Sleep, that elusive yet essential state, continues to fascinate scientists and the general public alike. With research underscoring its crucial role in everything from heart health to cognitive function, the pursuit of quality sleep has never been more pressing. Enter an unlikely hero: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-is-beneficial-for-physical-and-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gardening</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-epidemic-of-sleep-deprivation">The epidemic of sleep deprivation</h2>



In our modern, hyper-connected world, the relentless pace of life and constant barrage of digital stimuli have created an environment where quality sleep is often sacrificed. Smartphones, tablets, and laptops beckon us with endless entertainment, social media updates, and work emails, making it difficult to disconnect and wind down before bed. 



The blue light emitted by these devices further disrupts our natural sleep-wake cycle by suppressing the production of melatonin, the hormone responsible for regulating sleep.



Studies have consistently shown that a significant proportion of adults, particularly those in industrialized nations, regularly fail to meet the recommended 7-8 hours of sleep per night. This chronic sleep deprivation, accumulating over time, has dire consequences for both physical and mental well-being. 



Research has linked insufficient sleep to a heightened risk of chronic conditions such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and even certain types of cancer. 



Additionally, sleep deprivation impairs cognitive function, hindering memory, attention span, decision-making abilities, and creativity. It can also lead to mood swings, irritability, and an increased risk of developing mental health disorders like depression and anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapeutic-power-of-gardening-for-sleep">Therapeutic power of gardening for sleep</h2>



While pharmaceuticals and sleep aids offer temporary relief for some, an emerging body of research suggests that a more natural solution might be found in the soil. A recent study has revealed a compelling association between gardening and improved sleep quality.



“According to the&nbsp;<a href="https://sph.fudan.edu.cn/employee/158" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Activity Guideline for Americans</a>&nbsp;(2nd edition), gardening is a muscle-strengthening and multicomponent physical activity with one of the lowest injury risks, which is appropriate and recommended for older adults,” said study author&nbsp;<a href="https://sph.fudan.edu.cn/employee/158">Xiang Gao</a>, a dean and distinguished professor at <a href="https://www.fudan.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fudan University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-between-gardening-and-sleep">Connection between gardening and sleep</h2>



In their quest to understand the potential connection between gardening and sleep, the researchers turned to the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), a comprehensive health survey conducted annually across the United States. 



This vast dataset provided them with a unique opportunity to analyze responses from over 62,000 adults, offering a wide range of demographic, lifestyle, and health information.



By meticulously comparing individuals who engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-can-improve-your-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gardening</a> activities to those who did not exercise at all (non-exercisers) and those who participated in other forms of exercise, the researchers were able to isolate the specific impact of gardening on sleep patterns. This approach allowed them to account for potential confounding factors and determine whether gardening had a unique association with sleep quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-benefits-for-sleep">Unique benefits for sleep</h2>



The results of this analysis were striking. Gardeners consistently reported significantly fewer sleep complaints compared to both non-exercisers and individuals engaged in other forms of exercise. This finding suggests that gardening may offer unique benefits for sleep that go beyond the general positive effects associated with physical activity.



Furthermore, the researchers observed a dose-dependent relationship between gardening and sleep quality. Individuals who spent more time gardening reported even fewer sleep complaints, indicating that the benefits of gardening for sleep may increase with greater engagement in this activity. This observation opens up intriguing possibilities for using gardening as a potential therapeutic intervention for sleep disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blooming-field-of-possibilities">A blooming field of possibilities</h2>



While this study offers tantalizing clues, it's just the tip of the iceberg. Scientists are eager to uncover the precise mechanisms behind gardening's sleep-enhancing effects. Several potential factors are under investigation:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Physical activity</h3>



Gardening is not just a leisure activity; it's a form of exercise that involves various physical movements. Activities like digging, weeding, planting, and harvesting require the use of multiple muscle groups, from arms to legs, contributing to overall physical fitness. 



Regular physical activity, such as gardening, enhances cardiovascular health, strengthens muscles, and improves flexibility. These physical benefits are crucial as they are directly linked to better sleep quality. Engaging in such activities helps tire the body in a healthy way, leading to more restful and deeper sleep cycles.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Sunlight exposure</h3>



Gardening typically requires spending significant time outdoors, which naturally increases exposure to sunlight. This exposure is essential for regulating our circadian rhythm, the body’s natural clock that dictates sleep patterns. 



Sunlight helps maintain a healthy circadian rhythm by influencing the production of melatonin, a hormone that induces sleep. The more aligned our circadian rhythm is, the better our chances of falling asleep at the right time and enjoying uninterrupted sleep.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Stress reduction</h3>



The tranquil nature of gardening activities, from tending to plants to touching the soil, can significantly reduce levels of cortisol, the body's primary stress hormone. 



High cortisol levels can interfere with sleep by keeping the body in a heightened state of alertness or anxiety. Gardening helps mitigate this by fostering a calming environment, allowing individuals to relax both physically and mentally. 



This reduction in stress creates a more conducive atmosphere for sleep, making it easier to fall asleep and stay asleep throughout the night.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Mindfulness and connection with nature</h3>



Gardening offers a unique opportunity to engage in mindfulness through close interaction with the natural environment. The focus required in nurturing plants, observing their growth, and connecting with the earth can significantly reduce mental clutter and daily worries. 



The practice of mindfulness and increased connection with nature can lead to a decrease in rumination - the repetitive, often negative, thinking that can disrupt sleep - and promote a more peaceful mind that is ready for sleep.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Sense of accomplishment</h3>



Gardening produces visible and tangible results, whether it's the growth of new plants, the blossoming of flowers, or the harvest of fruits and vegetables. These outcomes provide a significant sense of accomplishment and can boost self-esteem. 



Achieving goals and witnessing the fruits of one's labor can offer emotional satisfaction and joy, which contribute to a positive state of mind at bedtime. Feeling good about one's achievements during the day can ease the transition into sleep, making it more likely to enjoy a restful night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-gardener-s-guide-to-nurturing-your-sleep">A gardener's guide to nurturing your sleep</h2>



Eager to cultivate your own sleep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-hacks-social-media/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">garden</a>? Here are a few tips to get you started:



Choose the right plants:&nbsp;Opt for fragrant herbs like lavender,&nbsp;chamomile,&nbsp;or jasmine,&nbsp;known for their calming properties.



Create a sensory haven:&nbsp;Incorporate elements that engage all the senses,&nbsp;such as wind chimes,&nbsp;soft lighting,&nbsp;and comfortable seating.



Garden mindfully:&nbsp;Focus on the present moment,&nbsp;noticing the feel of the soil,&nbsp;the scent of the flowers,&nbsp;and the sounds of nature.



Keep a garden journal:&nbsp;Record your observations,&nbsp;thoughts,&nbsp;and feelings,&nbsp;allowing yourself to reflect and de-stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-sleep-the-bountiful-harvest-of-gardening">Beyond sleep: The bountiful harvest of gardening</h2>



The potential benefits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-got-a-major-boost-from-the-covid-19-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gardening</a> don't stop at sleep. Ongoing research by Gao and his team suggests that gardening may also protect against cardiovascular disease and cognitive decline. This underscores the interconnectedness of our physical, mental, and emotional health and the profound impact that simple activities like gardening can have.



As scientists continue to delve into the multifaceted relationship between gardening and well-being, we can expect to see even more evidence supporting its therapeutic potential. It's a reminder that sometimes, the most effective remedies are not found in a bottle, but in the natural world around us.



Whether you're a seasoned gardener or a novice with a budding interest, consider adding this fulfilling activity to your routine. Not only will you reap the rewards of fresh produce and a beautiful landscape, but you might also cultivate a healthier mind, body, and, most importantly, a more restful night's sleep.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165032724005263" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Affective Disorders</a>.



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Gardening significantly improves sleep quality in adults

Sleep, that elusive yet essential state, continues to fascinate scientists and the general public alike. With research underscoring its crucial role in everything from heart health to cognitive function, the pursuit of quality sleep has never been more pressing. Enter an unlikely hero: gardening. The epidemic of sleep deprivation In our modern, hyper-connected world, the relentless pace of life and constant barrage of digital stimuli have created an environment where quality sleep is often sacrificed. Smartphones, tablets, and laptops beckon us with endless entertainment, social media updates,...

The Caribbean coral Acropora palmata will not vanish without a fight. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.rsmas.miami.edu/">University of Miami (UM) Rosenstiel School</a> of Marine and Atmospheric Science have analyzed the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-a-very-efficient-immune-defense-mechanism/">immune</a> system capabilities of elkhorn coral, or Acropora palmata, which has become increasingly rare in the Caribbean. The study revealed that these branching corals are actively defending themselves against conditions such as white band disease and rapid tissue loss.

Acropora palmata is considered to be one of the most important reef-building corals in the Caribbean. Over the last few decades, these corals have been vanishing from the region at an alarming rate, and disease is the main culprit. 

"The primary cause of this decline is disease, and this is particularly worrying for these species as climate change and anthropogenic stressors are now being implicated in increasing disease prevalence, frequency, and severity," wrote the researchers.

"Coral disease outbreaks are expected to increase in prevalence, frequency and severity due to climate change and other anthropogenic stressors."

"This is especially worrying for the Caribbean branching coral Acropora palmata which has already seen an 80% decrease in cover primarily due to disease. Despite the importance of this keystone species, there has yet to be a characterization of its transcriptomic response to disease exposure."

For the investigation, healthy corals were grafted to corals infected with disease. After a week, the researchers examined several aspects of the modified corals, including their overall genetic and immune response to disease. The team also analyzed whether there were different signatures of gene expression for corals that did not show signs of disease. 

The experts found that A. palmata has a core immune response to disease regardless of the specific type of infection. The findings suggest that this particular coral species launches an immune response to pathogenic exposure regardless of the disease type or virulence.

"Our results show that elkhorn coral is not immunocompromised but instead is actually actively trying to fight off disease," said study senior author Professor Nikki Traylor-Knowles. "This gives me hope that the corals are fighting back with their immune system."

Based upon the results, the researchers speculate that the corals which did not get infected may have tougher epithelia, a protective layer of cells covering external surfaces of their body. In addition, they believe that the symbiotic organisms that live inside corals did not initially have differences in gene expression in response to disease, but developed these differences over the course of the two-year study.

The branching coral Acropora palmata has  been classified as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. "These corals are keystone species for Florida reefs, so understanding that their immune systems are active is an important component that can be useful for protecting reefs," said Professor Traylor-Knowles.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Caribbean coral Acropora palmata will not vanish without a fight

The Caribbean coral Acropora palmata will not vanish without a...

Bioplastics are not any safer than traditional plastics, according to researchers at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>. Plastics are known to contain chemicals that are not safe for ingestion, including endocrine disruptors like Bisphenol A (BPA). The analysis of bioplastics and plant-based materials showed that about 75 percent contain toxic <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/it-pays-off-to-read-labels-and-avoid-products-with-harmful-chemicals/">chemicals</a>.

Bioplastics are mostly made from recycled material or plant cellulose, and are usually compostable or biodegradable. While these alternative plastics are safer for the environment, the new research suggests that they are not any safer for human health. 

The study revealed that bioplastics and their precursors contain hundreds to thousands of different chemicals.

"Plastics contain a complex mixture of known and unknown chemicals; some of which can be toxic," wrote the researchers. "Bioplastics and plant-based materials are marketed as a sustainable alternative to conventional plastics. However, little is known with regard to the chemicals they contain and the safety of these compounds."

The study was focused on 43 everyday bio-based products, including disposable cutlery, chocolate packaging paper, drink bottles, and wine corks. In the largest analysis of its kind, the researchers extracted and tested materials from the products to determine their chemical composition. 

"Eighty percent of the products contained more than 1,000 different chemicals. Some of them had as many as 20,000 chemicals," said Professor Martin Wagner.

The toxic substances identified in the bioplastics ranged from chemicals that are directly toxic to cells to those that can disrupt the body's hormone balance.

"Three out of four of these plastic products contain substances that we know are dangerous under laboratory conditions, the same as for conventional plastic," said Professor Wagner.

Study co-author Lisa Zimmermann pointed out that products based on cellulose and starch contained the most chemicals. They also triggered stronger toxic reactions under lab conditions.

According to the researchers, it is nearly impossible to keep track of all the potentially harmful effects of so many different materials. Even similar products were found to have a unique composition. For example, a plastic bag made of bio-polyethylene may contain completely different substances than a wine cork made of the same material.

"Making general statements about certain materials becomes almost impossible," said Professor Wagner. 

It is not yet clear to what extent the substances in plastic are transferable to humans, or what the health consequences of ingestion may be. With so many factors to consider, further research is needed to determine whether bioplastics are actually better alternatives to plastics.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environment-international">Environment International</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bioplastics are just as toxic as traditional plastics

Bioplastics are not any safer than traditional plastics, according to...

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-that-eat-human-foods-are-altering-their-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> of the Falkland Islands were transformed by seabirds thousands of years ago. Researchers at the <a href="https://umaine.edu/">University of Maine</a> explain that high concentrations of seabird poop, or guano, increased nutrient availability that nourished the land and soil.

Today, the Falkland Islands remain a sanctuary for many important seabirds, including five species of penguins. However, the coastal breeding grounds have come under increasing pressure from sheep grazing and erosion in recent years. In addition, there are no long-term observations available to understand how the ground nesting seabirds will respond to climate change.

By reconstructing the paleoecological history of the islands, the researchers determined that the birds initially colonized the region 5,000 years ago during a period of cooling climate conditions. The fact that seabirds were absent in the islands before this time suggests that they may be sensitive to warmer sea surface temperatures, which can impact their food supply, explained the study authors. As the South Atlantic warms today, it is possible that the Falkland Islands may not remain a hotspot for breeding seabirds. 

"Our work suggests that as the Southern Ocean continues to warm in the coming decades, the Falkland Islands seabird communities may undergo abrupt turnover or collapse, which could happen on the order of decades," wrote the researchers. They noted that the Falkland Islands are at the boundary of a number of potential climate drivers.

There are no native mammals or trees in the Falklands, and sheep were brought to the islands by settlers in the 17th century. The locals currently make a living from sheep farming, fishing, and tourism.

The 14,000-year record developed by the researchers showed that for 9,000 years before the arrival of seabirds, the East Falklands were dominated by low levels of grasses, a heathland of ferns, and dwarf Ericaceous shrubs. But then, around 5,000 years ago, the region was transformed by elements such as phosphorus, zinc, and grass pollen that were deposited by the seabirds. The analysis of the record indicates that within 200 years of seabird colonization, tussac grasslands became established.

Study lead author Dulcinea Groff conducted the research during expeditions in 2014 and 2016 that were led by Jacquelyn Gill, an associate professor of Paleoecology and Plant Ecology in the UMaine Climate Change Institute.

"Our work emphasizes just how important the nutrients in seabird poop are for the ongoing efforts to restore and conserve their grassland habitats. It also raises the question about where seabirds will go as the climate continues to warm," said Groff.

"Our 14,000-year record shows that seabirds established at Surf Bay during cooler climates. Seabird conservation efforts in the South Atlantic should be prepared for these species to move to new breeding grounds in a warmer world, and those locations may not be protected."

According to the researchers, it is clear that the addition of seabird populations bringing nutrients from the marine environment to the island drove changes in the terrestrial plant community structure, composition, and function, as well as in fire activity and nutrient cycling. What remains unclear is what drove the abrupt ecosystem shift, said Professor Gill.

"We know seabirds arrived at Surf Bay during a time when the climate was becoming cooler in the South Atlantic, though we still don't know for sure what it was they were tracking. We also don't know where these birds took refuge when climates were warmer, and that's concerning as the South Atlantic gets hotter into the future," explained Professor Gill.

"Our study is also a powerful reminder of why we need to understand how different ecosystems are connected as the world warms. We know that many seabirds in the South Atlantic rely on these unique coastal grasslands, but it turns out that the grasses also depend on the nutrients seabirds provide. Because they rely on ecosystems in the ocean and on land for their survival, seabirds are really good sentinels of global change."

"We just don't have good long-term monitoring data for most of these species, so we don't know enough about how sensitive they are to climate change. The fossil record can help us fill in the gaps."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a> 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nutrients in seabird poop transformed the Falkland Islands

The ecosystems of the Falkland Islands were transformed by seabirds...

In early 2020, south Florida experienced its coldest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-report-an-unprecedented-rise-in-ocean-temperatures/">temperature</a> in 10 years at just under 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis </a> seized the opportunity to investigate how tropical lizards are affected by extreme climates. 

When temperatures exceed a certain threshold, sleeping lizards can actually lose their grip and fall out of trees. The experts previously established that various types of lizards in Miami can tolerate low temperatures ranging from about 46 to 52 degrees Fahrenheit before they are shocked by cold.

The researchers examined lizards that had survived the record cold night in Miami, and were surprised to find that all of the species could tolerate cold temperatures down to about 42 degrees - regardless of their previous threshold.

"Prior to this, and for a different study, we had measured the lowest temperatures that six lizard species in south Florida could tolerate," said study co-author James Stroud. "We realized after the 2020 cold event that these data were now extremely valuable - we had the opportunity to re-measure the same lizard populations to observe if their physiological limits had changed; in other words, could these species now tolerate lower temperatures?"

To investigate further, the team collected as many different types of lizards as possible in the local region, including lizards that are nocturnal. Next, the experts set out to analyze how various specimens responded to cold.

"A major unexpected result of this study was that all species converged on the same new, lower level of thermal tolerance," said Stroud. "While there was great variation in temperature tolerance before the cold event - some, like the large-bodied brown basilisk, were very intolerant of low temperatures, while others like the Puerto Rican crested anole were more robust - we observed that all species could now tolerate, on average, the same lowest temperature."

Stroud said that given the differences in the body size, ecology, and physiology of the lizards, the results were unexpected. The researchers noted that only one of the species examined for the study was native to the area, while the rest have been introduced to Florida over the past century.

"The shifts to tolerate significantly lower temperatures that we observed were so large that we found it unclear whether natural selection was responsible," said Stroud. "And so in our paper we discuss other alternative processes which may also have led to this pattern."

The findings provide brand new evidence that tropical, cold-blooded creatures, which are typically not thought to be able to adapt to rapidly changing climates, can sometimes endure conditions that exceed their established limits. 

"The results of this study are surprising and unexpected. Who would have thought that tropical lizards from places like Puerto Rico and Central America could withstand temperatures near freezing?" said study co-author Professor Jonathan Losos.

"What we now need to find out is how this was accomplished. Is this evidence of natural selection, with those lizards that just happened to have a lower cold tolerance surviving and others freezing to death, or was it an example of physiological adjustment - termed 'acclimation'- in which exposure to lower temperatures changes a lizard's physiology so that it is capable of withstanding lower temperatures?"

Regardless, the study provides critically important insight for understanding the impacts of climate change.

"It is widely thought that tropical and subtropical species are going to be especially vulnerable to changes in temperature -- particularly extreme spikes of heat or cold -- as tropical areas do not typically have strong seasons," said Stroud. "Unlike temperate species, which are adapted to summer highs and winter lows, tropical species have typically evolved in very thermally stable environments.

"While there is no doubt that climate change represents a major threat to species and ecosystems around the world, and deserves as much research attention as possible, this study provides fascinating insight and a glimpse of hope. Perhaps tropical and subtropical species can withstand more extreme climatic conditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical lizards are surprisingly adaptable to climate extremes

In early 2020, south Florida experienced its coldest temperature in...

Climate instability drove early humans to become more adaptable. Early humans in the East African Rift Valley drastically changed their lifestyle to adjust to climate instability 320,000 years ago, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian</a>. The findings suggest that when faced with uncertainty, humans became more adaptable.

Study lead author Richard Potts is the director of the Human Origins Program at the National Museum of Natural History.

"The history of human evolution has been one of increasing adaptability," said Potts. "We come from a family tree that's diverse, but all of those other ways of being human are now extinct. There's only one of us left, and we may well be the most adaptable species that may have ever existed on the face of the Earth."

The research was focused on the analysis of a new sedimentary drill core, which produced a million-year record of the environmental history of the East African Rift Valley. The scientists discovered that humans had fairly predictable climate conditions and resources for hundreds of thousands of years. 

However, when unpredictable conditions emerged around 400,000 years ago, there was a major behavioral and cultural shift in human evolution. At this time, fluctuations in vegetation and water supply made resources less reliable. Early humans responded by replacing old tools with new technology and expanding their trade networks. 

The analysis of artifacts recovered at an archaeological site known as Olorgesailie showed that early humans in this region relied on the same tools - stone hand axes - for 700,000 years. The evidence suggests that life was remarkably stable during this time period.

Around 320,000 years ago, humans of the East African Rift Valley entered into the Middle Stone Age, when they began to design smaller and more sophisticated weapons, including projectiles. They also began to communicate and trade with distant groups. 

According to Potts, all these changes were a significant departure from their previous lifestyle, likely helping early humans cope with their newly variable landscape.

The team set out to understand the major evolutionary transition discovered at Olorgesailie by extracting and analyzing  a 139-meter sediment core, which has now produced the most precisely dated African environmental record of the past one million years. 

The study revealed that after hundreds of thousands of years of stability, the landscape in this region of Africa was fragmented by tectonic activity about 400,000 years ago. As a result, the vegetation in the region began shifting between grassy plains and wooded areas. Large grazing herbivores were gradually replaced by smaller mammals with more diverse diets.

"There was a massive change in the animal fauna during the time period when we see early human behavior changing," explained Potts. "The animals also influenced the landscape through the kinds of plants that they ate. Then with humans in the mix, and some of their innovations like projectile weapons, they also may have affected the fauna. It's a whole ecosystem changing, with humans as part of it."

Potts concluded that while adaptability is a hallmark of human evolution, that does not mean the species is necessarily equipped to endure the unprecedented change Earth is now experiencing due to man-made climate change and Anthropogenic biodiversity loss. 

"We have an astonishing capacity to adapt, biologically in our genes as well as culturally and socially. The question is, are we now creating through our own activities new sources of environmental disruption that will continue to challenge human adaptability?"

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate instability drove early humans to become more adaptable

Climate instability drove early humans to become more adaptable. Early...

The impacts of climate change are becoming more pronounced in the Gulf of Maine, which is warming faster than almost any other ocean region on the planet. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, researchers have found that five species of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-are-moving-away-from-safety-as-the-ocean-warms/">shellfish</a> have been on a steady decline for the last two decades across the rocky shores of the gulf.

As rising temperatures and ocean acidification change the composition of seawater, shellfish have a difficult time building and maintaining their shells, which makes them more vulnerable to predators.  

Peter Petraitis is a retired professor of Biology in Penn's School of Arts &amp; Sciences. In collaboration with Professor Steve Dudgeon of California State University, Petraitis analyzed 20 years of data collected on Swan Island in the Gulf of Maine. The results show dwindling numbers of five species of shellfish, including mussels, barnacles, and snails. 

"These species are often overlooked because of how common they are," said Petraitis. "They're just everywhere across the rocky shores. People don't think anything is going to happen to them. If they decline by about 3% a year that's a relatively small change so you might not notice it for a while. But one year, people are going to suddenly look around and say, 'Where are all the snails, mussels and barnacles?'"

Professor Dudgeon said these species form the core of an iconic food web in the Gulf of Maine. "Concurrent declines of five species, including both native and non-native, is proportionally large, and may cause profound changes in the ecology of coastal oceans in the region."

The researchers initiated a long term research project in 1997 to study the ecological principles of multiple stable states on Swan's Island. One particular focus of the study is also the subject of Petraitis'  2013 book, "Multiple Stable States in Natural Ecosystems," which proposed that an ecosystem can rapidly shift between entirely different compositions of organisms given the right environmental disturbances.

On Swan's Island, powerful winter storms periodically result in sea ice that removes the shellfish from the rocks they are attached to on the shore. This means the shellfish are forced to rebuild their communities the following year.

In 1996, the scientists simulated a massive ice scouring event by scraping the rocks, and observed as the shore recolonized. Since this experiment, the researchers have made an annual trip to 60 study sites on Swan's Island, surveying the organisms living in the scraped areas as well as in undisturbed areas.

Based on the data collected from 1997 to 2018, the current investigation was focused on five common shellfish species: the tortoiseshell limpet, the common periwinkle, the dogwhelk, the blue mussel, and the barnacle.

"We didn't expect to see much change in the control plots, but we were surprised to see these populations declining," said Petraitis.

The researchers found that very young mussels had experienced the most rapid decline, dropping by nearly 16 percent each year. The other four species were declining by 3 to 5 percent each year. 

Over two decades, limpets, periwinkles, and dogwhelks declined by 50 percent. 

The study revealed that the downward trajectory of mussels and common periwinkles corresponded with increasing summer ocean temperatures. Meanwhile, populations of limpets and dogwhelks correlated with increases in the aragonite saturation state, a measurement that tracks with ocean pH. 

The fluctuations in barnacle populations did not appear to be influenced by changes in ocean temperature or pH, which indicates that there are unknown factors causing their decline.

All five species play critical ecological roles in the Gulf of Maine. Petraitis explained that, as filter feeders, mussels and barnacles remove phytoplankton from the water column - "digesting them, pooping them out, and fertilizing the shore." Limpets and periwinkles feed on algae and seaweed, which helps to prevent harmful algal blooms. The shellfish also serve as prey for a variety of animals, and the consequences of their disappearance will be felt up the food chain. 

"Without animal consumption transferring organic matter up the food web," said Professor Dudgeon, "production in coastal oceans will be increasingly shunted directly through pathways of decomposition by microbial organisms, rather than to support populations of species that humans fish and on which coastal economies depend."

While presenting the findings at conferences in the last couple of years, Petraitis noted that other scientists have documented similar disappearances of mussels across other parts of the North Atlantic, which suggests that the impacts are far-reaching and not unique to the Gulf of Maine.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio">Communications Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shellfish are vanishing from the Gulf of Maine

The impacts of climate change are becoming more pronounced in...

A team of environmental scientists from the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE) set out to investigate the effects of non-native trees planted in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-impacts-of-bushfires-on-urban-microclimates/">urban</a> spaces. The study has revealed that the benefits of introducing trees can far outweigh the costs, regardless of their origin. 

In Geneva, 90 percent of tree species are non-native. The study shows that native and non-native trees make similar contributions to regional biodiversity and ecosystem services. 

Trees can drastically improve the quality of urban environments by reducing noise pollution, improving air quality, providing new habitats for various species, and mitigating the impact of heat islands. However, non-native trees can also create issues, such as threats to native biodiversity.

Study first author Dr. Martin Schlaepfer is a researcher in UNIGE's Institute of Environmental Sciences.

"There's an ongoing philosophical debate concerning this problem at the moment," said Dr. Schlaepfer. "Should we promote native trees and ban - or at least put limits on - introduced species? Of all the species introduced into urban areas, only 5% are potentially problematic, such as the Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) located in the old town of Geneva. But what should we do with the remaining 95% of non-native tree species, and how should we value them?"

In collaboration with the City of Geneva, the UNIGE team analyzed data on all tree species found in urban regions across the entire state of Geneva.

After four years of detailed work, the researchers had recorded 911 different species and found that 90 percent of the tree species in Geneva are non-native. For each species, the environmental benefits and drawbacks were examined. The introduced tree species were found to be mainly beneficial, with just a few exceptions.

"Three invasive species were identified, and they are indeed potentially problematic when located in semi-natural sites outside the city. But in urban settings there is a low risk of propagation, and we document how they contribute to our well-being," explained Dr. Schlaepfer. "Some non-native trees have been growing in the parks for several centuries, such as cedars and plane trees imported from North Africa and Asia in the 16th and 17th centuries for their aesthetic value, resistance to disease and perennial foliage. They are now part of our cultural heritage. 

"In addition, they have the ability to survive in an urban environment, meaning they can help attenuate urban heat-islands and reduce air-borne pollution. Caution must be employed when planting such non-native species, but they can have a clear beneficial role in certain contexts."

The study is the first of its kind to compare the ecosystem services of both native and non-native species. The findings demonstrate that non-native tree species provide enormous value.

"Introduced trees are generally listed in the databases of other countries as potential threats, but when it comes to measuring the state of a nation's biodiversity, they are generally dismissed or omitted," said Dr. Schlaepfer.

"The climate is undergoing profound change, with predictions for our latitudes indicating that within 50 to 100 years - i.e., the life-span of a large tree - the climate in Geneva will be like that in southern Italy. That means we must be open to the idea of introducing species today that are able to persist both now and under future climatic conditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/urban-forestry-and-urban-greening">Urban Forestry and Urban Greening</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Non-native trees have enormous value in urban areas

A team of environmental scientists from the University of Geneva...

In the late spring and summer, mature Chinook <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/why-are-alaskas-wild-salmon-getting-smaller/">salmon</a> return from the sea to the Columbia River and make their treacherous journey upstream to spawn. A new study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> has revealed that when the salmon venture back to the river too early in the season, there are hungry California sea lions waiting for them. 

In collaboration with experts at NOAA Fisheries, the researchers found that sea lions have the largest negative effect on Chinook salmon that arrive early in the lower Columbia River. The sea lions have discovered that by swimming as far as 145 miles upstream, they can feast on migrating salmon.

Study lead author Mark Sorel is a doctoral student at the UW School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences.

"We investigated whether mortality rates varied depending on the specific threatened Chinook salmon population, determined by when they arrive in the river," said Sorel. "We found that, based on their individual return timing and the abundance of sea lions in the river when they return, individual populations experience different levels of sea lion-associated mortality."

The researchers determined that the rate of mortality among the earliest arriving populations of Chinook salmon was 20 percent higher compared to previous years. In addition, the rate of mortality among later arriving populations increased by ten percent. 

The higher mortality rates were associated with increased sea lion abundance in the period of 2013 to 2015, compared to the period of 2010 to 2012.

At the mouth of the Columbia River, the largest abundance of California sea lions can be found in early spring, before they leave the region to head for their breeding grounds in southern California. 

The study also revealed that the earliest arriving salmon migrate through the lower part of the Columbia River more slowly than those arriving later in the season, which increases the threat of exposure to predators.

"This information on how different populations are affected by sea-lion associated mortality is key because recovery of endangered Chinook salmon requires multiple of the individual populations to be healthy," said Sorel.

The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 protected California sea lions from being killed, captured, or harassed. As a result, their numbers are quickly rebounding along the West Coast. The salmon populations that are hunted by the sea lions in the Columbia River are endangered, and experts warn that urgent action is needed. The hunting behaviors of sea lions are learned, which means the problem could continue to grow exponentially.

The National Marine Fisheries Service recently granted approval for Washington, Idaho, Oregon and several Pacific Northwest tribes to capture and euthanize problematic sea lions within a larger area of the lower Columbia and Willamette Rivers. This decision was made after non-lethal methods, such relocation, were not successful. 

"This is often a challenging management problem as both sea lions and salmon are of strong interest to the public, and both are protected under federal statutes," said Sorel. "Management must consider multiple social values and operate within existing legal frameworks."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea lions have mastered the timing to prey on Chinook salmon

In the late spring and summer, mature Chinook salmon return...

Mammals and birds became warm-blooded after surviving a mass extinction. Around 252 million years ago, a series of massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia triggered a mass <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-were-likely-driven-to-extinction-by-climate-change/">extinction</a> event that wiped out 95 percent of all life. According to a new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, the Permian extinction also changed the surviving animals forever. Professor Mike Benton has found evidence that the ancestors of both mammals and birds became warm-blooded 250 million years ago, just as Earth was recovering from the catastrophic event.

Ancestors of mammals and birds, as well as tetrapods like synapsids and archosaurs, were some of the only groups that survived the Permian extinction. Even then, the animals faced life-threatening conditions such as repeated global warming and ocean acidification disasters.

Paleontologists have previously noticed signs of warm-bloodedness in animals that descended from the Permian period into the Triassic era, including evidence of a diaphragm and possible whiskers in the synapsids.

Warm-blooded, or endothermic, animals have fur, feathers, or hair for insulation. The early origin of feathers in dinosaur and bird ancestors has been established, and it has been long suspected that mammals had hair at the beginning of the Triassic. The current study has produced a brand new theory that archosaurs had feathers from 250 million years ago.

In 2009, the Bristol scientists began to suspect that warm-bloodedness originated in both synapsids and archosaurs at exactly the time after the Permian extinction. They have now determined that birds and mammals transformed at this time as well. 

Looking at hundreds of fossilized paths, the researchers discovered that tetrapods, mammals, and birds all shifted from sprawling to erect posture during the Permian-Triassic boundary. The experts were surprised to see that this posture shift happened instantly, not over tens of millions of years, as had been suggested.

"Modern amphibians and reptiles are sprawlers, holding their limbs partly sideways," said Professor Benton. "Birds and mammals have erect postures, with the limbs immediately below their bodies. This allows them to run faster, and especially further."

"There are great advantages in erect posture and warm-bloodedness, but the cost is that endotherms have to eat much more than cold-blooded animals just to fuel their inner temperature control."

Warm-blooded animals can live all over the planet, even in cold areas, and they remain active at night. The adaptations gave birds and mammals a new advantage over amphibians and reptiles that allowed them to dominate in more parts of the world. 

"The Triassic was a remarkable time in the history of life on Earth. You see birds and mammals everywhere on land today, whereas amphibians and reptiles are often quite hidden," said Professor Benton.

"This revolution in ecosystems was triggered by the independent origins of endothermy in birds and mammals, but until recently we didn't realise that these two events might have been coordinated."

"That happened because only a tiny number of species survived the Permian-Triassic mass extinction - who survived depended on intense competition in a tough world. Because a few of the survivors were already endothermic in a primitive way, all the others had to become endothermic to survive in the new fast-paced world."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/gondwana-research">Gondwana Research</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mammals and birds became warm-blooded after surviving a mass extinction

Mammals and birds became warm-blooded after surviving a mass extinction....

In places where air pollution has a significant impact on mortality, COVID-19 lockdowns saved an incredible number of lives this year. A new study from the <a href="https://www.nd.edu/">University of Notre Dame</a> reveals that improvements in air quality prevented tens of thousands of premature <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bacteriophages-could-reduce-covid-19-deaths/">deaths</a> in China and Europe alone.

The experts report that during lockdowns, particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution dropped by about 30 percent in China, and by 17 percent in parts of Europe.

"We look on these lockdowns as the first global experiment of forced low-emission scenarios," said study co-author Professor Paola Crippa. "This unique, real-world experiment shows us that strong improvements in severely polluted areas are achievable even in the short term, if strong measures are implemented."

For their investigation, the researchers combined computer simulations with measurements of particulate matter concentrations in more than 2,500 sites in Europe and China between January of 2016 and June of 2020.

Pollution-related deaths were estimated under four different economic recovery scenarios: immediately resuming normal activity and emissions, gradually resuming with a three-month proportional increase of emissions, a second wave of COVID-19 between October and December, and a permanent lockdown for the remainder of 2020.

"The most surprising part of this work is related to the impact on human health of the air quality improvements," said Professor Crippa. "It was somewhat unexpected to see that the number of averted fatalities in the long term due to air quality improvements is similar to the COVID-19 related fatalities, at least in China where a small number of COVID-19 casualties were reported. These results underline the severity of air quality issues in some areas of the world and the need for immediate action."

From February to March, an estimated 24,200 premature deaths from PM2.5 exposure were prevented in China - compared to 3,309 reported COVID-19 fatalities.

While COVID-19 related deaths were far higher in Europe compared to what was reported in China, an estimated 2,190 pollution related deaths were still avoided during the lockdown period when compared to averages between 2016 and 2019. 

The premature deaths avoided during lockdowns jump to as many as 287,000 in China and 29,500 in Europe when considering the long-term effects, which will depend on the pathway of economic recovery.

Professor Crippa said the study serves as an example of the need for control policies to be developed to achieve effective air quality improvements. She said the findings also highlight the issue of risk perception between the current immediate crisis of the coronavirus pandemic versus the ongoing crisis of hazardous pollution.

"In China, we saw that lockdowns implied very significant reductions in PM2.5 concentrations, which means that policies targeting industrial and traffic emissions might be very effective in the future," said Professor Crippa. "In Europe those reductions were somewhat smaller but there was still a significant effect, suggesting that other factors might be considered to shape an effective mitigation strategy."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/home">Lancet Planetary Health</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Improved air quality during lockdowns saved tens of thousands of lives

In places where air pollution has a significant impact on...

An international team of scientists has discovered how volcanoes experience stress, and the experts report that stressed volcanoes are more likely to collapse and erupt. The research may ultimately lead to better prediction and <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/floodbot-uses-social-media-to-issue-flash-flood-warnings/">warning</a> systems to protect people from future volcanoes.

When it comes to these natural disasters, the worst case scenario is volcanic collapse, which can trigger destructive and devastating landslides, tsunamis, or pyroclastic flows. 

Study lead author Dr. Sam Thiele is a recent PhD graduate from the <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment. 

Dr. Thiele explained that volcanic collapses are very difficult to predict because we often do not know what is going on inside active volcanoes, or what forces may drive stress and instability. "Research on volcano growth helps us to understand these internal processes and the associated forces that could trigger a deadly collapse or eruption."

For the investigation, the researchers used drones to create a cm-resolution map of the internal structure of a previously active volcano in the Canary Islands that is now dormant. 

The team measured the width of hundreds of thousands of cracks where magma poured through during past eruptions. The measurements helped the experts estimate the forces acting within the volcano. They found that these forces slowly build up over time, and the volcano gradually becomes more and more stressed and potentially unstable.

The width of cracks where the magma had flowed provided clues about the driving forces of volcanic collapse, which will help with future predictions. The geological forces identified and mapped by the researchers involved molten intrusions called dykes. These intrusions solidify to form a framework inside a comparatively weak structure that is mainly composed of layers of lava and ash.

"This is one of the first studies to look at the long-term effects of magma movement within a volcano," said study co-author Professor Sandy Cruden."We found that volcanoes gradually become 'stressed' by repeated movement of this magma, potentially destabilising the whole volcano, influencing future collapses and eruptions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Volcanoes erupt and collapse when they are stressed out

An international team of scientists has discovered how volcanoes experience...

Changes in ocean circulation linked to drastic rise in CO2 levels. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have used the fossilized remains of ancient deep-sea <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-great-barrier-reef-has-lost-half-its-corals-in-two-decades/">corals</a> to get a glimpse into the past relationship between changing ocean conditions and CO2 levels. The experts found evidence to suggest that the mysterious rise in CO2 that ended the last ice age was linked to abrupt changes in ocean circulation around Antarctica.

"The corals act as a time machine, allowing us to see changes in ocean circulation that happened thousands of years ago," explained study co-author Dr. James Rae. "They show that the ocean around Antarctica can suddenly switch its circulation to deliver burps of CO2 to the atmosphere."

For the investigation, the team collected fossilized corals that once lived thousands of meters beneath the ocean's surface. The researchers analyzed the radioactive decay of tiny amounts of uranium found in the skeletons, which allowed them to identify corals that grew at the end of the ice age around 15,000 years ago.

By further analyzing the chemical and isotopic patterns on the fossils, the team was able to reconstruct changes in ocean circulation and compare them to changes in global climate.

"The data show that deep ocean circulation can change surprisingly rapidly, and that this can rapidly release CO2 to the atmosphere," said study co-author Professor Laura Robinson.

The findings provide new evidence to support the theory that the Southern Ocean played an important role in ending the last ice age.

"There is no doubt that Southern Ocean processes must have played a critical role in these rapid climate shifts and the fossil corals provide the only possible way to examine Southern Ocean processes on these timescales," said study lead author Dr. Tao Li. 

In a separate study published in Nature Geoscience this week, the same team of researchers ruled out the possibility that a global increase in CO2 at the end of the ice age was linked to the release of geological carbon from deep sea sediments.

"There have been some suggestions that reservoirs of carbon deep in marine mud might bubble up and add CO2 to the ocean and the atmosphere, but we found no evidence of this in our coral samples," said study co-author Andrea Burke.

Dr. James Rae noted that even though the rise in CO2 at the end of the ice age was dramatic in geological terms, the ongoing rise in CO2 related to human activity is much bigger and happening much faster. "What the climate system will do in response is pretty scary."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Changes in ocean circulation linked to drastic rise in CO2 levels

Changes in ocean circulation linked to drastic rise in CO2...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

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