Cities are becoming more than just human-built environments. Their light and heat now influence how plants grow. 



A major international study confirms this shift. Artificial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-artificial-light-can-boost-coral-reef-recovery/">lighting</a> lengthens the growing season in urban areas more than heat does.



The researchers analyzed satellite data from 428 cities across the Northern Hemisphere between 2014 and 2020. They found urban plant growth begins earlier and ends later than in nearby rural areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-lights-affect-plant-growth">City lights affect plant growth </h2>



Urban heat islands form when buildings and roads trap warmth. Cities also get brighter each year. 



Artificial light at night (ALAN) has grown nearly 10% annually over the last decade. Both heat and light alter plant growing seasons, but this study reveals light matters more.



"ALAN is a critical driver of vegetation dynamics in cities," noted the researchers. The artificial light changes how plants respond to seasonal cues, especially during autumn when natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-disrupts-honeybee-sleep-patterns/">light</a> typically declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-plants-grow-earlier-and-stay-green">Urban plants grow earlier and stay green</h2>



Across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-skyglow-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycle-in-lakes/">cities</a>, the growing season starts 12.6 days earlier and ends 11.2 days later than rural zones. That is over three weeks of extended green time.



Spring ALAN levels increased exponentially from rural to urban centers. In contrast, temperature rose more gradually. Spring light intensity climbed from 3.1 to 53.3 nW cm² sr⁻¹ across city gradients. Autumn changes followed similar trends.



The study revealed a strong correlation between higher ALAN and delayed leaf drop. EOS (end of season) was more strongly influenced by ALAN than by temperature in nearly half the cities examined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-continents-and-climates-respond-differently">Continents and climates respond differently</h2>



Europe experienced the earliest start to spring, with Asia following and North America close behind.



Despite being the brightest overall, North American cities showed the smallest shift in plant growing season timing. This suggests that more light does not always mean bigger changes in plant behavior.



Different Köppen climate zones responded in varied ways to artificial light. ALAN had the strongest effect in cold climates without dry seasons and in temperate zones with dry summers or winters. 



In these areas, artificial light advanced spring plant growth more than rising temperatures did. This shows that light can override the usual seasonal cues driven by warmth.



However, end-of-season (EOS) patterns were more consistent. In nearly every climate, artificial light delayed the end of plant activity. 



Even in warmer or drier zones, nighttime light caused plants to hold onto their leaves longer. This widespread delay in senescence shows how deeply city lighting alters natural plant rhythms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latitude-and-light-sensitivity">Latitude and light sensitivity</h2>



The farther north a city lies, the more its plants respond to artificial light. In higher latitudes, the natural variation in daylight is more extreme. This makes plants especially sensitive to artificial night lighting.



“ALAN acts as an artificial extension of natural daylight,” wrote the study authors. In high-latitude cities, it disrupts the signals that tell plants when to shed their leaves.



Temperature still plays a role, especially in triggering spring growth. But ALAN’s influence on leaf fall in autumn now appears stronger and more widespread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-led-light-shifts-plant-timing-in-cities">LED light shifts plant timing in cities</h2>



The shift from sodium lamps to white LEDs has intensified ALAN effects. LEDs emit more blue light, which plants detect through specialized receptors. That may change how plants time their seasonal shifts.



“Plants sense different wavelengths through different photoreceptor pathways,” noted the researchers. 



However, most satellites cannot yet detect blue light well. Future monitoring will need to include this spectral range to track ecological impacts accurately.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-greener-cities">Looking beyond greener cities</h2>



Longer growing seasons may sound beneficial. Trees may take up more carbon and offer better shade. But there are downsides. A longer leaf season raises the risk of frost damage, mismatched plant-pollinator cycles, and more severe allergy seasons.



City planners face a complex challenge. Lighting designs must meet safety needs but avoid harming plants. 



A smarter urban lighting strategy could reduce ecosystem disruptions while maintaining livable cities. Urban ecology is shifting under our feet and our lights. It is time we took notice.



The researchers are affiliated with&nbsp;<a href="https://www.whu.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wuhan University</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vanderbilt University</a>&nbsp;,&nbsp;<a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.igb-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.fu-berlin.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Freie Universität Berlin</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a>&nbsp;, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a>&nbsp;.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44284-025-00258-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Cities</a>.



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Plants grow longer in cities due to artificial light

Cities are becoming more than just human-built environments. Their light and heat now influence how plants grow. A major international study confirms this shift. Artificial lighting lengthens the growing season in urban areas more than heat does. The researchers analyzed satellite data from 428 cities across the Northern Hemisphere between 2014 and 2020. They found urban plant growth begins earlier and ends later than in nearby rural areas. City lights affect plant growth  Urban heat islands form when buildings and roads trap warmth. Cities also get brighter...

Recent estimations suggest that up to two-thirds of the Arctic’s near-surface permafrost might disappear by the end of the century due to climate change. A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01162-y">Nature Climate Change</a> warns that rapidly melting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-years-ozone-hole-is-larger-than-antarctica/">Arctic</a> permafrost could cause the spread of nuclear waste and previously unknown pathogens. 



The Arctic permafrost covers nine million square miles and dates up to one million years ago. Over the millennia, it has housed a large variety of microbes and chemical compounds that could be released into the atmosphere once the permafrost melts.



“Changes in the Arctic’s climate and ecology will influence every part of the planet as it feeds carbon back to the atmosphere and raises sea levels,” said study co-author Arwyn Edwards, a Reader in Biology at <a href="https://www.aber.ac.uk/en/">Aberystwyth University</a>. “This review identifies how other risks can arise from the warming Arctic. It has long been a deep-freezer for a range of harmful things, not just greenhouse gases."&nbsp;



"We need to understand more about the fate of these harmful microbes and pollutants and nuclear materials to properly understand the threats they may pose.”



Between 1955 and 1990, the Soviet Union conducted 130 nuclear weapon tests in the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, releasing 265 megatons of nuclear energy. Furthermore, over 100 decommissioned nuclear submarines were scuttled in the Kara and Barents Seas.&nbsp;



However, the Soviet Union is not the only culprit for making the permafrost a deposit of dangerous compounds. The United States' Camp Century nuclear-powered research facility in Greenland also produced a large amount of nuclear waste, which is now scattered within the Greenland ice sheet.



In addition to these man-made chemicals, the permafrost also houses a variety of ancient pathogens. Scientists have already discovered more than 100 species of microorganisms in the Siberian deep permafrost that appear to be antibiotic resistant. As permafrost thaws, there is a strong chance for these pathogens to mix with meltwater and mutate into other antibiotic-resistant strains that could easily cause future pandemics.&nbsp;



“It’s important to understand the secondary and tertiary impacts of these large-scale Earth changes such as permafrost thaw,” warned study lead author Dr. Kimberley Miner, an Earth and Climate Scientist at <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



"While some of the hazards associated with the thaw of up to a million years of material have been captured, we are a long way from being able to model and predict exactly when and where they will happen. This research is critical.”&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Permafrost melting may release nuclear waste into the atmosphere

Recent estimations suggest that up to two-thirds of the Arctic’s...

As the human population increases into the mid-21st century, along with its demands for resources, we are faced with the task of working out how to supply food and other goods to people while simultaneously mitigating the effects on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">biodiversity</a> and nature.



“Figuring out how to feed, clothe and power 11 billion people without causing mass species extinction and wrecking the climate is this century’s greatest challenge,” said Andrew Balmford, a professor of Conservation Science at the University of Cambridge and author of a new review on the topic.&nbsp;“Preserving diverse life while meeting humanity’s needs will mean enormous trade-offs, but the evidence is starting to point in one direction.”



Professor Balmford’s review summarizes a decade of global research on trade-offs between crop production and biodiversity.&nbsp;It also uses data from more than 2,500 individually assessed plant, insect and vertebrate species from five continents. The research highlights that there is an urgent need to limit humanity’s escalating impacts on nature while still providing for the needs of the ever-increasing human population.&nbsp;



To this end, Professor Balmford lays out the case for concentrating farming activities in limited, high-yield enterprises that use less land and use it more effectively. This then allows other lands to be spared for re-wilding and the exclusive use of nature.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Most species fare better under this “land sparing” approach than if farming tries to share land with nature – as wildlife-friendly agriculture still damages biodiversity and requires far more land to produce the same amount of food.



Cambridge-led studies on bird and tree species in India and West Africa found that, while all species are “losers” if mid-century food targets are met, more species “fare least badly” under extreme land sparing: concentrated farming that allows the freeing-up of more natural habitat.



“Colleagues have replicated these findings in field sites ranging from Mexico and the Pampas to Colombia and Kazakhstan,” said Professor Balmford. “Most species are specialized to particular environments. Even minor disruptions reduce their populations. This is why so many species decline even with gentler farming.”



“Most species fare much better if habitats are left intact, which means reducing the space needed for farming. So areas that are farmed need to be as productive as we can possibly make them."



He recognizes that some species do thrive on traditional farmlands, particularly in Europe, and so he has proposed that some lightly farmed areas need to remain in order to accommodate the conservation needs of these species. This implies a three-compartment model to farming in the future: high-yield farms maximize food production in the smallest possible land area; some low-yield farming areas are left where species specializing in these habitats can flourish; and the rest of the land is spared for the protection of natural habitats and their associated biodiversity.&nbsp;



The National Food Strategy (NFS), commissioned by the UK government and published this past summer, recommended that Balmford’s three-compartment model should form the basis of a new “Rural Land Use framework." This approach sees high-productivity farming being concentrated into the smallest possible area, thus sparing lands to return to natural habitat. The NFS points out that around 21 percent of farmed land in England will need to be rewilded to some extent or used for biofuel if the UK is to meet its net zero targets for emissions.



Concentrating farming activities in smaller areas while leaving and increasing natural habitats will create a patchwork landscape that will not only conserve species but also allow them to “seed” and repopulate entire regions and nations. These species will no longer be isolated in small fragments of natural habitat but will be able to spread throughout the patchwork of available rewilded lands.



Professor Balmford highlights the success of just four square kilometers of restored wetland near Lakenheath in the east of England. Covered with carrot fields as recently as 1995, the site is now a launchpad for egrets spreading northwards under climate change, and home to the first breeding cranes seen in The Fens for over 300 years.



Additionally, emerging evidence from areas including the Andes, the US and the UK suggests that “land sparing” is important in the fight against climate change, as carbon storage levels are higher if high-yield production allows for more natural vegetation. In this connection, previous research by Balmford suggests that if 30 percent of UK land was spared for woods and wetlands, it could store enough carbon to offset almost all emissions from UK farming by 2050 – and provide a colossal boost to British wildlife.



Important questions remain about how to deliver high yields sustainably, and also about how to ensure that high-yield farming goes hand-in-hand with the protection and restoration of habitats and is not simply used as an excuse for farmers to make more profit.



The framework can also be applied in other fields, including urban planning, recreation, forestry and fisheries. For example, New Zealand is taking the “sparing” approach in forestry management where over 70 percent of forests are protected while the trees are intensively harvested from pockets of pine plantation.&nbsp;



In addition, research suggests the “sparing” philosophy also offers hope for depleted oceans. Fish farming and concentrated areas of locally intensive fishing could provide enough food to allow dramatic expansion of “no-take” marine protected areas where species diversity and natural ecosystems could be left to flourish.&nbsp;



Crucially, future land management policies of this type must be linked to the ability to meet humanity’s need for food and other resources. “You can’t convince people to save nature if they are hungry. We need to ensure we can harvest enough from the biosphere while preserving the planet,” said Professor Balmford. “Conservation has to be pragmatic if we are to interrupt an ecological catastrophe.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14697998">Journal of Zoology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Farmland must be spared, not shared, for nature to thrive

As the human population increases into the mid-21st century, along...

A new study led by the <a href="https://icahn.mssm.edu/">Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a> has found that exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/illegal-cannabis-farms-infringe-on-crucial-animal-habitats/">THC</a>, the main psychoactive ingredient of cannabis, can cause birth defects in genetically-predisposed mice.&nbsp;



Cannabis is one of the most frequently used recreational drugs, and is also one of the most common drugs used by pregnant women. However, its effects on embryonic development are not yet clearly understood.&nbsp;



Although it is still restricted in most countries, cannabis has been increasingly legalized for recreational and medical consumption in a variety of places, thus causing the number of its consumers to grow significantly.&nbsp;



According to a research team led by Robert Krauss, a professor of Cell, Developmental, and Regenerative Biology at the Icahn School of Medicine, exposure to THC could exacerbate a mutation that affects a mechanism that cells use to communicate to each other called <a href="http://annalsofneurosciences.org/journal/index.php/annal/article/view/531">Hedgehog signaling</a>.&nbsp;



“Several years ago, it was reported that THC could inhibit Hedgehog signalling in cells grown in a dish,” said Professor Krauss. “We reasoned that THC might be an environmental risk factor for birth defects, but that it would require additional risk factors, such as specific mutations in the genes required for Hedgehog signalling, to induce these defects in mice.”



In order to test this hypothesis, the scientists administered a single dose of THC to pregnant mice approximately a week after conception. Afterward, they studied the embryonic development of the pups, some of which carried a mutation affecting their Hedgehog signaling system.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that the pups without the mutation developed normally, even when exposed to THC. However, the pups that carried the mutation and were exposed to the drug developed a face and brain defect called holoprosencephaly, which is characterized by the failure of the embryonic brain to divide into two lobes.



The findings could have important implications for human health too. “The THC concentration in cannabis is now very high, so it is important to perform epidemiology studies looking at whether cannabis consumption is associated with developmental defects."&nbsp;



"Women are already advised not to consume cannabis while pregnant, but our results show that embryos are sensitive at a very early period, before many women know they are pregnant. Cannabis consumption may therefore be inadvisable even when women are trying to get pregnant,” warned Professor Krauss.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.199585">Development</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How does cannabis use affect embryonic development?

A new study led by the Icahn School of Medicine...

A new meta-analysis led by <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a> has integrated the findings of 134 studies about the impact on consumer choice of color-coded nutrition labels and warnings from the front of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-seafood-has-one-sixth-the-carbon-footprint-of-red-meat/">food</a> packaging. 



The results of the analysis suggest that color-coded nutrition labels encourage people to make healthful purchases, while warning labels discourage customers to buy less healthy products. Thus, both labeling strategies appear to be highly beneficial for public health.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Some countries have introduced mandatory labels on the front of food products that show their nutritional values, or warn consumers about some unhealthy features that the products might have. Officials hope that such labeling strategies might help reduce the burden of disease associated to poor diets, and thus have an important impact on public health.



In order to clarify how four different types of front-of-package nutrition and warning labels influence consumer choice, Jing Song, a doctoral student at Queen Mary University, and his research team, conducted a network meta-analysis of data collected from 134 peer-reviewed studies published between January 1990 and May 2021. Their analysis showed that all four labeling systems seemed to have significant advantages in encouraging consumers to buy healthier products.



“This study found that color-coded labels and warning labels are all able to direct consumers towards more healthful purchase behavior,” explained the study authors. “Color-coded labels can promote the purchase of more healthful products, while warning labels discourage the purchase of less healthful products.”



A better understanding of the nutritional qualities of each product appeared to influence consumers to select foods and drinks with lower levels of energy, sodium, fats, and saturated fats. The findings can help refine policies of food labeling in order to improve public health, and perhaps also provide guidance to the food industry to reformulate some of their less healthy products.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003765">PLOS Medicine</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nutrition labels help people buy healthier products

A new meta-analysis led by Queen Mary University of London...

Society is becoming increasingly aware of the detrimental effects that rising CO2 levels will have on the climate, but until recently, little has been known about the effect that this will have on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-origin-of-photosynthesis/">photosynthesis</a>. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/">University of Birmingham</a> exposed old oak trees to elevated levels of CO2.. Over the course of three years, the 175-year-old oaks responded to rising CO2 levels by increasing their rate of photosynthesis.



The team worked in collaboration with colleagues from Western Sydney University’s EucFACE eucalyptus forest. The university is conducting the experiment with an old oak forest, using CO2 levels that represent the average levels expected by 2050.&nbsp;



The researchers measured carbon levels within the wood, roots, leaves, and soil of the oak trees in order to pinpoint changes in photosynthesis and locate where and how excess CO2 is stored.



“I’m really excited to contribute the first published science results to BIFoR FACE, an experiment of global importance," expressed lead researcher Anna Gardner. “It was hard work conducting measurements at the top of a 25 m oak day after day, but it was the only way to be sure how much extra the trees were photosynthesizing."



The results of the study concluded that photosynthesis rates of the oak trees increased by up to a third, with the highest rate of change being found in trees exposed to strong sunlight.



It was also discovered that ratios of the key nutrients carbon and nitrogen did not change in the leaves, demonstrating that the old oak trees can adapt to redirect nitrogen into the soil to balance out the increased intake of carbon.



“Previous work at EucFACE measured photosynthesis increased by up to a fifth in increased carbon dioxide," explained Professor David Ellsworth. "So, we now know how old forest responds in the warm-temperate climate that we have here in Sydney and the mild temperate climate of the northern middle latitudes where Birmingham sits. At EucFACE we found no additional growth in higher CO2, and it remains to be seen if that will be the case for BIFOR as well.”



“We are sure now that the old trees are responding to future carbon dioxide levels," said Professor Rob MacKenzie, Founding Director of BIFoR. "How the entire forest ecosystem responds is a much bigger question requiring many more detailed investigations. We are now pushing ahead with those investigations.”



The results of the study have been published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/treephys">Tree Physiology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Old oak trees ramp up photosynthesis in response to rising CO2

Society is becoming increasingly aware of the detrimental effects that...

There is evidence that psychedelic mushrooms, popularly known as “magic mushrooms,” have been consumed by humans for over six millennia. In 1958, Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman was the first to isolate and synthesize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-treatment-rapidly-relieves-symptoms-of-major-depression/">psilocybin</a>, the main psychoactive ingredient of magic mushrooms. The potential for psilocybin to treat severe depression has been scientifically acknowledged, and clinical trials are currently underway.&nbsp;



A new study has found that psilocybin also enhances emotional responses to music among healthy individuals. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> and <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> tested a cohort of participants on their emotional response to music after being given psilocybin. In addition, a control group was given ketanserin, an antihypertensive drug with no marked psychological effects.&nbsp;



At the peak of the psilocybin effects, participants listened to a short music program, comprising Elgar’s Engima Variations no. 8 and 9 and Mozart’s Laudate Dominum, and were asked to rate their emotional response according to the <a href="https://www.uibk.ac.at/psychologie/fachbereiche/pdd/personality_assessment/gems/about-the-gems/index.html.en">Geneva Emotional Music Scale</a>.



Study lead author Dea Siggaard Stenbæk is an associate professor who specializes in Affective Cognitive Neuroscience and Crisis Psychology at the University of Copenhagen.



“We found that psilocybin markedly enhanced the emotional response to music, when compared to the response before taking the drugs. On the measurement scale we used, psilocybin increased the emotional response to music by around 60 percent,” said Professor Stenbæk. 



“This shows that the combination of psilocybin and music has a strong emotional effect, and we believe that this will be important for the therapeutic application of psychedelics if they are approved for clinical use. Psilocybin is under development as a drug to treat depression, and this work implies that music needs to be considered as a therapeutic part of the treatment.”



The findings suggest that the enhanced emotional processing may be a positive outcome of combining psylocibin with music, which means that scientists should use music as an active component of psylocibin therapy. 



David J. Nutt, a professor of Neuropharmacology at Imperial College London, said that psilocybin-based depression treatments could be optimized by personalizing the music tracks used in therapy.



According to the study authors, understanding the contribution of enhanced music-evoked emotions to other psychedelic phenomena - such as mystical type experiences - will also be important for establishing music as a key element in psychedelic therapy.



This research was presented at the <a href="https://www.ecnp.eu/Congress2021/ECNPcongress">European College of Neuropharmacology (ECNP) Congress</a> in Lisbon, Portugal.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Magic mushrooms enhance music appreciation

There is evidence that psychedelic mushrooms, popularly known as “magic...

Mangroves are a type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-trees-change-their-genetic-structure-to-adapt/">trees</a>, palms, and shrubs that are usually found along tropical and subtropical coastlines, thriving in the vicinity of salt water. However, an ancient mangrove ecosystem located in the Yucatán Peninsula more than 120 miles away from the nearest ocean has recently attracted considerable scientific attention due to its unusual location.



Carlos Burelo, a native of the region and researcher at the <a href="https://www.ujat.mx/">Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco</a>, drew the attention of the scientific community to the existence of this ecosystem in 2016. “I used to fish here and play on these mangroves as a kid, but we never knew precisely how they got there,” said Burelo. “That was the driving question that brought the team together.”



Integrating geologic, genetic, and vegetation data with sea-level modeling, the scientists found that the mangrove forests had reached their current location during the last interglacial period, about 125,000 years ago, and have remained there in isolation as the temperatures dropped and the oceans receded during the last Ice Age.



“The most amazing part of this study is that we were able to examine a mangrove ecosystem that has been trapped in time for more than 100,000 years,” said study co-author Octavio Aburto-Oropeza, a Marine Ecologist at the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>.&nbsp;



“There is certainly more to discover about how the many species in this ecosystem adapted throughout different environmental conditions over the past 100,000 years. Studying these past adaptations will be very important for us to better understand future conditions in a changing climate.”



The study sheds light on the extensive landscape impact past periods of climate change had on the world’s coastlines. During the last interglacial period, most of the Gulf of Mexico’s coastal lowlands were under water, which retreated only when temperatures started to fall. However, besides providing a glimpse into the ancient geography of the Mexican tropics, these findings also help us better understand how current climate change could affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-at-an-alarming-rate/">sea-levels</a>.&nbsp;



“The story of Pleistocene glacial cycles is written in the DNA of its plants waiting for scientists to decipher it but, more importantly, the San Pedro mangroves are warning us about the dramatic impact that climate change could have on the coastal plains of the Gulf of Mexico if we do not take urgent action to stop the emission of greenhouse gases,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2024518118">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mangrove forest reveals ancient climate change effects

Mangroves are a type of trees, palms, and shrubs that...

A recent study has investigated the mechanisms through which apples get their particular shapes (mostly spherical, with a cusp at the top where the stems grow). Using observations, lab experiments, theories, and computations, a team of mathematicians and physicists led by the <a href="https://www.seas.harvard.edu/">Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences</a> (SEAS) is shedding new light on the growth and form of apple cusps.



The research team collected apples at various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-animals-rely-on-the-same-chemicals-for-growth/">growth</a> stages from an orchard at <a href="https://www.pet.cam.ac.uk/">Peterhouse College</a> and mapped the growth of their cusp over time. Next, they used numerical simulations to understand how differential growth between the fruit cortex and the core drives the formation of the cusp. Finally, they corroborated these computations with experiments mimicking the growth of apples using gel that swelled over time.



“Being able to control and replay morphogenesis of singular cusps in the laboratory with simple material toolkits was particularly exciting,” said&nbsp;co-author Aditi Chakrabarti, a postdoctoral fellow at SEAS. “Varying the geometry and composition of the gel mimics showed how multiple cusps form, as seen in some apples and other drupes, such as peaches, apricots, cherries and plums.”



Scientists discovered that different rates of growth between the bulk of the apples and their stalk regions resulted in the dimple-like cusp. In order to explain the evolution of cusps’ shapes, they turned to a mathematical theory known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/mathematics/singularity-theory">singularity theory</a>, which is used to describe a large variety of different phenomena, ranging from mundane ones such as the light patterns forming at the bottom of a swimming pool to more esoteric ones, such as black holes.



“Biological shapes are often organized by the presence of structures that serve as focal points,” explained study senior author Lakshminarayanan Mahadevan, a professor of Applied Mathematics, Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, and Physics at SEAS. “These focal points can sometimes take the form of singularities where deformations are localized. A ubiquitous example is seen in the cusp of an apple, the inward dimple where the stalk meets the fruit.”



“Morphogenesis, literally the origin of shape, is one of the grand questions in biology. The shape of the humble apple has allowed us to probe some physical aspects of a biological singularity. Of course, we now need to understand the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind the formation of the cusp, as we move slowly towards a broader theory of biological shape,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41567-021-01335-8">Nature Physics</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do apples get their shape?

A recent study has investigated the mechanisms through which apples...

In the last few decades, scientists and environmentalists have constantly raised their concerns on the increasing impact of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-ecosystems-are-important-carbon-sinks/">ecosystems</a>. One such concern is the extinction of numerous species of flora and fauna.&nbsp;



"With climate change and natural area loss pushing more and more species to the brink, now is the time to lift up proactive, collaborative, and innovative efforts to save America's wildlife," said Deb Haaland, U.S. Interior Secretary.



A recent proposal by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> intends to declare 23 federally protected species as extinct. The list includes a fruit bat, 11 birds, eight freshwater mussels, two types of fish, and a flowering plant in the mint family.&nbsp;



This would be the largest group of animals and plants to be formally declared extinct under America's main wildlife protection legislation, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) since it was passed in 1973.



Previously, only 11 species listed under the act have been classified as extinct over the years, said Brian Hires, a representative for the Interior Department agency&nbsp;



It is important to note that the Endangered Species Act has achieved a certain level of success as well. According to Hires, "54 species including the American peregrine falcon and bald eagle were removed from protected status due to their recovery, and another 56 species have been 'down-listed' from endangered to threatened."&nbsp;



Scientists have cautioned that the list of extinct species may lengthen in the near future as more species are predicted to become extinct due to human-caused climate change and habitat destruction. Currently, a total of more than 1,600 domestic animal and plant species are listed under the Endangered Species Act.



According to the US Wildlife Service, since 1970, avian populations as a whole have diminished by nearly 3 billion birds in the North American region due to rapid environmental changes linked to human activities.



America's largest woodpecker, the ivory-billed woodpecker most commonly known as the "Lord God Bird," was last sighted in 1944 and will now be officially declared extinct. Experts state that the destruction of its habitat due to logging of old-growth forests in the southern parts of the United States resulted in its extinction.



Bachman's warbler, one of America's rarest songbirds, is also included on the list. Since 1962, it has not been sighted in the wild in the United States. The last reported sighting of the migratory bird occurred in Cuba in 1981.



In 1967, the ivory-billed woodpecker and the warbler were first designated as endangered under the Endangered Species Preservation Act, which served as a forerunner to the ESA.



Eleven of the twenty-three species recommended for classification as extinct are indigenous to Hawaii and the Pacific Islands. Experts believe that heightened risks presented by their very limited geographic range may have caused their extinction.



The wildlife service will accept public comments on the proposal and a final decision will be published on Dec. 29, 2021.&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

23 species to be declared extinct in the United States

In the last few decades, scientists and environmentalists have constantly...

The Bigleaf Maple is a tree native to the wet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-mountain-forests-store-huge-amounts-of-carbon/">forests</a> of the Pacific Northwest, famous for hosting leaves that can grow to an unbelievable 1.5 feet in width. However, new research from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> predicts a bleak future for the Bigleaf Maple.



Hikers, residents, and scientists have observed an increasing number of stressed and dying Bigleaf Maples since 2011. The new study has concluded that the root cause of this decline is the increasingly hot and dry summers in Washington, ultimately weakening the tree immune systems.



“These trees can tolerate a lot, but once you start throwing in other factors, particularly severe summer drought as in recent years, it stresses the trees and can lead to their death,” explained study co-author Patrick Tobin, associate professor in the UW School of Environmental and Forest Sciences.



While climate change is an obvious culprit for the change in Washington’s climate, the study found that human development is another key contributor. The research showed that the Bigleaf Maples are significantly less likely to survive in hot urban areas, near roads, and other man-made structures.



“Managing, protecting, and utilizing our urban and wild ecosystems in the face of climate change and human population growth is and will continue to be one of the major challenges facing us,” stated lead author Jacob Betzen, a biological technician with the U.S. Forest Service.



The researchers revisited 36 roadside and 59 pastoral sites of Bigleaf Maples, collecting soil, leaves, stems, and tree cores from locations that had previously been sampled in 2014 and 2015. Tree cores allow scientists to analyze the age, weather history, and growth rate of trees without cutting them down, a process that showed that over a quarter of the 95 trees were declining rapidly.



“These results show that summer heat and drought impact the health of iconic tree species of Washington, like bigleaf maple, even in Western Washington, a region known for abundant precipitation. Health impacts to our forests and tree species are likely to continue as we have increased periods of drought each year,” said co-author Amy Ramsey, an environmental planner and forest pathologist with Washington DNR.



Whilst it is likely too late to prevent the already rising heat and dryness of summers in Washington, Betzen and his co-researchers hope that the findings will encourage conservation efforts. Preventing the urbanization of suitable forest habitats, using seed stock better, and treating Bigleaf Maples already present in urban areas all present themselves as potentially effective conservation methods.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/forest-ecology-and-management">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bigleaf Maple decline caused by hot, dry summers

The Bigleaf Maple is a tree native to the wet...

Despite the fact that photosynthesis has been taught in schools for centuries, experts still do not have a precise estimate of when the process first arose on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-polar-ice-is-warping-earths-crust/">Earth</a>. In a new study, scientists at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have pinpointed exactly when cyanobacteria evolved oxygenic photosynthesis.



The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis allowed cyanobacteria to turn light and water into energy, resulting in the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere and oceans and kickstarting the diversification of life on Earth's habitat.



The MIT scientists, based in the Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, developed a new genetic analysis technique that traced the origin of cyanobacteria back to 2.9 billion years ago.



This evolutionary process began when ancestors of cyanobacteria branched off from other bacteria around 3.4 million years ago, with photosynthesis as we know it arising within the next 500,000 years.



“In evolution, things always start small,” explained study lead author Greg Fournier. “Even though there’s evidence for early oxygenic photosynthesis - which is the single most important and really amazing evolutionary innovation on Earth - it still took hundreds of millions of years for it to take off.”



Fournier explained that variation in results between genetic analysis techniques can have great implications on our perception of evolutionary narratives. The new technique suggests that photosynthesis developed over 500,000 years after the rise of cyanobacteria, while past techniques suggested that the roots appeared far later, with rapid development of photosynthesis following shortly after.



“In order for us to understand the history of habitability on Earth, it’s important for us to distinguish between these hypotheses,” Fournier explained.



The new genetic analysis technique combines both molecular clock dating and horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer essentially concerns the tracking of genes developing from other species, as opposed to traditional ‘vertical’ inheritance.



The method allows researchers to pinpoint timeframes that genes originated from more precisely, helping to determine the relative ages between bacterial groups. This can then be incorporated with traditional molecular clock prediction models.



Essentially, the hybrid analysis technique was used to locate horizontal genetic transfer across cyanobacteria, identifying 34 instances that matched one out of six existing molecular clock models.



Using this model to estimate the age of the origins of cyanobacteria, the team found that the "crown" group of cyanobacteria branched off from other bacteria around 3.4 billion years ago. Ultimately, this indicated that photosynthesis had already been happening for half a billion years, tipping the Earth into the GOE and thus life diversification.



“This work shows that molecular clocks incorporating horizontal gene transfers (HGTs) promise to reliably provide the ages of groups across the entire tree of life, even for ancient microbes that have left no fossil record… something that was previously impossible," said Fournier.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists investigate the origin of photosynthesis

Despite the fact that photosynthesis has been taught in schools...

Honeybees can be infected by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-could-cause-a-surge-in-coronavirus-cases/">virus</a> that makes their wings develop in an abnormal manner and causes them to fly poorly, or even lose their ability to fly altogether. The infection has also been shown to affect the ability of bees to learn and remember, which means that they may lose their way and not return home after a foraging trip. Bees that do not return to the hive at night are likely to die.



Bee colonies have been declining in number globally, and this has serious consequences for the pollination of important food crops. Scientists suggest this decline is due, in part, to the effects of the numerous different pathogens that infect bees.&nbsp;



The results of a recent study, published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>, indicate that a cheap, naturally occurring compound can prevent and even reverse the effects of Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) on infected honeybees.&nbsp;



“Pathogens are definitely a stressor for bees,” said study first author Cheng-Kang Tang at National Taiwan University. “But the beekeepers don’t want to use pesticides because of food safety concerns. So, we set out to find some compounds that can increase the strength of bees.”



The scientists found that DWV suppresses the expression of genes associated with nerve impulse transmission and other processes related to learning and memory in bees. Past research has shown that feeding aged mice with sodium butyrate (NaB), a common compound found in plants and in human intestines, can significantly improve their memories. Furthermore, NaB is known to increase the expression of genes in a range of different animals.&nbsp;



A previous study by the same authors demonstrated that including NaB in the diet of honeybees resulted in a significant increase in the expression of genes involved in immunity as well as in learning and memory. NaB also restored learning ability in bees that had been treated with neonicotinoid, an ingredient in some pesticides. Therefore, the researchers set out to test whether adding NaB to the diet of honeybees would improve their ability to resist the effects of infection with DWV.&nbsp;



A team led by Yueh-Lung Wu at National Taiwan University initially fed bees with NaB-laced sugar water for a week before infecting them with DWV. More than 90 percent of these bees remained alive after five days, while 90 percent of the infected bees that didn’t get NaB died over the same period.



“Our findings show that feeding the insects with NaB before virus exposure can counteract the negative impacts of the pathogen,” said Wu. “We also found previously that NaB can upregulate some immune response genes in bees, and this can help suppress viral replication and improve bees’ chances at survival.”



After finding this result, Wu’s team monitored the numbers of bees leaving and returning to several different beehives on a bee farm. The data, collected over a month, showed that in hives infected with DWV, only half of the foraging bees managed to return to the hive, while more than 80 percent of the bees fed with NaB sugar water were able to return.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It is a really interesting study because we tested the effect of NaB on bees across different scales, from the genetic level, to behaviors in the lab, then in the field under a natural scenario,” said Wu.&nbsp;



“Sodium butyrate is really cheap. So, if we can prove its benefits, it would be an easy and affordable approach for beekeepers to keep their bees. Honeybees are important pollinators of myriad fruits and vegetables with economic importance worldwide and therefore are crucial for maintaining the balance of the ecosystem”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compound may help diseased honeybees find their way home

Honeybees can be infected by a virus that makes their...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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