodiversity conservation are possible. However, a price will be paid, and it is our duty to prevent such negative effects by developing targeted policies on especially diverse or sensitive ecosystems and communities.”



According to Dr. Pagani-Núñez, biodiversity loss and biotic homogenization are pervasive trends in the Anthropocene.&nbsp;



“We are witnessing the sixth mass extinction, which means a simplification of natural communities only comparable to previous traumatic events that considerably reduced worldwide biodiversity. If these negative effects of human activities do not decrease, it is highly likely that natural communities will not have the chance to recover."



“Governments and companies need to invest more in biodiversity conservation and integrate biodiversity conservation into economic development plans to create landscapes for both biodiversity and people.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15231739">Conservation Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds are changing, and human activities are to blame

Birds on the island of Hainan are looking and acting...

According to a study published in&nbsp; <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-pollution">Environmental Pollution</a>, recent findings have indicated that some tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-plants-with-long-roots-may-help-store-carbon-underground/">plants</a> can remove toxic metals and metalloids from the soil.&nbsp;



Although some metals naturally occur in soil, they are usually not at levels harmful to the environment. Metals reach toxic levels in the top layers of soil over time due to air pollution from sources like vehicle emissions and construction activities.&nbsp;



Phytoremediation is the use of plants to rid the soil of toxins. Although phytoremediation requires a long-term commitment, the researchers believe it’s preferable to some alternative technologies, including soil washing and acid leaching. These methods are often more expensive and use harsh chemicals.



Removing the contaminated soil is another option, but the process often leaves behind unhealthy soil with low fertility. Moreover, removing the contaminated soil could expose animals, including humans, to heavy metals.&nbsp;



Researchers from <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.sg/">Nanyang Technological University</a>, Singapore (NTU Singapore) and Singapore’s National Parks Board (NParks) wanted to determine whether phytoremediation is viable in Singapore, where remediation is especially important because of the limited availability of land.&nbsp;



Before determining if phytoremediation was an option, researchers had to find out if they had toxic soil in the environment. They used the Dutch Standard, a measure adopted by the Singapore government, to determine the threshold of acceptable contaminant levels.



“Our results revealed there were regions where levels of heavy metals and metalloids were relatively high and could affect the environment and the health of flora and fauna in Singapore," explained study co-author Professor Tan Swee Ngin.&nbsp;



"This would call for preventive actions, such as our method of using plants to remove these toxic materials, to be employed to minimise heavy metal contamination.”



The next step was to see which plants were good phytoremediators. The team studied 46 plant species to determine if they were viable candidates for phytoremediation. They found that 12 species effectively extracted heavy metals and metalloids such as cadmium, arsenic, lead, and chromium from the soil. Effective species included Cow Grass (Axonopus compressus, Brake Fern (Pteris vittata), and the Indian Pennywort (Centella asiatica).



The team is now testing the plants in areas with high concentrations of heavy metals to see how effective they are in an urban setting. Additionally, they are examining the use of inorganic particles to encourage plant growth and improve their ability to absorb contaminants. Using these compounds may speed up the remediation process.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants may remove toxic metals from soil

According to a study published in&nbsp; Environmental Pollution, recent findings...

Scientists who study past climate changes cannot go back in time to witness exactly what the conditions were like. Instead, they make use of models to infer past climatic scenarios based on the climatic changes that have been witnessed and recorded within the past couple of centuries.&nbsp;



For climate scientist Alexander Thompson, this approach proved unsatisfactory. Thompson, a postdoctoral research associate in earth and planetary sciences in Arts &amp; Sciences at the Washington University in St. Louis, was troubled by a problem with models of Earth’s atmospheric temperatures since the start of the Holocene, some 11,000 years ago. Many of these simulations showed temperatures warming gradually and consistently over time, in tandem with slowly increasing levels of atmospheric CO2. To Thompson, this was not an accurate representation.



When he used proxy records to reconstruct past climate, he found evidence of a peak in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5c-is-out-of-reach/">warming</a> between 9,000 and 6,000 years ago. Proxy records are the imprints created during the past by living organisms or other factors that reflect aspects of climatic and atmospheric conditions. For example, tree rings, ice cores, sediment cores and the shells of tiny marine organisms all indicate the climatic conditions at the time that they were formed.&nbsp;



For Thompson, it was the pollen records that were most revealing. They gave him a clue that the role of vegetation in past climatic change may have been more significant than previously thought. He observed that warmer temperatures in the early Holocene brought plants – and then came even warmer temperatures, indicating that the presence of vegetation may have been an important factor.&nbsp;



“Pollen records suggest a large expansion of vegetation during that time,” Thompson said. “But previous models only show a limited amount of vegetation growth. So, even though some of these other simulations have included dynamic vegetation, it wasn’t nearly enough of a vegetation shift to account for what the pollen records suggest.”



In reality, there were very large changes to vegetative cover during the Holocene, the current geological epoch. Early in this period, the Sahara Desert in Africa grew greener and became more of a grassland. Vegetation in the Northern Hemisphere, including the coniferous and deciduous forests in the mid-latitudes and the Arctic, also thrived.



Thompson took evidence from pollen records and designed a set of experiments with a climate model known as the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cesm.ucar.edu/">Community Earth System Model (CESM)</a>, one of the best-regarded models of its type. He ran updated simulations with this model to account for a range of changes in vegetation that had not been considered previously. The results, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>, indicate that changing vegetation was likely a key driver of changes in global temperatures over the past 10,000 years.



“Expanded vegetation during the Holocene warmed the globe by as much as 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit,” Thompson said. “Our new simulations align closely with paleoclimate proxies. So this is exciting that we can point to Northern Hemisphere vegetation as one potential factor that allows us to resolve the controversial&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1407229111">Holocene temperature conundrum</a>.”



It was during the Holocene that human settlements first became established, along with agriculture and other aspects of civilization. These processes were likely to have been affected by climatic conditions and therefore many scientists and historians are interested in understanding how and when the climate changed during this period.&nbsp;



“Overall, our study emphasizes that accounting for vegetation change is critical,” Thompson said. “Projections for future climate change are more likely to produce more trustworthy predictions if they include changes in vegetation.”



Thompson conducted this research work as a graduate student at the University of Michigan. He is continuing his research in the laboratory of climate scientist&nbsp;<a href="https://eps.wustl.edu/people/bronwen-konecky">Bronwen Konecky</a>&nbsp;at Washington University.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Changes in vegetation are a key driver of global temperatures

Scientists who study past climate changes cannot go back in...

New research shows that more carbon is stored in decomposing peat swamps in the Lowland Peruvian Amazon (LPA) than previously thought and these swamps need protection. The scientists who carried out the research found small but increasing areas of deforestation across the region. Deforestation has lead to an eleven fold uptick in carbon emissions driven by mining from 2000 to 2016.&nbsp;



The international team of scientists used satellite imagery and field data to map and model peat thickness in Peru’s lowland Amazon swamps. The study was led by Dr. Adam Hastie, a postdoctoral researcher in the School of GeoSciences at the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>.



“We knew that Peru contained substantial peatlands but we previously only had ground data from a few regions, and we didn't realize how extensive the peatlands were," said Dr. Hastie.



"Our high-resolution maps can be used to directly inform conservation and climate mitigation policies and actions such as Nationally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement, to avoid further degradation and CO2 emissions.”



With the new data, the research shows that the peatlands contain double the amount of carbon previously estimated. This means that the peatlands contain 5.4 billion tons of carbon in a mere 5 percent of the landmass of Peru.&nbsp;



Tropical peatlands have one of the greatest concentrations of carbon contained in any landscape. Unfortunately, agriculture and other forms of development are destroying the massive amounts of stunning biodiversity as well as releasing the carbon contained therein.



“Peatlands are increasingly recognized as carbon hotspots and a key component of the planet’s carbon cycle," said&nbsp; Dr. Ian Lawson from the University of St. Andrews.



"They store half of all the soil carbon on the planet, but they’re vulnerable to human pressures. It’s important for all of us that we know where they are so that we can protect them and help to mitigate climate change."



Next, the researchers plan to look at the carbon storage of other parts of the Amazon in an effort to better understand the problem and hopefully determine how to fix it.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Peat swamps are carbon hotspots that need urgent protection

New research shows that more carbon is stored in decomposing...

An international research team has enumerated the ways in which consumption causes extinction. The study is published as an assessment of the Intergovernmental Science Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). This is a lead up to the 15th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP-15).



According to the IPBES report, approximately one million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-reduces-the-hatching-success-of-a-keystone-fish-species/">species</a> are threatened with extinction, many quite soon. The research examined over 5,000 species in 188 nations and found that consumption in North America, Europe and East Asia is driving a lot of extinction in other countries. The report was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Nature: Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;



Lead researcher Amanda Irwin is an expert in the Integrated Sustainability Analysis research group at the University of Sydney. She compared the extinction crisis to climate change but with less publicity.&nbsp;



“These crises are occurring in parallel,” said Irwin. “The upcoming COP-15 will hopefully raise the profile of the other human-driven natural crisis of our generation – irreparable biodiversity loss – and our findings can provide valuable insights into the role that global consumption plays as one of the drivers of this loss.”



In 16 of the countries examined in the report, extinction is driven from countries abroad. However, in 96 countries or roughly half those studied, extinction is primarily driven by domestic consumption. Overall, global trade drives 29.5 percent of the worldwide extinction risk footprint. The greatest cause of extinction risk comes from food, beverage and agriculture, equaling about 39 percent. The construction sector came in second contributing about 16 percent to the global extinction risk footprint.&nbsp;



“The complexity of economic interactions in our globalized world means that the purchase of a coffee in Sydney may contribute to biodiversity loss in Honduras. The choices we make every day have an impact on the natural world, even if we don’t see this impact.”



Some biodiversity hotspots such as Madagascar, home of the adorable Malagasy giant jumping rat, have 66 percent of the extinction risk footprint coming from abroad. Others, like Colombia, home to the beautiful Nombre de Dios streamside frog have 93 percent of extinction risk domestically.&nbsp;



Although the situation is complicated by local differences, the study highlights the need for global trade to be reconsidered and hopefully new laws enacted with nations taking responsibility for driving the crisis. It’s also a reminder to consumers that their choices have consequences.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Consumer choices are fueling the extinction crisis abroad

An international research team has enumerated the ways in which...

A new study conducted by the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a> at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/">UK Met Office</a> has reviewed a series of unprecedented climate extremes in China, North America, and Europe in 2021. The experts described the occurrence of an unusually high number of extreme weather events in these regions over the past year, and most were likely caused by a mix of internal, natural variability and anthropogenic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-perennial-grasses-could-help-curb-climate-change/">climate</a> change.



In 2021 – the sixth warmest year since 1881 - the weather in China was marked by many unusual events, including rapid transitions from cold to warm extremes and sandstorms in the spring, massive droughts in the southern part of the country and severe thunderstorms and floods in the eastern regions in the spring, debilitating heatwaves and persistent heavy rainfall in the Henan and Hubei provinces in the summer, and a widespread cold surge during autumn.&nbsp;



The United States also witnessed extreme cold conditions early in the year, while western Canada faced record-breaking heatwaves in the summer. Europe was not spared either: the catastrophic floods from July killed at least 243 people in countries including Germany, Belgium, and Austria.&nbsp;



This short review, published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-022-2063-9">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>, is expected to serve as a reference for future climate events attribution, process understanding, and high-resolution modelling of extreme events.&nbsp;



“Our report has highlighted the need to develop an operational real-time system of rapid event attribution in China to facilitate the understanding of climate extremes, and further, to adapt to and mitigate the ongoing climate change,” explained study lead author Tianjun Zhou, an expert in climate modelling at the Institute for Atmospheric Research.



“Although individual events cannot usually be attributed themselves to climate change, the likelihood of some of them has been altered as a part of climate change,” added study co-author Dr. Robin Clark, a researcher studying climate extremes at the UK Met Office.



If measures to mitigate global warming are not urgently taken, the frequency and severity of such extreme weather events will likely increase significantly over the next years and decades, putting at risk a large number of ecosystems, and creating increasingly harsh conditions for all forms of life on our planet, including humans.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Unusual number of climate extremes struck in 2021

A new study conducted by the Institute of Atmospheric Physics...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

[sendtonews key="6SdlLLbt0t-1988946-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NTU...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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