Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

Stone age people fashioned tools out of animal bones 100,000 ago.  Researchers have discovered a 90,000-year-old knife in a Moroccan cave that was made from an animal rib. The bone dates back farther than any other known <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sophisticated-tools-ancestors-found/">tool</a> from the Aterian people who lived during the Middle Stone Age. 

Aterian tools are distinctive from other tools of a similar age found in South Africa, suggesting that technology was advancing in North Africa at the time. Stone age people fashioned tools out of animal bones 100,000 ago

“Aterians made specialized bone tools earlier than originally believed and more than 40,000 years before the Neanderthals,” said study co-author Dr. Abdeljalil Bouzouggar.

The tool was found in 2012 in Dar es-Soltan 1 cave near Morocco’s Atlantic coast. An analysis by a team of scientists from the <a href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> has revealed that the bone was likely part of the rib of a large mammal. The bone appeared to have been modified using a knife that was just under five inches long.

[caption id="attachment_1802085" align="aligncenter" width="573"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/stone-age-tools.png"><img class="size-full wp-image-1802085" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/stone-age-tools.png" alt="" width="573" height="445" /></a> Image Credit: Silvio Bello and Mohammed Kamal[/caption]

Study lead author Dr. Silvia Bello told <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ushome/index.html">MailOnline</a>: “This find is significant because it shows how sophisticated bone tool technology was already around about 100, 000 years ago.”

“Modern humans seemed to have been capable of crafting sophisticated bone tools very early on. It also show the existence of a new type of bone tool, with no other example in the rest of Africa.”

There is evidence to suggest that the bone knife was used to cut soft material, although exactly what type of material is not clear. Experts believe that the Aterian stone tool industry disappeared around 20,000 years ago.

“Aterians were capable of a complex and controlled sequence of actions involved in the manufacture of specialized bone knives,” said Dr. Bello.

The specialized tools indicate that the Aterian people had complex perceptual skills. This tool will provide researchers with new insight into the evolution of human cognitive skills.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: Silvio Bello and Mohammed Kamal

Stone age people fashioned tools out of animal bones 100,000 ago

Stone age people fashioned tools out of animal bones 100,000...

Evidence of the earliest use of nutmeg, the key ingredient in all things pumpkin spice, was recently discovered in Pulau Ay in the Banda Islands.


Nutmeg comes from the seeds of the Myristica frangans tree which is native to the Banda Islands and was once a prized spice thought to contain healing properties in the middle ages. 

However, long before that, it seems people were using nutmeg as an ingredient as early as 3,500 years ago, 2,000 years before the prior first known use of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/spicy-food-less-salt/">spice</a>. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>, <a href="https://ugm.ac.id/">Universitas Gadjah Mada</a> in Indonesia, the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/">University of New South Wales</a> in Australia conducted two archeological excavations in 2007 and 2009 on the island of Pulau Ay. 

A study detailing the excavations and the researchers’ findings was published in the journal Asian Perspectives. 

The Pulau Ay site was occupied from 2,300 to 3,500 years ago and the researchers uncovered a number of artifacts including pottery, animal bones, and stone tools. 

Remnants of nutmeg were discovered on potsherds unearthed in the area which points to the use of the spice, either foraged or cultivated, as an ingredient. 

The excavation findings also show how the people of Pulau Ay shifted from eating primarily fish to living in permanent settlements and relying on domesticated pigs. 

“This site shows us how people adapted to living on these small tropical islands in stages, from occasional use as fishing camps to permanent occupation,” Peter Lape, a member of the archeological team said in a University of Washington <a href="https://www.washington.edu/news/2018/10/03/3500-year-old-pumpkin-spice-archaeologists-find-earliest-use-of-nutmeg-as-a-food/">news release</a>. “It’s also fascinating to see such early use of nutmeg, a spice that changed the world a few thousand years later.”

The potsherds and pottery also contained residue from six other plants including purple yam and sago (a starch that can be eaten from palms) along with nutmeg.

Palau Ay represents a unique opportunity for archeologists to piece together not just the early history of how nutmeg became the hugely coveted spice it was during the 14th century and beyond, but also more information on early Neolithic human settlements.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Humans have been crazy for pumpkin spice for thousands of years

Evidence of the earliest use of nutmeg, the key ingredient...

Groundbreaking research from the <a href="http://www.dtu.dk/english">Technical University of Denmark</a> (DTU) has produced a new antivenom that is based on human antibodies. The experimental antivenom has been developed to counteract dendrotoxins from one of the most venomous snakes in the world, the black mamba, which is found in Africa.

Every year, more than 100,000 people die of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/decrease-rainfall-fewer-snakebites/">snakebite</a> envenoming and many more are disabled. Most snake bites occur in poor areas of the world, which means that the issue is not a primary focus for pharmaceutical companies.

DTU Professor Andreas Hougaard Laustsen said that the findings may lead to a paradigm shift in snakebite treatment.

“The leap forward in our experiments is that we used a biotechnological method to find and then propagate human antibodies in the laboratory to enable use in the treatment of experimental black mamba envenoming,” said Professor Laustsen. 

“The method we employed can be used to discover human antibodies in the lab by simulating of the human immune system, so we can avoid injecting patients with snake venom to raise antibodies by immunization.”

The antibodies for the black mamba antivenom were identified using a library of human antibody genes extracted from white blood cells in donor blood. Professor Laustsen explained why it could still take years before the production of the antivenom outside of the lab.

“We have shown that it is possible to produce an experimental human-based antivenom against important toxins from one snake species, the black mamba. Before clinical testing of the antivenom on humans will make sense, it is relevant to develop more antibodies for the antivenom to give it a broader spectrum against several types of snake venom.”

If the research is successful, a doctor will be able to use the antivenom even in cases where the source of the snakebite is unknown. This has the potential to save many lives all over the world.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New antivenom may revolutionize snakebite treatment

Groundbreaking research from the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has...

Predicting the outbreak trends for influenza – a virus that infects millions in the U.S. each year, killing tens of thousands – is extremely important to public health. Flu viruses spread and evolve through a range of animals, which provides information that scientists use to more accurately predict which strain human populations should be vaccinated against. But predicting when flu season will start, and which strain it may be, is no easy task. 

A new report published in <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a> has found that the more people a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/city-birds-lay-larger-eggs/">city</a> has, and the more organized its populations movements, the longer its flu season will last – even if climatic conditions aren’t favorable for the spreading of influenza. This study could be an important step towards improving the accuracy of influenza outbreak predictions.

Factors related to immunity, social crowding, shifting climatic conditions, and many others have previously been believed to dictate the size and shape of seasonal influenza outbreaks. But to more accurately predict these outbreaks, it’s now clear that researchers must assess an array of processes, from urbanization to climate.

In an effort to increase accuracy, researcher Benjamin Dalziel of <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> and colleagues analyzed weekly flu incidence data. This was represented by data on U.S. patients visiting doctors’ offices with flu-like symptoms between 2002 and 2008. The data covered over 600 regions throughout the U.S., all varying in size and structure – including transportation patterns.

Results showed that influenza spreads differently in urban centers with pockets of high population density connected by organized movement. In these areas, cases of the flu were more vastly distributed through the winter months, even early or late in the season when the weather isn’t optimal for viral transmission. In smaller cities, flue cases were more tightly grouped in a short period during the peak flu season. These patterns consistently emerged year after year.

The researchers also analyzed the influence of specific humidity –a key weather metric – on flu outbreaks. They found that as specific humidity decreases, the moisture droplets that infected individuals expel when coughing remain viable in the air for longer. Through modelling, they determined how local humidity patterns in certain regions contributed to differences in flu patterns – as it was found that flu epidemics were more intense in cities with more significant shifts in humidity. 

All of these findings could be integral to helping both scientists and policy makers better control flu outbreaks. While eliminating influenza altogether is wholly unrealistic, reducing the number of people who get sick is now a much more viable option.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

City density and climate influence how flu outbreaks occur

Predicting the outbreak trends for influenza – a virus that...

Neanderthals were able to survive almost 300,000 years in part due to their system of healthcare – albeit a very rudimentary “system.” 

Previous research from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a> has reported that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-exterous-hands/">Neanderthals</a> care for their injured and dying, which may have been a factor in the development of certain healthcare practices. Now, a new study has found that they provided widespread healthcare to members of their group – even assisting in childbirth – which could have led to an “evolutionary advantage” that prolonged their existence as a species.

Researchers from the University of York examined the skeletal remains of over 30 individuals with noticeable minor and serious injuries. These remains included a wide range of different injuries and recoveries, suggesting that Neanderthals likely had a well-developed system of care that helped them survive.

“Neanderthals faced multiple threats to their lives, particularly from large and dangerous animals, but in popular culture Neanderthals have such a brutish and strong image that we haven’t really thought too deeply about their vulnerabilities before now,” says Dr. Penny Spikins, from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology.

Over 80 percent of Neanderthal skeletal remains known to archaeologists have evidence of numerous injuries. Some of these injuries would have only required minor care, like food and rest, while others would have likely required more serious care and could have been life-threatening. Other studies have found that in some samples, the injuries occurred well before the individual’s death, and would have required monitoring, massage, fever management, and hygiene care. 

“We have evidence of healthcare dating back 1.6 million years ago, but we think it probably goes further back than this,” says Dr. Spikins. “The high level of injury and recovery from serious conditions, such as a broken leg, suggests that others must have collaborated in their care and helped not only to ease pain, but to fight for their survival in such a way that they could regain health and actively participate in the group again.”

Researchers believe that because Neanderthals lived in small groups, even just a single death may have had a significant effect on the group. They also say that childbirth was an important focus of Neanderthal healthcare.

“It is likely that they would have had assisted childbirth; the role that we now attribute to midwives,” says Spikins. “Without support, they probably could not have survived the toll that the death rate of mothers and babies could have taken on their communities. When we look at the daily risks and dangers involved in hunting and finding food, as well as in childbirth in respect to their small hunting communities, it is not surprising that they would develop practices to improve health and reduce mortality risk.”

Even when looking back at our distant ancestors who lived well over a million years ago, we can see similarities in culture and human attributes. “We can start to see healthcare as a pattern of evolutionary significant collaborative behavior, alongside hunting together, food sharing and parenting,” Spikins says. “In this we can see why providing healthcare to those in need today is such an important part of human life.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Neanderthals had a healthcare system and looked after each other

Neanderthals were able to survive almost 300,000 years in part...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/energy-drinks-harmful-young-people/">Energy drinks</a> are the coffee of the younger generations. Their ties to the sports, gaming, and partying worlds make them well suited for teens and young adults to buy them by the millions… or billions. Currently, energy drinks are responsible for over $50 billion in global sales each year, and they show no sign of slowing down – due in large part to targeted marketing efforts.

A recent report in the <a href="https://www.jneb.org/">Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior</a> has found that digital marketing of energy drinks is more persuasive with young adults than other marketing methods. “Because Internet usage among this age group is so prevalent, digital marketing of unhealthy food and beverages may have a greater effect,” explains lead author Limin Buchanan, a PhD candidate in the School of Health and Society at the <a href="https://www.uow.edu.au/index.html">University of Wollongong</a> in Australia.

In this study, researchers recruited 359 young adults from the New South Wales region. This group was mainly comprised of middle-class students who worked part-time. More than half of the group had consumed energy drinks. They were all asked to take a survey about their exposure to and engagement with energy drink marketing, as well as their attitudes towards energy drinks and frequency of consuming said drinks. 

The results showed that energy drink users reported greater exposure to and engagement with digital marketing than non-users. Exposure alone wasn’t linked to energy drink usage, but engagement was. Engagement included clicking on a social media ad or playing an online game. Individuals who engaged more with the digital marketing also had an increased attitude of normalcy towards energy drinks, and were more likely to use energy drinks when pressured by their peers.

Although energy drinks aren’t as inherently dangerous as other substances young adults may be consuming, there are some health concerns. “Consumption of energy drinks is a public health concern in children and young adults because they may cause dental problems, cardiovascular and neurological issues, and in rare cases, death,” says Buchanan.

Luckily, the study also showed that the impact of digital marketing engagement was mediated by individual’s attitudes against energy drink usage and its normalcy. This shows that educating young adults about the health issues associated with these drinks may reduce the effects of marketing. 

“Public health professionals have advocated for stronger regulations on marketing unhealthy foods to children through traditional media,” says Buchanan. “This advocacy could be expanded to include restrictions on digital marketing to young adults based on current research. Future nutrition education interventions may focus on strategies to lessen the appeal of energy drinks, denormalize energy drink use, and strengthen young adults’ ability to reject this drink option when with peers.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Energy drink marketing is especially influential to young people

Energy drinks are the coffee of the younger generations. Their...

Studies have demonstrated that our brains struggle to make a decision when faced with too many options, which is referred to by scientists as “choice overload.”

Researchers at the <a href="http://www.caltech.edu/">California Institute of Technology</a> are providing new insights into this phenomenon, including how many options the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/brains-recognize-familiar-faces/">brain</a> prefers and the regions of the brain that are involved.

For the study, participants were presented with images of scenic landscapes that they could have printed on a piece of merchandise such as a coffee mug. The volunteers were offered a variety of sets, which contained six, 12, or 24 pictures. 

As the individuals made their selections, the activity in their brains was recorded with a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine. The volunteers were also asked to browse over the images again while a computer randomly selected a picture for them.

The study revealed that brain activity spiked in two regions while the participants were making their choices - the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the striatum.The ACC is where the potential costs and benefits of decisions are weighed, while the striatum is responsible for measuring the value. 

Brain activity was found to be highest in these two regions when the participants had 12 options to pick from.

Study lead author Colin Camerer explained that this pattern can likely be explained by the interactions between the striatum and the ACC, where the increasing potential for reward is weighed against the increasing amount of work the brain will have to do to consider the possible outcomes.


The potential reward increases alongside the number of options, but then begins to level off as the return diminishes. 

“The idea is that the best out of 12 is probably rather good, while the jump to the best out of 24 is not a big improvement,” said Camerer. He explained that people tend to feel like they have more control over their lives when they have more options to choose from, even if having all those options leaves them stressed out when it is time to make a decision.

“Essentially, our eyes are bigger than our stomachs,” said Camerer. “When we think about how many choices we want, we may not be mentally representing the frustrations of making the decision.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nathumbehav">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Our brain struggles to decide when we have too many options

Studies have demonstrated that our brains struggle to make a...

Researchers at <a href="http://www.bu.edu/sph/">Boston University School of Public Health</a> are reporting that women who are under a lot of stress are much less likely to conceive a child. Out of nearly 5,000 women who were trying to become <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-over-35-cardiovascular-disease/">pregnant</a>, those who were under the most pressure at home and at work were 25 percent less likely to conceive.

Study lead author and doctoral student Amelia Wesselink said that more healthcare providers should be counseling women who are trying for a baby about the very real benefits of striking a healthy work-life balance.

The investigation was focused on 4,769 women between the ages of 21 and 45 and 1,272 men over the age of 21 who participated in the Pregnancy Study Online (PRESTO). None of the volunteers had a history of infertility, and the couples had not been trying to get pregnant for longer than six menstrual cycles.

“While some epidemiologic studies support the hypothesis that stress can adversely affect fertility, few prospective studies have assessed the association in couples from the general population,” said Wesselink.

The responses from the individuals were based on the past month, and were measured on a scale known as the perceived stress scale (PSS), in which higher scores represent a higher level of stress.

The team found that women with PSS scores of 25 or more were 13 percent less likely to conceive than those who scored under 10. Furthermore, couples were found to be 25 percent less likely to conceive when the male PSS score was under 10 and the female score was 20 or higher.

Overall, 20 to 25 percent of women and 18 to 21 percent of men of reproductive age in the United States report that they are under stress on a daily basis. According to the research, which followed up on couples for one year, stress among males had no notable effect on the pregnancy outcome.

“Higher female PSS scores were associated with slight reductions in fecundability (fertility),” said Wesselink. “Male PSS scores were not substantially associated with fecundability.”

“Although this study does not definitely prove stress causes infertility, it does provide evidence supporting the integration of mental health care in preconception guidance and care.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/aje">American Journal of Epidemiology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>. <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Women with high work-life stress have a harder time getting pregnant

Researchers at Boston University School of Public Health are reporting...

A new move by the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> could loosen restrictions that were designed to limit human exposure to radiation. This is the latest in a series of controversial proposals to weaken pollution regulations that are considered by the Trump administration to be too expensive or inconvenient for businesses.

According a new report by the <a href="https://apnews.com/amp/6a573b6b020e453c90ecd5e84aa23f57?__twitter_impression=true">AP</a>, supporters of raising the threshold for radiation exposure argue that it is time to re-evaluate radiation regulations and that weakening these limits could save billions of dollars.


Dr. Edward J. Calabrese is a professor of Environmental Health Sciences at the University of Massachusetts who is set to be the lead witness at the Congressional hearing on the proposal. Dr. Calabrese has compared small doses of radiation to exercise and sunlight, claiming that  exposure can enhance the body's ability to repair itself.

The government's current guidelines state that any exposure to harmful radiation is a cancer risk. Changes to radiation limits could be particularly dangerous for workers at nuclear power plants, oil and gas drilling sites, or in the medical field.

After a recent review of 29 public health studies, the <a href="https://ncrponline.org/">National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements</a> has reiterated that there is no risk-free level of radiation exposure.

While the latest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/epa-eliminate-science-advisor/">EPA rule</a> does not directly address radiation, Dr. Calabrese is quoted in a press release as saying that the move is a “major step forward” in re-assessing the risk of “chemicals and radiation.”

Previously this year, proposals that targeted vehicle and power plant emissions were introduced after former EPA administrator Scott Pruitt announced plans to make the scientific research used in policy-making decisions “fully transparent.” In April, Pruitt stated: “The era of secret science at EPA is coming to an end.”

The EPA says that scientific findings will only be used if they can be re-tested and reproduced, while scientists argue that some of the most important studies relevant to pollution cannot be replicated without putting people and animals at risk. 

Jan Beyea is a physicist who participated in an investigation with the National Academies of Science after the 2011 Fukushima nuclear power plant disaster. 

According to Beyea, the EPA science proposal represents voices that are “generally dismissed by the great bulk of scientists.” She explained that the latest rule would lead to increases in chemical and radiation exposures in the workplace, in the home, and outdoors. Beyea said that while the individual cancer risk may be low, the cumulative risk is not.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Report: EPA may be moving to weaken radiation regulations

A new move by the Environmental Protection Agency could loosen...

As recently as 6,000 years ago, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wind-solar-farms-sahara/">Sahara Desert</a> was not a desert at all, but was more of a tropical region with grass and lots of rain. A new study has found that the transition to desert would have happened about 500 years earlier if not for the influence of hunter-gatherers and cattle-herders, also known as pastoralists.

“The fact that societies practicing 'pastoralism' persisted in this region for so long and invested both economically and ideologically in the local landscape, does not support the scenario of over-exploitation,” said Brierley. “Our study shows that increasing human population and sustainable pastoralism did not accelerate - and may even have delayed - the decline of the Green Sahara.”

The Sahara experiences long-term rotations between dry and wet climates as the shifting tilt of Earth’s axis changes the path of seasonal monsoons. 

It was previously theorized that human activities accelerated the Sahara's most recent transition from grassland to desert. The new findings, however, suggest that these activities actually delayed desertification.

“The possibility that humans could have had a stabilizing influence on the environment has significant implications,” said study lead author Chris Brierley. “We contest the common narrative that past human-environment interactions must always be one of over-exploitation and degradation.”


The team developed a model to predict when the African Humid Period should have naturally ended based on climate data. The model simulations revealed that the “Green Sahara” should have turned to desert 500 years sooner.

“This suggests that the inclusion of increasing elements of pastoralism was an effective adaptation to the regional environmental changes,” wrote the study authors. “Pastoralism also appears to have slowed the deterioration caused by orbitally-driven climate change.”

Study co-author Katie Manning is a researcher at <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/">King's College London</a>.

“The spread of domestic animals across the Sahara occurred at a time of increasing climatic instability, and yet, these pastoralist populations thrived,” said Manning. “It is likely that strategies used by contemporary traditional herders, such as seasonal movement and selective grazing, were also used by these early pastoralists, helping to maintain an otherwise deteriorating ecosystem.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pastoralists may have delayed the desertification of the Sahara

As recently as 6,000 years ago, the Sahara Desert was...

In a very short period of time, the term “<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/people-believe-fake-news/">fake news</a>” has gone from an almost oxymoronic turn of phrase to become a crisis for media outlets around the world. Countless fake news generators have sprung up in the last year, filling social media pages and general discourse with biased, nonfactual information. While websites such as Politifact and Snopes attempt to debunk fake news as it comes out – the process is long, tedious, and overwhelming.

That is why researchers in <a href="https://www.csail.mit.edu/">MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Lab</a> (CSAIL) and the <a href="https://www.qcri.org/">Qatar Computing Research Institute</a> (QCRI) set out to find a new approach to debunking fake news. Their idea was not to focus on each fact or lack thereof individually, but to assess the news sources themselves. With this approach, they have demonstrated a new system that uses machine learning to determine if a source is factually correct or politically biased. 

“If a website has published fake news before, there’s a good chance they’ll do it again,” says postdoctoral associate Ramy Baly, the lead author on a new paper about the system. “By automatically scraping data about these sites, the hope is that our system can help figure out which ones are likely to do it in the first place.” According to Baly, the system only needs about 150 articles to reliably detect if a news source is trustworthy.

This system is the result of a collaboration between computer scientists at MIT CSAIL and QCRI, which is part of the <a href="https://hbku.edu.qa/">Hamad Bin Khalifa University</a> in Qatar. Analysis of the system’s own accuracy in determining factuality showed that it was 65 percent accurate at detecting whether an outlet has a high, medium, or low level of factuality. It also was roughly 70 percent accurate at detecting if an outlet leaned to the right, left, or was in the middle.

The researchers found that the most reliable ways to detect fake news and biased reporting were to assess the common linguistic features across the source’s stories – including sentiment, complexity, and structure. Fake news outlets were more likely to use language that was hyperbolic, subjective, and emotional. The authors say that the system also found correlations with an outlet’s Wikipedia page and its credibility. The longer pages that had fewer target words such as “extreme” or “conspiracy theory” were found to be more accurate.

However, co-author Preslav Nakov does state that this system is very much a work-in-progress, and that – even if its own accuracy was improved – it would be best to have it work alongside traditional fact-checkers. “If outlets report differently on a particular topic, a site like Politifact could instantly look at our ‘fake news’ scores for those outlets to determine how much validity to give to different perspectives,” says Nakov, a senior scientist at QCRI.

The research team also formed a new open-source dataset of more than 1,000 news sources annotated with factuality and bias score. This is the world’s largest database of its kind. Moving forward, the team plans to assess whether the English-trained system can be adapted to other languages and also determine religion-specific biases.

“It's interesting to think about new ways to present the news to people,” says Nakov. “Tools like this could help people give a bit more thought to issues and explore other perspectives that they might not have otherwise considered.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New machine learning system helps debunk fake news

In a very short period of time, the term “fake...

A new study has found that hugs may actually help protect against stress and negative emotions caused by interpersonal conflict. 

People who frequently engage in interpersonal touch often have an improved sense of wellbeing and healthier relationships. 

Researchers have theorized that touch can also buffer against the damaging mood changes associated with interpersonal conflict. 

Interpersonal conflict can strain a relationship, cause <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/2017-year-stress-pain/">stress</a>, and negatively impact a person’s health and wellbeing. 

However, most studies examining this link between touch and communication focused on the role of touch in romantic relationships. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/">Carnegie Mellon University</a> conducted a study published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0203522">PLOS ONE</a> investigating how hugs, a common gesture of love and support in a wide range of social settings, protect against conflict. 

The researchers interviewed 404 men and women consecutively every night for 14 days. 

Participants in the study were asked about any conflicts that came up, how many hugs they received, and their moods over the course of the interview period. 

A participant who reported getting a hug on the day a conflict occurred described feeling less negative emotions and the conflict didn’t have as negative an impact on positive emotions compared to people who hadn’t received a hug. 

The researchers also found that the effects of the hug lingered on and helped improve mood and psychological well being in the days following a conflict. 

More research is needed to help confirm the theories that interpersonal touch can buffer against interpersonal conflict, but the study shows that something as simple as a hug can help positively impact someone’s mood and well-being. 

“This research is in its early stages. We still have questions about when, how, and for whom hugs are most helpful,” said Michael Murphy, the lead author of the study. “However, our study suggests that consensual hugs might be useful for showing support to somebody enduring relationship conflict.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The healing power of a hug is real, new study reveals

A new study has found that hugs may actually help...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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