View,Of,The,Device,Of,An,Oil,Drilling,Rig

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-the-evolution-of-the-earths-surface/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's surface</a> into Earth's deep subsurface. 



This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's <a href="https://has.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences</a>, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. 



"We looked at how the rates of fluid production with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a> compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface," McIntosh explained.



In a paper published in the journal Earth's Future, they shed light on the significant impact of human activities on the circulation of fluids in this subterranean zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Deciphering the hidden world in motion beneath our feet</h2>



The study, led by Grant Ferguson, also from the UArizona, compared the rates of fluid production from oil and gas extraction to the natural background circulation of water. 



The findings reveal that human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-internal-jet-stream-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid fluxes</a> surpass the natural flow, and they are projected to increase further with proposed strategies for combating climate change.



These strategies include geologic carbon sequestration, geothermal energy production, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fools-gold-may-be-a-valuable-source-of-lithium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithium extraction</a> from underground mineral-rich brine. 



"Responsible management of the subsurface is central to any hope for a green transition, sustainable future and keeping warming below a few degrees," emphasizes Peter Reiners, a professor in the <a href="https://www.geo.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UArizona Department of Geosciences</a> and a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-subsurface-fluid-fluxes">Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



These fluxes transport water, gases, and other substances through the subsurface, influencing everything from groundwater resources to geothermal energy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Types of subsurface fluid fluxes</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Groundwater flow</h4>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groundwater flow</a> represents the movement of water through porous and fractured rock formations. This flow occurs due to pressure gradients and the force of gravity, allowing water to move from areas of high hydraulic head to areas of low hydraulic head. Groundwater flow plays a vital role in the hydrologic cycle, recharging aquifers and sustaining surface water bodies.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Hydrocarbon migration</h4>



Subsurface fluid fluxes also include the migration of hydrocarbons, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-orphaned-oil-and-gas-wells-litter-the-world-and-must-be-cleaned-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a>. These fluids originate from organic-rich source rocks and migrate through permeable rock layers until they encounter traps or seals. Understanding hydrocarbon migration is essential for oil and gas exploration and production.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Geothermal fluid circulation</h4>



In regions with high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-water-could-be-a-great-source-of-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geothermal gradients</a>, subsurface fluids can circulate through fractures and permeable rock formations, absorbing heat from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's interior</a>. This heated fluid can then rise to the surface, creating hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles. Geothermal fluid circulation is a key factor in the development of geothermal energy resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Importance of Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



Subsurface fluid fluxes have far-reaching impacts on various aspects of our planet. They influence the availability and quality of groundwater resources, which are essential for human consumption, agriculture, and industrial activities. 



Additionally, these fluxes play a crucial role in the formation and distribution of mineral resources, such as ore deposits and petroleum accumulations.



Moreover, subsurface fluid fluxes contribute to the transport and cycling of chemical elements and compounds within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's crust</a>. 



This process has implications for geochemical cycles, rock-water interactions, and the evolution of subsurface environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Human intervention in Earth's fluid dynamics</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-chief-fossil-fuel-era-must-end-for-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a> production, saline water from the deep subsurface is extracted alongside the targeted resources. This ancient water, often millions of years old, acquires its salinity from the evaporation of ancient seawater or reactions with rocks and minerals. 



To maintain reservoir pressures and enhance oil recovery, near-surface water is added to the extracted saline water, and the blended mixture is reinjected into the subsurface, creating a continuous cycle of fluid production and reinjection.



Similar processes occur in lithium extraction, geothermal energy production, and geologic carbon sequestration, where leftover saline water is reinjected into the underground. 



"We show that the fluid injection rates or recharge rates from those oil and gas activities is greater than what naturally occurs," states McIntosh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Rewriting Earth's history through subsurface geology</h2>



Using existing data from various sources, the research team found that current fluid movement rates induced by human activities surpass those that occurred before human intervention. 



As carbon capture, sequestration, and lithium extraction intensify, the researchers also predicted how these activities might be recorded in Earth's geological record.



Moreover, human activities have the potential to alter not only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-geysers-the-worlds-largest-geothermal-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep subsurface fluids</a> but also the microbes that inhabit those depths. 



Fluid movements can modify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-the-extreme-microbial-activity-discovered-in-old-faithful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial environments</a> through changes in water chemistry or by introducing new microbial communities from Earth's surface to the underground. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-fracking-surged/">Hydraulic fracturing</a>, for example, can trigger sudden blooms of microbial activity in previously dormant deep rock formations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Earth's subsurface is still mostly a mystery</h2>



Despite the significance of these findings, many unknowns remain about Earth's deep subsurface and the extent of human impact on this hidden realm. 



"We need to use the deep subsurface as part of the solution for the climate crisis," emphasizes McIntosh. "Yet, we know more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface of Mars</a> than we do about water, rocks and life deep beneath our feet."



Continued research and exploration of this enigmatic zone are crucial for understanding the full scope of human influence on our planet and developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable strategies</a> for addressing the climate crisis. 



While we strive to mitigate the visible effects of human activities on Earth's surface, we must not overlook the hidden impact that extends deep into the subsurface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-what-lies-beneath">Protecting what lies beneath</h2>



As we continue to explore and utilize Earth's deep subsurface in our efforts to combat climate change, we must remain mindful of the hidden impact our actions have on this enigmatic realm. 



By studying the fluid dynamics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a>, and geological record beneath our feet, we can develop a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between human activities and the subterranean world. 



This knowledge will be crucial in guiding our strategies for a sustainable future, ensuring that our solutions do not create unforeseen consequences in the depths below. 



As we navigate the challenges of the climate crisis, we must approach the subsurface with a spirit of curiosity, responsibility, and respect, recognizing that the key to our success may lie in the mysteries that await us in Earth's hidden depths.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF004496" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Human activities also greatly harm Earth’s subsurface, not just the landmass

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the planet's surface into Earth's deep subsurface. This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. "We...

Bird fanatics now have two species of hen harrier to love – and one more checkbox to add to their birding lists. 

The two species were previously believed to be one, Circus cyaneus, called the hen harrier in Britain and the northern harrier or marsh hawk in the Americas.

It turns out, however, that the harriers are two distinct species after all, a fact already recognized by the British Ornithologists' Union. However, several other taxonomic committees, including the American Ornithologists’ Union, continued to class them as subspecies of the same species of bird.

A group of scientists set out to smooth ruffled feathers in the birding world one way or the other with <a href="http://avianres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40657-016-0052-3">a genetic study</a>. 

They analyzed mitochondrial DNA from both bird populations, and found that the two harriers were closely related – but not the same species. They found genetic differences of up to 2 percent, well within the range of differences between other species.

In fact, the American northern harrier is more closely related to the cinereous harrier of South America than the hen harrier found in the British Isles, the researchers discovered.

To reflect their new knowledge, they dubbed the Eurasian hen harrier Circus cyaneus and the American northern harrier Circus hudsonius, based on the subspecies names that had when it was believed they were the same species.

Along with the genetic study, the scientists conducted a complete review of the scientific literature, as well as photographing and taking notes about plumage, morphology and other characteristics of both species.

The study could be an important one for the Eurasian hen harriers in the United Kingdom, which are endangered due to hunting and habitat loss. Knowing the birds’ genetic code can help with preservation efforts, the lead researchers said. 

The scientists published the results of their genetic study in the journal <a href="http://avianres.biomedcentral.com/">Avian Research</a>.

---

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hen harrier is two separate species, gene study finds

Bird fanatics now have two species of hen harrier to...

The turkeys we'll be sitting down to eat on Thursday have a history that goes way back. Archaeologists have unearthed a clutch of domesticated turkey eggs used as a ritual offering 1,500 years ago in Oaxaca, Mexico -- some of the earliest evidence of turkey domestication.

"Our research tells us that turkeys had been domesticated by 400-500 AD," explains Field Museum archaeologist Gary Feinman, one of the paper's authors. "People have made guesses about turkey domestication based on the presence or absence of bones at archaeological sites, but now we are bringing in classes of information that were not available before. We're providing strong evidence to confirm prior hypotheses." The results were published in an article in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports.

Feinman, along with lead author Heather Lapham from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and co-author Linda Nicholas also of The Field Museum, discovered the eggs during an excavation in Oaxaca that was home to the Zapotec people going back thousands of years. "It was very exciting because it's very rare to find a whole cluster of intact eggs. This was very unexpected," says Feinman.

"Heather Lapham is an archaeologist who studies animal bones, and she knew immediately that we had found five intact or unhatched eggs that were left as an offering alongside seven newly hatched baby turkeys, of which only their tiny bones survived," says Feinman. Scanning electron microscope analysis of the eggshells confirmed that they were indeed laid by turkeys.

"The fact that we see a full clutch of unhatched turkey eggs, along with other juvenile and adult turkey bones nearby, tells us that these birds were domesticated," says Feinman. "It helps to confirm historical information about the use of turkeys in the area."

The eggs, according to Feinman, were an offering of ritual significance to the Zapotec people. The Zapotec people still live in Oaxaca today, and domesticated turkeys remain important to them. "Turkeys are raised to eat, given as gifts, and used in rituals," says Feinman. "The turkeys are used in the preparation of food for birthdays, baptisms, weddings, and religious festivals."

The new information about when turkeys were domesticated helps amplify the bigger picture of animal domestication in Mesoamerica. "There were very few domesticated animals in Oaxaca and Mesoamerica in general compared with Eurasia," explains Feinman. "Eurasia had lots of different meat sources, but in Oaxaca 1,500 years ago, the only assuredly domestic meat sources were turkeys and dogs. And while people in Oaxaca today rely largely on meat from animals brought over by the Spanish (like chicken, beef, and pork), turkeys have much greater antiquity in the region and still have great ritual as well as economic significance today."

The turkeys that are so important to the Zapotec today are similar birds to the ones that play a role in the American tradition of Thanksgiving. "These are not unlike the kinds of turkeys that would have been around at the first Thanksgiving, and similar to the birds that we eat today," says Feinman.24

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Field Museum</a>

Turkey domestication happened at least 1500 years ago

The turkeys we'll be sitting down to eat on Thursday...

As Americans celebrate Thanksgiving this year, it’s time to put aside our worries for a day and remember that we have a lot to be grateful for – including these five incredible scientific breakthroughs that taught us more about the planet we all live on. Happy Thanksgiving:
<ol>
 	<li><a href="http://www.earth.com/video/images-photosynthesis-action/">Scientists capture images of photosynthesis in action</a>: Humans have known about photosynthesis – the process through which plants use light, air and the nutrients absorbed from the soil to create their own food – for a while. We don’t really understand how it works, though. Now, scientists are using ultrafast X-ray lasers to get a better picture of the process, and their results could lead to cleaner, more plentiful fuel sources.</li>
</ol>
<ol start="2">
 	<li> Researchers investigate alternative sources of fuel: Scientists at the Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory may have discovered a way to <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/scientists-sewage-future-biofuel/">turn sewage into biofuel</a> using a process called hydrothermal liquefaction. Meanwhile, researchers at Tel Aviv University believe they’ve figured out how <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/algae-may-soon-be-a-source-of-clean-energy/">microalgae produces hydrogen</a>, the first step in increasing its output of this clean fuel source.</li>
</ol>
<ol start="3">
 	<li><a href="http://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-impacts-responsible-life-earth/">Asteroid impacts may be responsible for seeding life on Earth</a>: A group of researchers studying the effects of an asteroid suspected wiping out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago made a surprising discovery. The asteroid impact caused some changes in surrounding rock that might explain how much earlier asteroids created conditions for life to take hold on Earth.</li>
</ol>
<ol start="4">
 	<li><a href="http://www.earth.com/news/human-occupation-actually-improves-some-environments/">Human occupation actually improves some environments</a>: While scientists normally seek to minimize the human impact on the environment, from litter to greenhouse gas emissions, some ecosystems have actually benefited from human residents. One of these is the temperate rainforest along the coast of British Columbia, which benefited from First Nations people living there.</li>
</ol>
<ol start="5">
 	<li><a href="http://www.earth.com/news/study-eco-friendly-wines-taste-better/">Study: Eco-friendly wines taste better</a>: A study at the University of California, Los Angeles, found that wines grown by “eco-friendly” vintners got better reviews from wine experts in blind taste-tests. They’re also often cheaper to produce, the study found.</li>
</ol>
---

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

5 Earth stories we were grateful for in 2016

As Americans celebrate Thanksgiving this year, it’s time to put...

Water balance found to influence soil pH and fertility

Even casual fans of nature and environmental science understand that the pH level of soil is a major indicator of the soil’s ability to store nutrients and provide for vegetation growth. As such, soil pH serves as a significant controlling factor in the ultimate landscape of a terrestrial ecosystem. But a recent study published in the <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature20139.html">Nature</a> journal highlights that pH soil does not regulate plant fertility on its own. Rather, environmental conditions can easily sway soil pH balance. 

The study illustrates how even minor changes in water balance can quickly change the pH level from alkaline to acidic soils. Until now, however, it has not been clear how to quantify the exact threshold of soil pH balance. While topography and mineralogy are clear contributing factors, climate conditions appear to play an important overarching role.

A team led by J.E. Johnson of the <a href="http://globalecology.stanford.edu/">Carnegie Institution</a> for Science at Stanford University extracted a random sample from a compilation of 60,291 soil pH measurements. They found that the sudden transition from alkaline to acid soil pH occurs at the very point that mean annual precipitation starts to exceed mean annual potential evapotranspiration. 

The team concluded that climate conditions can certainly create a nonlinear pattern in soil chemistry. Moreover, they indicate that the very conditions under which soil currently maintains pH balance are out of balance with modern climate.

Water balance found to influence soil pH and fertility

Water balance found to influence soil pH and fertility Even...

While traipsing across Rannoch Moor in Scotland on Sunday, Melvin Nicholson saw a rare sight: a “fog bow.”

Nicholson described spotting the white arc on the snowy moor as magical.

Like a rainbow, a fog bow is created when moisture in the air bends the sun’s light, causing us to see an arc made up of various colors in the sky. 

But unlike a rainbow, a fog bow is colorless, because the droplets of water that make up fog are much smaller than those that make up rain. Some fog bows, also called cloudbows, have a red outer edge and blue inner edge, but most are completely white. The white light forms an arc through the air much like any other rainbow, however.

According to Nicholson, they can usually only be seen if the sun is behind you.

Although fog bows are relatively rare, Nicholson has joined the ranks of several Scottish photographers to catch a glimpse of one. Scotland is a wet country with relatively mild winters, ideal conditions for fog.

Fog bows aren’t just a Scottish phenomenon, though. In recent years, they’ve been spotted and photographed in Ireland, Finland, Australia, and several U.S. states including Massachusetts, Missouri, California and North Carolina.

In some cases, they can form what appears to be a full circle instead of a standard rainbow’s arc, due to reflections.

Want to spot one for yourself? Fog bows always appear in the fog or mist, and usually when the sun is bright and high in the sky. They do sometimes appear at night, if light from the moon is very bright. A thin fog is best, and they’re often spotted over the ocean. 

---

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Stunning image of a rare 'fog bow' snapped on the Scottish moors

While traipsing across Rannoch Moor in Scotland on Sunday, Melvin...

When it comes to environmental hazards, many of the residents of volcanic Iceland take a pragmatic approach. Instead of focusing on travel disruptions, smoke-filled skies and falling ash, they focus on the positive: how fresh volcanic eruptions might draw another flock of tourists to the island country.

Iceland first took advantage of the growing volcanic tourism trade in spring 2010, after the volcano <a href="http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=372020">Eyjafjallajokull</a> erupted after centuries of dormancy. 

The new volcanic activity grounded travelers all over Europe for days, but when they could travel again, they visited Iceland to take in cooler lava formations, geysers and hot springs fueled by Eyjafjallajokull.

Iceland is hoping for a similar travel boom if <a href="http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=372030">Katla</a> – Eyjafjallajokull’s much more pronounceable cousin – erupts in the near future. The volcano has been dormant for a few decades, but tremors and rumblings around the peak have suggested it may be waking up.

If it does erupt soon, Katla would become the 33rd active volcanic site in the country. The sites, which offer otherworldly photo opportunities due to lava outcroppings, steamy displays and more, were mostly unknown outside of the island until Eyjafjallajokull’s eruption made it a European nuisance. 

As the media began calling and visiting Iceland to find out what, exactly, was going on, the country’s tourism officials took advantage to promote their own spin on eco-tourism. They quickly launched an “Inspired by Iceland” ad campaign on television and online, and shared it with the media. 

Iceland had half a million visitors in 2010, and is expected to tally 1.8 million in 2o16.

While Iceland officials acknowledge that the volcanic activity can be lethal to citizens and visitors alike – the country has taken steps to improve its monitoring systems over the past six years – they continue to turn new volcanic features into tourist attractions. 

Still, they are taking precautions. Residents of Vik, the town closest to Katla, have rehearsed emergency procedures in case the historically violent volcano erupts – a potential event that scientists said is long overdue. A new system will send alerts to locals’ mobile phones and emergency broadcasts to television, radio and social media.

But being prepared doesn’t mean that Iceland’s tourism industry can’t try to make the best of things – like advertising a new “volcanic hot tub” created by flowing lava from <a href="http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=373030">Bardarbunga’s</a> 2014 eruption meeting icy cold glacier water.

---

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Volcanic Iceland sells risky seismic activity as a tourist attraction

When it comes to environmental hazards, many of the residents...

Could a little bit of extra greenery on building façades help cool down urban heat islands? That’s what a group of scientists from the <a href="http://www.tu-berlin.de/menue/home/parameter/en/?no_cache=1">Technische Universität Berlin</a> and <a href="http://www.fu-berlin.de/en/">Freie Universität Berlin</a> set out to discover in a new study.

Some urban metropolitan areas are measurably hotter than surrounding rural land, and scientists have dubbed them “heat islands.” According to the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a>, cities with more than 1 million people can be anywhere from 1.8 to 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit hotter than the surrounding region.

Though there are many potential causes of heat islands, scientists suspect the main culprits are replacing green space with asphalt and concrete, which absorb the sun’s heat.

Façade greening, the practice of planting greenery that takes up little space on the ground but can shade much of a building’s surface, is one step identified by scientists as a method to cool temperatures, according to <a href="http://oneecosystem.pensoft.net/articles.php?id=9280">the new study’s authors</a>. Additional vegetation in cities can reduce temperatures by providing shade and cool the air through evapotranspiration, according to the EPA.

The Berlin research team decided to look into how their city could implement façade greening, as well as any barriers stopping the practice’s adoption. 

They found that, under current conditions, the likelihood of Berlin implementing façade greening is only 2 percent, even though there is the potential for greening over about 1,400 acres of the city.

Financial incentives to adopt façade greening and other programs could raise the adoption rate to 14 percent, the team said. However, better success would require the willingness of building owners, city officials and other involved parties, as well as a combination of supportive programs and education. 

The researchers used Bayesian networks to determine the likelihood of Berlin adopting façade greening programs on a larger scale. A Bayesian network is an analytical graphical model of a real world system that takes into account the “actors,” current conditions, planned changes, parameters that won’t change, the desired outcome, and more. 

In the case of Berlin, data for the model was collected by interviewing two façade greening experts and two climate protection commissioners from different administrative areas of the city.

The study was published in <a href="http://oneecosystem.pensoft.net/">One Ecosystem</a>.

---

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists: green facades could cool urban heat islands

Could a little bit of extra greenery on building façades...

Scientists can now get a very close look at how plants make oxygen using water molecules, thanks to an international team of researchers.

Led by Dr. Johannes Messinger from <a href="http://www.umu.se/english">Umea University</a> in Sweden, the scientists used experimental molecular studies to produce high-resolution images of photosystem II, a protein complex in the light-dependent reactions of the process of photosynthesis.

The images will allow researchers to take a close look at the step-by-step conversion of two water molecules into one oxygen molecule that takes place during this part of photosynthesis, Messinger said.

Plants play a large role in mitigating the effects of climate change, according to the researchers. In addition to absorbing atmospheric carbon from the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, plants also convert water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen.

If humans can learn how plants split water molecules, they can do the same, providing more oxygen in the atmosphere and hydrogen as a cleaner source of energy than carbon-based fuels, Messinger said.

The visualization of the plants’ process was created with the help of the X-ray free electron laser at Stanford University’s <a href="https://www6.slac.stanford.edu/">SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory</a>.

The team grew microcrystals of the photosystem II protein, then placed them on a conveyor belt. The laser was used to stimulate the crystals similar to sunlight and jumpstart the water splitting process. 

The crystals were then hit with superfast X-ray pulses to visualize them. The study describes how the scientists were able to use the data gathered during this experiment to produce high-resolution images showing the structural differences in the photosystem II protein at different stages of the water splitting process.

Messinger has since joined the Molecular Biometrics Programme at <a href="https://www.uu.se/en/">Uppsala University</a>.

—

Researchers on verge of solving how plants make oxygen

Scientists can now get a very close look at how...

Climate change to set new highs in US weather records.

Love those hot August nights? You may be getting more of them if increasing heat records are any indication, according to a new study led by Dr. Gerald Meehl of the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a>.

Daily temperature records were a little lopsided in the United States in the first decade of the 21st century  – about twice as many heat records were set as cold milestones, the researchers found.

Under normal weather conditions, the country should see about the same number of heat records and cold records averaged over a decade, the scientists said. However, the number of heat records has been steadily outpacing the number of cold records, and it’s getting worse fast, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2016/11/15/1606117113.abstract">the study stated</a>. 

The scientists used their data, collected from weather stations around the country from the 1930s through the modern day, to project what the weather could look like in 2100, and got a shock. If hot weather continues to set new records at current rates, the U.S. could be seeing 15 heat records for every 1 cold record if the average temperature of the country rises just 4.5 degrees Fahrenheit, the scientists said.

The researchers tied their findings to warming temperatures around the globe. Meehl said that a 4.5-degree hike in temperatures could come after only 50 years if greenhouse gas emissions continue at their current rate.

The scientists pointed out that many of the heat records being broken were set in the “warm” 1930s, when drought in the Midwest caused a devastating Dust Bowl that caused enormous damage to the U.S. economy. During that time, there was 1.1 heat record set for every cold record, the researchers said.

Monitoring shifts in temperatures from decade to decade is vital because most temperature changes are gradual and people only notice the weather extremes, the team said. Keeping an eye on records can point to a shift before those extremes begin, they said.

The study was published in <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

&nbsp;

Hot hot heat: study predicts climate change will set more U.S. heat records

Climate change to set new highs in US weather records....

If climate change alters winter weather conditions in western Europe, deep sea coral in the North Atlantic could suffer, according to <a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/3/11/160494">a new study</a> by researchers at the <a href="http://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>. 

The scientists studied a specific species of deep water coral called Lophelia pertusa, which depends on current patterns to spread coral larvae from one site to another. The coral grows in a number of Marine Protected Areas as well as on seamounts and several oil and gas platforms in the North Atlantic off the coast of Scotland.

The research team found that the coral larvae are dependent on the North Atlantic Oscillation, an annual weather pattern. According to the <a href="https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/teleconnections/nao/">U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>, changes in the NAO can lead to abnormal temperatures, pressure systems and storm patterns.

And according to the University of Edinburgh team, changes in the NAO can also send coral larvae drifting away toward areas they don’t normally end up – such as mid-Atlantic coral populations during a negative phase of the NAO, for example. 

The problem is when this disrupts connections between various coral populations. The reefs depend on exchanging coral larvae to build stronger structures, the research team said. Reefs that become isolated due to shifting ocean currents are at higher risk to diseases and damage, said study co-author Dr. Alan Fox of the university’s School of GeoSciences.

The Marine Protected Areas being established internationally are not well-connected with each other, the researchers found – especially when changes to the NAO are taken into account.

The scientists used data from a number of protected sites in Scotland’s waters and computer modeling to track the dispersal of coral larvae in 40-year runs. 

The coral reefs provide habitat for a number of marine species to safely reproduce and hide from deep sea predators, the researchers noted. 

The study was published in the November issue of <a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

Deep sea coral in North Atlantic faces threat from climate change

If climate change alters winter weather conditions in western Europe,...

Cement found to absorb CO2 emissions from the atmosphere

In recent years, cement manufacturing has come under fire by environmentalists due to the high levels of carbon dioxide realized in the process. But a new study indicates that over time, most of the carbon dioxide emitted gets absorbed by building materials. 

A team led by Steven Davis, associate professor of Earth system science at the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/">University of California</a>, Irvine, published a study in Nature Geoscience, reporting that cement can be an effective “sink” for carbon dioxide emissions. “Sink” is a term often used to refer to anything that removes large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and hides it away so that it can no longer contribute to climate change.

According to Davis, “it sounds counterintuitive, but it’s true. The cement poured around the world since 1930 has taken up a substantial portion of the CO2 released when it was initially produced.”

David and his team, that included colleagues from Europe, China, and other U.S. institutions, measured the CO2 emissions released during manufacturing and compared them to the amount of CO2 ultimately reabsorbed by the material. They determined that “cement is a large, overlooked and growing net sink” for CO2 emissions.

During cement manufacturing, CO2 is released into the atmosphere when limestone (calcium carbonate) is converted to lime (calcium oxide). Fossil fuels are also burned to generate the heat required to break up limestone.But through a process known as carbonation, CO2 is absorbed the pores of cement materials like concrete. 

It is estimated that over 76 billion tons of cement were produced worldwide from 1930 to 2013, releasing a total of 38.2 gigatons of CO2 were released into the atmosphere. However, the team concluded that 43% of those emissions were gradually reabsorbed.

According to Davis, “cement has gotten a lot of attention for its sizable contribution to global climate change, but this research reinforces that the leading culprit continues to be fossil fuel burning.”

Cement absorbs CO2 emissions from the atmosphere

Cement found to absorb CO2 emissions from the atmosphere In...

According to climate scientists, if greenhouse gas emissions continue polluting the atmosphere at the current pace, Americans later this century will have to endure, on average, about 15 daily record high temperatures for every time that the mercury notches a record low.

That ratio of record high temperatures to record lows may turn out to be much higher if the pace of emissions increases and produces even more warming, according to the study led by scientists at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR).

"More and more frequently, climate change will affect Americans with record-setting heat," said NCAR senior scientist Gerald Meehl, lead author of the new paper. "An increase in average temperatures of a few degrees may not seem like much, but it correlates with a noticeable increase in days that are hotter than any in the record, and nights that will remain warmer than we've ever experienced in the past."

The 15-to-1 ratio of record highs to lows is based on temperatures across the continental United States increasing by slightly more than 3 degrees Celsius (5.4 degrees Fahrenheit) above recent years, which is about the amount of warming expected to occur with the current pace of greenhouse gas emissions.

Over the last decade, in contrast, the ratio of record high temperatures to record lows has averaged about two to one.

The new research appears next week in the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences." It was funded by the Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Science Foundation (NSF), which is NCAR's sponsor. The study was co-authored by NCAR scientist Claudia Tebaldi and by Dennis Adams-Smith, a scientist previously at Climate Central and now at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.

Hotter days

In a 2009 study, Meehl and colleagues found that the ratio of record daily high temperatures to record daily low temperatures has steadily increased since the 1970s as average temperatures over the United States have warmed. Computer models at that time indicated that the ratio could continue to increase during this century, although the research team looked into just one scenario of future emissions. The scientists also found that the models were overstating the ratio of record highs to record lows in recent years compared to observations.

By digging further into the issue and analyzing why the models differed from observations, Meehl and his co-authors have now produced a better calibrated projection of future record-breaking daily highs across the U.S. They based their projections on the average temperature increase over the continental United States, rather than on a particular scenario of future emissions.

By about 2065, for example, U.S. temperatures will rise by an average of slightly more than 3 degrees C (5.4 degrees F) if society maintains a "business as usual" increase in the emission of greenhouse gases. Under such a scenario, the ratio of record daily high temperatures to record daily lows will likely be about 15 to 1, although it could range anywhere from 7 to 1 up to 22 to 1, the study found.

If temperatures increase even more this century, the ratio of record highs to record lows will jump substantially. For example, if temperatures climb more than 4 degrees C (7.2 degrees F), Americans could experience about 38 record highs for every record low. Such an outcome could occur if society does not make any efforts to mitigate the production of greenhouse gases.

"Every degree of warming makes a substantial amount of difference, with the ratio of record highs to record lows becoming much greater," Meehl said. "Even with much warmer temperatures on average, we will still have winter and we will still get record cold temperatures, but the numbers of those will be really small compared to record high maximums."

If temperatures were not warming, Meehl said, the ratio of record highs to record lows would average out to about one to one.

Instead, record high temperatures have already become a common occurrence in much of the country. The ratio of record highs to lows has averaged about 2 to 1 over the first decade of the 21st century, but there is considerable year-to-year variation. The ratio was about 5 to 1 in 2012, dropping to about 1 to 1 in 2013 and 2014, then almost 3 to 1 in 2015. The unusual warmth of 2016, resulting from both climate change and natural patterns such as El Niño, has led to 24,519 record daily maximums vs. 3,970 record daily minimums -- a ratio of about 6 to 1.

Precipitation and the warm 1930s

A key part of the study involved pinpointing why the models in the 2009 study were simulating somewhat more daily record high maximum temperatures compared with recent observations, while there was good agreement between the models and the observed decreases in record low minimums. The authors focused on two sets of simulations conducted on the NCAR-based Community Climate System Model (version 4), which is funded by DOE and NSF and developed by climate scientists across the country.

Their analysis uncovered two reasons for the disparity between the computer models and observations.

First, the models tended to underestimate precipitation. Because the air is cooled by precipitation and resulting evapotranspiration -- the release of moisture from the land and plants back to the atmosphere -- the tendency of the computer models to create an overly dry environment led to more record high temperatures.

Second, the original study in 2009 only went back to the 1950s. For the new study, the research team also analyzed temperatures in the 1930s and 1940s, which is as far back as accurate recordkeeping will allow. Because the Dust Bowl days of the 1930s were unusually warm, with many record-setting high temperatures, the scientists found that it was more difficult in subsequent years to break those records even as temperatures warmed. However, even taking the warm 1930s into account, the model-simulated and observed ratio of record highs to record lows has been increasing.

"The steady increase in the record ratio is an immediate and stark reminder of how our temperatures have been shifting and continue to do so, reaching unprecedented highs and fewer record lows," said Tebaldi. "These changes pose adaptation challenges to both human and natural systems. Only a substantial mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions may stop this increase, or at least slow down its pace."

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Colorado, Boulder</a>

Record high temperatures will soon outnumber record low temperatures 15 to 1

According to climate scientists, if greenhouse gas emissions continue polluting...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

[sendtonews key="Ccjk8KEMzv-2550719-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

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