Marine,Biodiversity,Above,Healthy,Coral,Reef,In,The,Coral,Triangle

When thinking about fossils, we often picture dinosaurs. But reefs can also hold an ancient history. Tiny fish bones and shark scales also become fossils in these habitats, quietly preserving the story of ancient oceans.



A striking study from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (<a href="https://stri.si.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">STRI</a>) has now revealed how humans disrupted Caribbean reefs in the past.



Scientists analyzed fossilized coral reefs from Panama’s Bocas del Toro and the Dominican Republic. These reefs, exposed and well-preserved, date back 7,000 years. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-changed-reef-fish-communities">Humans changed reef fish communities </h2>



The researchers compared the fossilized reefs with nearby living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-hidden-hotspot-where-soft-corals-are-thriving/">reefs</a> to reveal how overfishing changed fish communities.



In the ancient reef sediments, the team found thousands of fossilized otoliths (fish ear bones) and dermal denticles (shark scales).



These fossils gave clues to species composition and size. The results show a massive shift in predator-prey dynamics, unlike anything seen before.



One of the most alarming findings was a 75% drop in shark numbers. These top predators once played a key role in maintaining reef balance. As their numbers fell, populations of prey fish surged. They doubled in abundance and increased 17% in size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-predator-release-effect">The predator release effect</h2>



The study offers hard evidence for the “predator release effect.” Scientists had long predicted this outcome, but they lacked solid prehistoric data to prove it. 



Now, the fossils confirm what models once assumed: removing predators lets prey populations explode.



Meanwhile, fish targeted by humans, like larger groupers and snappers, became 22% smaller. This shrinking trend matches what we observe today. 



Overfishing seems to have pushed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">species</a> toward early maturity and smaller size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-fish-stay-the-same">Some fish stay the same</h2>



Remains from tiny cryptobenthic reef fishes, which live in coral crevices, told a different story. Their size and abundance remained unchanged over thousands of years.



Despite fishing and upheaval above them, these reef dwellers stayed stable. Their resilience surprised the researchers.



“The stability of these fish shows remarkable resistance to external pressures,” noted the researchers. Even as top predators vanished and fishing intensified, these hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">species</a> kept going, unchanged.



To measure these shifts, the scientists examined 807 shark denticles and 5,724 otoliths. They also studied coral branches for bite marks left by damselfish. 



Fossil and modern samples showed that damselfish now bite more often - likely because they face fewer predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-bones-reveal-big-reef-changes">Fish bones reveal big reef changes</h2>



Otoliths grow in layers like tree rings. This allows scientists to estimate the age and size of fish at time of death. By comparing fossil otoliths with modern ones, researchers could track size changes across millennia.



Dermal denticles, the scale-like structures on shark skin, helped identify shark presence. These tiny features tell a big story: as shark numbers decreased, populations of prey species expanded.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/coral-reefs_fish-otoliths_credit-Erin-Dillon_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/coral-reefs_fish-otoliths_credit-Erin-Dillon_1s.webp" alt="Fish otoliths — the calcium carbonate structures found in fishes' inner ears — from human harvested fish, prey fish (those eaten by predatory fish) and reef-sheltered fish (also known as cryptobentic fish) found in 7000 year-old fossilized Caribbean reefs from Panama and the Dominican Republic. Credit: Erin Dillon" class="wp-image-1976075"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fish otoliths - the calcium carbonate structures found in fishes' inner ears - from human harvested fish, prey fish (those eaten by predatory fish) and reef-sheltered fish (also known as cryptobentic fish) found in 7000 year-old fossilized Caribbean reefs from Panama and the Dominican Republic. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Erin Dillon</figcaption></figure>



Bite marks from damselfish also gave insights. These aggressive little fish defend territories and leave distinct marks. More bites today means more damselfish - again pointing to the effects of predator loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-reef-fish-history-with-fossils">Tracing reef fish history with fossils</h2>



This fossil evidence gives scientists a rare and valuable baseline. It shows how Caribbean reef fish communities looked before human fishing began to alter their structure. 



Without such deep-time context, conservation efforts often rely on incomplete or recent data that miss the full picture of ecological change.



Now, researchers and reef managers can clearly see which parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">reef</a> ecosystem shifted due to human influence - and which components, like tiny reef-sheltered fish, remained stable across millennia.



“This study demonstrates the power of the fossil record for future conservation,” the researchers stated. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impacts-of-human-activity">Long-term impacts of human activity</h2>



These 7,000-year-old fossils give us a clearer view of the long-term impacts of human activity on reef food webs, fish sizes, and predator-prey dynamics.



They also help identify which reef species and relationships are most at risk from continued pressure. 



By looking back in time through the fossil record, scientists gain crucial insight to guide better decisions in reef conservation, fishing policies, and biodiversity management today.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/-m5uNoWKIgo
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Discovering and studying prehistoric coral reefs on dry land.</figcaption></figure>



The research was a collaboration among top institutions including the&nbsp;Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), the&nbsp;Marine Science Institute at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas, Austin</a>, and the&nbsp;Center for Biodiversity Outcomes at <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503986122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Fossils reveal how humans completely changed Caribbean reef ecosystems

When thinking about fossils, we often picture dinosaurs. But reefs can also hold an ancient history. Tiny fish bones and shark scales also become fossils in these habitats, quietly preserving the story of ancient oceans. A striking study from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) has now revealed how humans disrupted Caribbean reefs in the past. Scientists analyzed fossilized coral reefs from Panama’s Bocas del Toro and the Dominican Republic. These reefs, exposed and well-preserved, date back 7,000 years. Humans changed reef fish communities The researchers compared...

Oceans have cooling events, the inverse of heat waves. These can be damaging and cause mass die offs, but they can also sometimes be beneficial. A new study published by the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a> shows that these cold spells are 25% less common and 15% less intense than they were in the 1980s. The research is one of the first of its kind to focus on marine cold spells and how climate change is impacting them.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Recently, studies have focused on heat waves and warm ocean temperature events, less so the cold events,” said study lead author Yuxin Wang, an ocean and climate scientist at the University of Tasmania.



The researchers undertook this study to look closely at what the ocean was like before anthropogenic climate change and how cold spells in the oceans are changing over time.&nbsp;



“Extreme events, either warm or cold, can bring an ecosystem to the edge,” said Sofia Darmaraki, an oceanographer at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens who was not involved in the study. “Establishing the oceans’ baseline climatology and sensitivity of heat waves and cold spells to temperature changes, like they did in this study, is a burning question for the community.”&nbsp;



The scientists analyzed climate data on the oceans from 1982 to 2020 and confirmed that the oceans are warming. The surface water of the ocean is also becoming more variable over time, changing the patterns of hot and cold spells and making them more complicated to predict. Understanding these patterns could be vitally important because cold spells can offset the sometimes negative impact of heat waves.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Extreme events affect coastal communities and economies, but members of the public might not be aware of how they’re going to intensify in the future. We need to get the word out,” said Darmaraki.&nbsp;



"Information about the underlying physical causes of these extreme events can help improve forecasting, which can lead to the development of early warning systems. That information can be provided to fisheries and other stakeholders, and they can collaborate on the best adaptations, the best path forward.”&nbsp;



The better communities know what to expect, the better they can prepare.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

In warmer seas, cold spells are vanishing

Oceans have cooling events, the inverse of heat waves. These...

A new study published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X22000212">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-rally-against-the-worlds-first-octopus-farm/">octopuses</a> have been increasingly forced to shelter among discarded garbage - including bottles, beer cans, batteries, or rusted metal pipes - as trash replaces seashells on the ocean floors.&nbsp;



The researchers, led by the <a href="https://www.furg.br/en/">Federal University of Rio Grande</a> in Brazil, have analyzed hundreds of underwater photos posted on social media platforms and image databases or collected by marine biologists and underwater divers. They found 24 species of octopus sheltering inside glass bottles, cans, or batteries, or even carrying plastic items while “stilt-walking” on two tentacles in order to conceal themselves from predators. Moreover, they also used such discarded trash as sanctuaries for their eggs.



“The deep-sea records were extremely interesting, because even at great depths these animals are interacting with the litter,” said study senior author Maira Proietti, a professor of Marine Biology and Oceanography at the Federal University of Rio Grande. “They clearly see that there’s a lot of litter around, and it can therefore act as a kind of artificial camouflage. It shows their extreme ability to adapt. They are very intelligent animals, and they will use what they have at their disposal to continue sheltering or walking around with protection.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The animals appeared to show a preference for unbroken items and darker or opaque containers that could shelter them from the myriad predators continuously endangering their lives. Professor Proietti warns that, while these interactions may seem positive for the animals since they are lacking natural shelters such as seashells (which have largely been removed by humans for ornamental purposes, driven by tourism), “it is not a good thing to think that the animals may be using litter as shelter because the seashells are gone.”



Moreover, sheltering or laying eggs inside discarded tyres, batteries, or various plastic objects could easily expose the animals to a large variety of harmful compounds, such as heavy metals or the toxic additives usually added to plastic. 



“It is possible that the negative impacts of litter on octopuses is underestimated due to the lack of available data, and we therefore emphasize that the problem must be more thoroughly assessed,” the study authors concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Octopuses are sheltering in discarded human trash

A new study published in the Marine Pollution Bulletin has...

Massive,California,Wilde,Fire,Forcing,Thousands,Of,People,To,Evacuate

In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.oneearth.org/">One Earth</a>, experts have identified a positive feedback loop in the northern hemisphere in which brown carbon released by burning biomass is accelerating warming in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/summers-in-the-arctic-could-be-ice-free-by-mid-century/">Arctic</a>. The researchers warn that this could lead to even more wildfires in the future.&nbsp;



The year of 2021 saw land across the world destroyed from a record breaking wildfire season. Last month, a UN report warned that wildfires are on track to increase by 50 percent over the next couple of decades. Wildfires can be devastating, destroying homes, displacing families, and killing plant and animal life



During wildfires, vast plumes of smoke containing brown carbon particles are suspended in the air. Beyond the human health impacts of brown smoke, experts have long suspected that it contributes to global warming.&nbsp;



In 2017, scientists boarded a Chinese icebreaker vessel Xue Long in the Arctic Ocean to examine the aerosols that could be polluting the pristine Arctic air. The researchers considered how brown carbon released by wildfires affects the climate. This was compared to denser black carbon from fossil fuels, the second most powerful warming agent after carbon dioxide. The study revealed that brown carbon contributes more to global warming than previously estimated.&nbsp;



“To our surprise, observational analyses and numerical simulations show that the warming effect of brown carbon aerosols over the Arctic is up to about 30 percent of that of black carbon,” said study senior author Pingqing Fu, an atmospheric chemist at Tianjin University.



Over the last 50 years, the Arctic has been warming three times faster than the rest of the planet. The study found that brown carbon from burning biomass was responsible for twice as much warming as carbon from fossil fuels, identifying that wildfires are driving this discrepancy.&nbsp;



Brown carbon warms the planet by absorbing solar radiation and warming temperatures result in a rise of wildfires. This leads to a positive feedback loop.&nbsp;



“The increase in brown carbon aerosols will lead to global or regional warming, which increases the probability and frequency of wildfires,” said Fu. “Increased wildfire events will emit more brown carbon aerosols, further heating the earth, thus making wildfires more frequent.”



In the future, the researchers plan to dive deeper and investigate the effects of other sources of carbon released by wildfires. Specifically, the research team plans to analyze bioaerosols, which originate from plants and animals and can contain living organisms, including pathogens.&nbsp;



The researchers are hopeful that decision makers remain focused on mitigating wildfires. “Our findings highlight just how important it is to control wildfires,” said Fu. The study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brown carbon released from wildfires is warming the Arctic

In a new study published in the journal One Earth,...

Brazil is the world’s leading exporter of beef, making the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-cattle-have-been-cleared-in-the-u-s/">cattle</a> industry a major part of the country’s economy and an important means of livelihood for many rural communities. However, livestock supply chains are responsible for 14.5 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions and account for over one third of emissions in Latin America, totaling hundreds of millions of tons of CO2 emitted each year.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> and the <a href="https://www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/the-regions/brazil/">Climate Policy Initiative</a> has found that providing customized training to Brazilian ranchers could both improve their livelihoods and mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions.&nbsp;



Through a randomized control trial, the scientists examined whether agricultural extension services could help restore cattle pastures in Brazil (unlike the cattle industry in the U.S., which is dominated by feedlots, almost 90 percent of Brazilian beef is pasture- or grass-raised). They discovered that customized assistance – in addition to educational training – successfully supported ranchers in sustainably increasing their cattle production.



The researchers recruited 1,369 producers from Cerrado in central Brazil, many of whom had never received previous training in sustainable practices. Over 700 of them attended a 56-hour course in practices such as restoration of pastures, rotational grazing, or the use of no-till agriculture, with 311 also receiving technical assistance, consisting of 24 visits (one visit per month for two years) from field technicians who gave them customized advice.



According to the experts, while training alone did not improve any of the measured outcomes, ranchers who also received technical assistance showed statistically significant increases in all of the outcomes.&nbsp;



“The before and after was amazing,” said study co-author Barbara Farinelli, a senior agricultural economist at <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/home">The World Bank</a>. “You could see with your eyes the pasture with applied- and non-applied technologies. What’s behind this success is that farmers become the transformational agents for climate goals.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We found that training plus technical assistance had significant impacts on the rate at which farmers restored pasture, on profits, and on carbon sequestration and emissions,” added study co-author Peter Newton, an associate professor of Environmental Studies at the University of Colorado Boulder.



The cost-benefit analysis of this program was impressive: incorporating the cost of carbon, the program generated a climate benefit of $47.6 million per year, making it cost effective even if the benefits only lasted for one year.



“There’s broad agreement among global food system scientists that we collectively need to dramatically reduce our consumption of beef. But it seems extremely unlikely that beef consumption is going to end in any near-term future. So, it’s also important to be grazing cattle in ways that have a lower environmental impact. If there are ways of producing meat and animal products in ways that reduce their climate impact, then that's also a part of the picture, in addition to reducing consumption,” concluded Professor Newton.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2114913119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brazilian cattle ranchers can help curb climate change

Brazil is the world’s leading exporter of beef, making the...

California redwoods are famous worldwide for their impressive size and age. The species is the sole living representative of the genus Sequoia, and includes the tallest and oldest living things on Earth. Because of these attributes, redwoods have been thoroughly studied and are considered one of the best understood organisms on the planet. 



However, scientists from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> have recently discovered something brand new about these trees – they have two different types of leaves on their branches, and those leaves have completely different functions.



Redwoods occur naturally in coastal areas that can experience both wet conditions and droughts. The rainfall can be high and coastal fog also coats the trees with moisture much of the time. But dry conditions can prevail in certain seasons, or certain areas of the species’ range, and the plants are able to cope with both types of environmental conditions.



They do this partly through the specializations of their leaves, according to the study by the UC scientists. The peripheral leaves have longer leaflets that are covered with a waxy, water-repellent cuticle. These leaves are on the outer edges of the branches and receive most sunlight. They function as organs of photosynthesis, manufacturing sugars for the tree from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight energy.&nbsp;



In contrast, the axial leaves have very short leaflets that lie flush with the central stem and their function is to absorb water through the leaf blades. Plants usually absorb their water through their roots, so the fact that redwood axial leaves have this ability is already remarkable. In fact, the study found that a large redwood can absorb up to 14 gallons of water in just the first hour after its leaves become wet.



The problem is that leaves need to absorb carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere in order to photosynthesize. They do this through tiny pores, called stomata, which are found on the leaf surface. In wet conditions, the pores clog up with water and photosynthesis becomes inhibited. In contrast, a leaf with a waxy coating may be able to photosynthesize in wet conditions better but will be unable to absorb water in significant quantities.&nbsp;



For redwoods, the different leaf types allow the trees to get wet and still be able to photosynthesize. The peripheral leaves forgo the ability to absorb water but are better adapted for photosynthesis in moist conditions, while the axial leaves don’t contribute to photosynthesis but are able to supply the tree with essential water.&nbsp;



“I’d be surprised if there weren’t a lot of conifers doing this,” said study lead author Alana Chin. “Having leaves that aren’t for photosynthesis is in itself surprising. If you’re a tree, you don’t want to have a leaf that’s not photosynthesizing unless there’s a very good reason for it.”



In order to work out how water uptake by redwood leaves is balanced with the tree’s need to photosynthesize, the researchers collected shoot clusters from six redwood trees at five forest locations between wet Del Norte County and the dry Santa Cruz Mountains. They exposed these shoots to experimental fog conditions and measured how much water they were able to absorb.&nbsp;



The experts also estimated the water absorption potential for seven additional whole trees – including the tallest living tree – by taking samples of their leaf shoots at varying heights and scaling up the numbers of leaves, branch by branch, until they could represent the entire tree canopy. This enabled the team to make the first whole-crown estimates of the capacity of redwood leaves to take up water, using some of the largest trees known. Using this method, they could quantify the contribution of leaf uptake to the water balance of the tree as a whole.&nbsp;



The researchers then compared the anatomy and measured the rates of photosynthesis in the peripheral and axial leaves to understand their functions more completely.&nbsp;



Apart from finding that the two different leaf types have different, complementary functions, the study also found that leaves can be located in different regions of the tree, depending on whether the environment is wet or dry. In the wet, rainy north coast, the water-absorbing leaf type is found on the tree’s lower branches, leaving the upper, sunnier levels to the photosynthesizing leaf type. However, redwoods in the southern, drier regions have their water-collecting axial leaves mainly on the higher branches, to take advantage of the less frequent fog and rain.&nbsp;



“The cool thing here is their ability to thrive under all these circumstances and adjust themselves to these different environments,” said Chin, who grew up near the redwoods in Mendocino County. “That things like this can be happening right under our nose in one of the best-studied species out there – none of us assumed this would be the story.”



Of all the study’s remarkable and novel findings, Chin is most excited to have found an easy and effective way to indicate redwood trees’ ability to access fog. Researchers can monitor how and if redwoods are adapting to changing climate conditions and a future, drier world by simply looking at the visible waxes covering the two types of leaves – something that could be captured on a cell phone camera and shared by other scientists or even members of the public.



The study was published recently in the <a href="https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15372197">American Journal of Botany</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New discovery in Redwoods highlights the species’ mystery

California redwoods are famous worldwide for their impressive size and...

Pollen is a well-known airborne allergen that can cause allergic reactions varying from mild itchiness and sneezing right up to serious problems with breathing and anaphylaxis. It is estimated that as many as 60 million people in the USA suffer from seasonal allergies each year. And now, a study from scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> has suggested that the length and intensity of allergy season will increase dramatically as Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-of-the-past-provide-new-clues-about-climate-change/">climate</a> warms.



“Pollen-induced respiratory allergies are getting worse with climate change,” said study first author Yingxiao Zhang. “Our findings can be a starting point for further investigations into the consequence of climate change on pollen and corresponding health effects.”



The scientists considered pollen from 15 different plant species that occur throughout the U.S. and modeled the potential responses of these plants to various climate change scenarios. They investigated the potential impact of increases in temperature and changes in precipitation on the different grasses, weeds and trees.&nbsp;



The production of pollen by many plant species will be affected by a warming climate, which will enable them to start producing pollen earlier than normal and continue for longer. Hotter temperatures can also increase the amount of pollen produced, and even its allergenicity (capacity to cause an allergic reaction).



Initially, the researchers tested their predictive model using historical climate data and known pollen levels for the period 1995 through 2014. They then used their model to predict pollen emissions for the last two decades of the 21st century, under different potential warming conditions.



Their results predict that, by the end of this century, pollen emissions could begin 40 days earlier in the spring than was the case between 1995 and 2014. In addition, misery for allergy sufferers could last longer – an additional 19 days – before high pollen counts subside. This would be the case under the most extreme climate change scenario, but even under the best-case scenario, where global average temperatures rise by only 2.7oF (1.5oC), pollen season will still start 20 days earlier.



In addition, thanks to rising temperatures the emission of pollen could increase by 40 percent. If the model considers the effects of increasing CO2 levels as well, the annual amount of pollen emitted each year could increase by as much as 200 percent.



The experts from Michigan University say that pollen season in the U.S. has already moved earlier in the year over the past three decades.&nbsp;They found that between 1990 and 2018, the start of the pollen season shifted from around Valentine's Day (14 February), to St Patrick's Day (17 March) each year.



Pollen-induced respiratory allergy affects up to 30 percent of the world population, particularly children, and causes large economic losses in terms of medical expenses, missed work and school days, and early deaths.. In the U.S., pollen allergy is particularly difficult for the 25 million Americans with asthma, as it makes symptoms worse.



<a href="https://steiner.engin.umich.edu/research-group/">Allison Steiner</a>, UM professor of climate and space sciences and engineering, said that while allergy suffering will increase across the U.S., the Southeast will get hit hardest. She said the pollen emissions modeling developed by her team could eventually allow for allergy season predictions targeted to different geographical regions.&nbsp;



“We're hoping to include our pollen emissions model within a national air quality forecasting system to provide improved and climate-sensitive forecasts to the public,” said Professor Steiner..



According to the researchers, this study provides an important predictive tool to start investigating the consequences of climate change on future plant communities and their corresponding health effects.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Allergy season will become increasingly  brutal as climate warms

Pollen is a well-known airborne allergen that can cause allergic...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> recently looked at volcanic eruptions on Earth for the last 60,000 years. To estimate the number and intensity of these eruptions, the scientists looked at ice cores drilled in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-are-arriving-with-ships-in-antarctica/">Antarctica</a> and Greenland. Gases trapped in the ice cores revealed the surprising history of volcanoes.&nbsp;



"We haven't experienced any of history's largest volcanic eruptions. We can see that now. Eyjafjellajökull, which paralyzed European air traffic in 2010, pales in comparison to the eruptions we identified further back in time. Many of these were larger than any eruption over the last 2,500 years," said Anders Svensson of Niels Bohr Institute.



In the span of time examined, the scientists found 85 large global eruptions, 69 of which were more explosive than the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history - Mt. Tambora in Indonesia in 1815. Mt. Tambora caused significant cooling in its wake, along with famine, drought, tsunamis, and the deaths of 80,000 people.&nbsp;



"The new 60,000-year timeline of volcanic eruptions supplies us with better statistics than ever before," said Svensson.



"Now we can see that many more of these great eruptions occurred during the prehistoric Ice Age than in modern times. Because large eruptions are relatively rare, a long timeline is needed to know when they occur. That is what we now have."



Although the history of volcanic eruptions gives us valuable information, the data needed to predict the next major volcanic eruption isn’t forthcoming.&nbsp;



"Three eruptions of the largest known category occurred during the entire period we studied, so-called VEI-8 eruptions (see fact box). So, we can expect more at some point, but we just don't know if that will be in a hundred or a few thousand years. Tambora sized eruptions appears to erupt once or twice every thousand years, so the wait for that may be shorter."



The data does provide some insight into how the climate changed after each eruption, such as how much material in the atmosphere drove what amount of cooling.&nbsp;



"Ice cores contain information about temperatures before and after the eruptions, which allows us to calculate the effect on climate. As large eruptions tell us a lot about how sensitive our planet is to changes in the climate system, they can be useful for climate predictions," explained Svensson.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.climate-of-the-past.net/">Climate of the Past</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Volcanic eruptions of the past provide new clues about climate change

A team of researchers led by the University of Copenhagen...

The increased use of air conditioning technologies is both a cause and an effect of climate change. Greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-reached-unprecedented-highs-in-2021/">emissions</a> from air conditioners are expected to rise as economic growth drives efforts to control both temperature and humidity. While the energy used to power air conditioners has been extensively studied already, the impact from removing air moisture has not yet received proper scientific attention. According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.nrel.gov/">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> (NREL) and <a href="https://www.parc.com/">Xerox PARC</a>, controlling humidity is in fact responsible for roughly half of the energy-related emissions.



“It’s a challenging problem that people haven’t solved since air conditioners became commonplace more than a half-century ago,” said study co-author Jason Woods, a senior research engineer at NREL. “It's a good and a bad thing. It's good that more people can benefit from improved comfort, but it also means a lot more energy is used, and carbon emissions are increased.”



According to Woods and his colleagues, air conditioning is responsible for the equivalent of 1,950 million tons of carbon dioxide released annually, or 3.94 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. Of this figure, 531 million tons arise from energy expended to control the temperature, 599 million tons from removing humidity, and the rest from the leakage of global-warming-causing refrigerants and emissions during the manufacturing and transport of the air conditioning equipment.



The researchers argue that the development of new technologies is necessary in order to limit these emissions. “We’ve already made the existing, century-old technology nearly as efficient as possible,” Woods said. “To get a transformational change in efficiency, we need to look at different approaches without the limitations of the existing one.”



Existing vapor compression technology uses harmful refrigerants to cool the air down long enough to take out its moisture, often over-cooling the air and wasting energy. Improving this technology seems to have reached its theoretical and practical limits, showing the need to develop radically new ways to cool and dehumidify buildings.&nbsp;



According to the scientists, new technology that split the cooling and humidity control problem into two processes may have the potential to improve efficiency by 40 percent or more. Using liquid desiccant-based cooling cycles such as the many liquid desiccant air conditioning technologies that NREL is currently developing could fundamentally change the way humidity is controlled and could reduce cooling-energy emissions by 42 percent in 2050 – the equivalent of avoiding the emissions of 2,460 tons of carbon dioxide annually.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(22)00094-0">Joule</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air conditioning is both a cause and effect of climate change

The increased use of air conditioning technologies is both a...

A new study led by the <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/">University of Waterloo</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-taking-a-toll-on-the-wine-industry/">wildfire</a> smoke can damage the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-years-ozone-hole-is-larger-than-antarctica/">ozone</a> shield – a part of the stratosphere that has a crucial role in absorbing ultraviolet rays from the sun. These results suggest that if major fires become more frequent with a changing climate, more damaging ultraviolet radiation from the sun will reach the ground, endangering numerous ecosystems.



The researchers used data from the Canadian Space Agency’s <a href="http://www.ace.uwaterloo.ca/">Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment</a> (ACE) satellite&nbsp;to measure the effects of smoke from the Australian wildfires of 2019 and 2020.&nbsp;



“The ACE satellite is a unique mission with over 18 continuous years of data on atmospheric composition. ACE measures a large collection of molecules to give a better, more complete picture of what is happening in our atmosphere,” said study lead author Peter Bernath, a professor of Atmospheric Chemistry at the University of Waterloo.&nbsp;



“Models can’t reproduce atmospheric smoke chemistry yet, so our measurements provide a unique look at chemistry not seen before.”



Professor Bernath and his colleagues found that the smoke resulting from Australia’s wildfires destroyed atmospheric ozone in the Southern Hemisphere for months. Similar to the holes in the ozone layer over the polar regions, this damage was fortunately temporary, and the ozone levels returned to pre-wildfire levels after the smoke disappeared from the stratosphere. However, an increase in the frequency of wildfires would mean that such events will occur more often.



“The Australian fires injected acidic smoke particles into the stratosphere, disrupting the chlorine, hydrogen, and nitrogen chemistry that regulate ozone,” said Professor Bernath. “This is the first large measurement of the smoke, which shows it converting these ozone-regulating compounds into more reactive compounds that destroy ozone.”&nbsp;



Urgent climate mitigation actions are needed to reduce the frequency and severity of wildfires, and thus to protect our planet and its various ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abm5611">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfire smoke damages the ozone layer

A new study led by the University of Waterloo has...

Urban areas are home to a large proportion of the world’s population and represent places where environments and ecosystems are altered to suit the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-decide-which-plants-win-or-lose-and-most-are-losing/">humans</a>. Urban environmental change can influence evolutionary processes, such as the ways in which plants and animals adapt to local conditions and selection pressures. Most of the known examples of animal or plant adaptation to urban environments involve a single city, or a few cities in the same region, making it unclear whether species can adapt to urban habitats in similar ways across cities throughout the world.&nbsp;



This would be an example of parallel evolution, where populations evolve in similar ways in response to similar environmental selective pressures in cities all over the world. Urbanization can lead to similar environmental changes across cities, but whether this convergence causes parallel evolution has never been examined at a global scale.



In a study published today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, 287 scientists from around the world collaborated to test whether a common species of plant, the white clover (Trifolium repens), has undergone similar evolutionary changes in 160 different cities in 26 countries. The Global Urban Evolution Project (GLUE) was led by evolutionary biologists at the University of Toronto, Mississauga, and their report gives the clearest evidence yet that humans can be a dominant force driving evolution.&nbsp;



White clover is a cosmopolitan species that is found in cities and in rural areas all over the world. In addition, it produces hydrogen cyanide (HCN) as a means to deter herbivores that feed on its leaves, and to cope better with water stress. The collaborating scientists tested the levels of HCN produced by white clover plants in cities and in the nearby rural areas, with the premise that herbivory would be less of a selection pressure in cities.&nbsp;



The research found that clover growing in cities was, in fact, less likely to produce HCN than clover growing in nearby rural fields. The probability that a plant produced HCN increased by 44 percent on average from the center of an urban area to the furthest rural population, indicating that there is less pressure from herbivory in cities and more in rural ecosystems.&nbsp;



The results also found that clover growing in a city was more similar to clover in other cities than it was to clover growing in nearby rural fields, despite the fact that genetic exchange between urban and rural populations took place freely. This result indicated repeated adaptation to conditions prevalent in urban environments. Humans change urban environments in many ways, but the reduction in herbivores appears typical of cities everywhere.



“We’ve long known that we’ve changed cities in pretty profound ways and we’ve dramatically altered the environment and ecosystems,” said study co-lead&nbsp;author James Santangelo. “But we just showed this happens, often in similar ways, on a global scale.”



In addition to observing global adaptation by clover plants to living in cities, the researchers also identified the genetic basis of this adaptation. From the more than 110,000 samples of clover collected by the collaborating scientists, 2,500 individual genomes were sequenced and used to assess genetic differentiation between city and rural populations. This has created a massive dataset that will be of use to scientists for years to come.



“This study is a model to understand how humans change the evolution of life around us. Cities are where people live, and this is the most compelling evidence we have that we are altering the evolution of life in them. Beyond ecologists and evolutionary biologists, this is going to be important for society,” said Professor Rob Ness, who co-led the project with Professor Marc Johnson and their PhD student Santangelo.



The study was made possible by the collaboration of several hundred scientists from around the world, something that Johnson refers to as a model for inclusive science. Men and women were equally represented on the team, and it included not just established researchers, but also students at all levels and from all inhabited continents across the world.



“Nearly everyone we asked to collaborate said yes – and that was kind of remarkable, because we were asking people to take on a lot of work,” said Johnson, who coordinated the more than 280 other researchers who participated in the study. “Our collaborators recognized the importance of this project. There has never been a field study of evolution of this scale, or a global study of how urbanization influences evolution. It would have been impossible to do this without our global set of collaborators.”



Now that the potential impact of humans as drivers of evolution in city ecosystems is understood, this can be used to develop strategies to conserve rare species and allow them to adapt to urban environments. It can also help us better understand how to prevent unwanted pests and diseases from adapting to human environments, says Johnson.&nbsp;



“Urbanization is increasingly transforming rural and natural environments into unique ecosystems that Earth’s biodiversity has never experienced, and these changes are altering the evolution of life," concluded the study authors. "If adaptation to urban environments is common, then this could have cascading effects on populations and ecosystems.”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans change the evolution of life around us

Urban areas are home to a large proportion of the...

Floating microplastics have been found to pervade the oceans of the world, including the Arctic Ocean, which is far from the sources of many of these plastic particles. The miniscule fibers and particles are carried by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-can-hitchhike-on-ocean-plastic/">ocean</a> currents and may drift for decades, eventually accumulating in marine areas and even becoming part of the animal species that live there.



Mats Huserbråten, a scientist at the Institute of Marine Research in Bergen, teamed up with colleagues to determine whether it was possible that European rivers were one of the sources of microplastics that end up in the Arctic Ocean. 



The team developed a model that simulated the release of microplastics from 21 major rivers across northern Europe and the Arctic every day over a ten year period and modeled the movements of the floating plastics over decades. The experts then combined models of ocean currents between 2007 and 2017 with the simulations of floating microplastic movements.&nbsp;



In order to gauge whether their simulations tallied with reality, they compared the results of their model with the distribution of floating microplastics in 121 seawater samples that were collected from 17 sites off the west coast of Norway between May 2017 and August 2018.



The results of the research, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, predicted that, once released from the rivers, most simulated particles would drift along two main pathways. Approximately 65 percent of the particles drifted along the Norwegian coast towards the Laptev Sea (north of Russia) before being transported into the Arctic Ocean, by means of trans-polar drift pathways. A further 30 percent of the simulated particles would drift along the Norwegian coast before moving southwards via the Fram Strait and then along the east and south coasts of Greenland, before traveling further south along the northeast coast of Canada.



After the simulations had run 20 years of data, there were clear areas in the world’s oceans where floating microplastics had accumulated due to the movements of the oceans’ currents. These areas included the Nordic Seas, the Nansen Basin in the Arctic Ocean, the Barents Sea and Laptev Sea – located between the Arctic Ocean and north Russia – and Baffin Bay, which is located between Greenland and Canada.&nbsp;



Data from the analysis of seawater samples collected off the west coast of Norway showed a distribution of floating microplastics that was consistent with what the authors’ model predicted would be the situation after 10 years of microplastic release from the 21 major rivers. This indicates that floating microplastics may have been circulating throughout the Arctic for at least the past ten years.



The authors suggest that the circulation of floating microplastics could have serious consequences for the health of Arctic ecosystems. Their noted that their findings highlight the importance of better plastic waste management.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Arctic Ocean microplastics originate in European rivers

Floating microplastics have been found to pervade the oceans of...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/eng/">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> (JGU) have collaborated with 32 scientific organizations to analyze the effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-social-nature-of-ants-will-them-tolerate-climate-change/">climate</a> change on Fagus sylvatica, a type of beech tree found in Europe. They discovered that these magnificent trees are threatened by climate change, especially in southern Europe.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Beech is one of the most important forest species in Europe from an ecological and socio-economical perspective," wrote the study authors. "Beech played a dominant role in postglacial reforestation, rapidly spreading from its Mediterranean refuges to the central and northern regions of the continent."&nbsp;



"Currently, in the face of rapid climate change, beech may be endangered in its geographical and ecological range. However, the species’ resilience to predicted changes and its ecological plasticity across the distribution range are not well understood."



The scientists gathered 780,000 ring measurements on 5,800 beech trees at 324 sites across Europe, from the north of Scotland to mainland Greece to carry out the analysis. Not only were the researchers able to extrapolate past growth rates, but they were also able to predict future growth by looking at the growth record for the past 60 years.&nbsp;



By comparing two 31-year periods, 1955 to 1985 and 1986 to 2016, the experts determined that as time passed, beech tree growth had declined in almost all regions studied. In southern Europe, beech tree growth had been reduced by 20 percent.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Based on this information, study lead author Dr. Edurne Martinez del Castillo predicts that over the next 70 years, we will continue to see a considerable decrease in beech tree growth.&nbsp;



"We expect high productivity declines due to increased drought severity, especially at the southern limits of the beech's distribution range," said Martinez del Castillo.



"Even assuming a relatively optimistic climate change scenario, we will see sharp growth reductions of up to 30 percent in southern Europe between 2020 and 2050 compared to the 1986 to 2016 period."



Climate scientists base those numbers on an increase in warming of one-degree Celsius. However, a pessimistic model that expects a five-degree warming predicts a more significant loss in production. "In southern Europe, losses could even exceed 50 percent," said Martinez del Castillo.



Even in northern, mountainous areas such as Sweden and Norway, where climate change could boost beech growth, this growth will not counter the losses sustained in the rest of Europe.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Moreover, this situation could cause a positive feedback loop because beech forests serve as carbon sinks. Fewer and smaller beech trees will lead to less carbon taken up by the trees and more in the air.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that we implement forest adaptation efforts to avoid detrimental environmental and economic impacts.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beech trees in southern Europe are facing drastic growth declines

Researchers at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU) have collaborated with...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

[sendtonews key="6SdlLLbt0t-1988946-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NTU...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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