Across the United States, a quiet crisis is unfolding in forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Native plants, many of which have thrived in their home ecosystems for thousands of years, now face an impossible race. 



Climate change is shifting temperature zones and seasonal patterns faster than these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> can naturally respond. Unlike animals, most plants cannot migrate quickly. Their slow dispersal, tied to seed movement and favorable growing conditions, means many will not survive unless we intervene.



Scientists and conservationists are grappling with a difficult question: Should we help these native species relocate? And if so, how do we do it responsibly?



The idea of helping plants move into nearby habitats, known as “managed relocation,” is gaining momentum. But moving plants is not without danger. 



Many invasive species, which now plague American ecosystems, arrived in similar ways - carried by humans, intentionally or not, into places they never belonged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-native-plants-may-save-them">Moving native plants may save them</h2>



Managed relocation sounds like a solution, but it comes with serious risks. The ecological scars of past mistakes remain. Kudzu, once planted for erosion control, now chokes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>. 



Purple loosestrife clogs wetlands. Japanese honeysuckle overruns fields. All were introduced with good intentions. All became ecological threats.



Despite these examples, doing nothing could be worse. Climate projections show ecosystems changing rapidly, putting slow-moving native species at risk of extinction. Human-assisted movement might be their only shot.



Thomas Nuhfer is the lead author of a new study published in Global Change Biology and a graduate student in organismic and evolutionary biology at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>.



​“We know that, because of climate, native species need to move,” said Nuhfer. "But many of the people working to manage invasive plant species have real concerns about unwittingly contributing to the problem if we start moving native species around.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessing-native-plant-traits">Assessing native plant traits</h2>



To solve this challenge, researchers need to understand what makes some plants thrive in new places and others wreak havoc. 



This is where Nuhfer and his advisor, Professor Bethany Bradley, step in. Their new research examines how specific plant traits contribute to success (and potential risk) when relocating native species.



“We’ve made the mistake of introducing invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> so many times in the past and we don’t want to keep making that mistake. But in a changing climate, doing nothing might do even more harm," said Professor Bradley. 



The team in Bradley’s lab has already shown that controlling invasive species is one of the strongest tools local communities can use to prepare for climate change. The researchers have tracked how invasive species numbers are rising rapidly.



In many ecosystems, plants and animals need to shift their range by at least 3.25 kilometers per year just to keep pace with warming temperatures and shifting seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-candidates-for-relocation">Good candidates for relocation</h2>



The study was focused on the traits that determine whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-lettuce-nasas-plans-to-grow-nutritious-plants-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> can successfully relocate - and whether it will become a problem after doing so.



Traits like rapid growth, long flowering periods, and seed dispersal by wind often help plants survive in new environments. But these same traits have also been used to flag invasive species.



“We often use specific plant characteristics - like how quickly a plant grows, how long it flowers or whether its seeds can be spread by the wind - to determine its risk of becoming invasive,” said Nuhfer. “But these are also traits that could help a native species to survive in a new environment.”



The study draws from a wide range of literature in both restoration and invasion ecology. The researchers also reviewed the risk assessment tools used by land managers. 



Their conclusion is that many traits promoting establishment are shared by both invasive and native species.



However, key differences emerge later - particularly when plants begin to spread. It’s in this phase that certain traits, such as size or toxicity, begin to distinguish potentially harmful species from those that simply need help surviving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drawing-the-line-between-help-and-harm">Drawing the line between help and harm</h2>



Some traits, like a high metabolic rate, support a plant’s ability to establish itself in new surroundings. These traits apply to both native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and invasive ones. But other traits, especially those linked to unchecked growth or ecosystem disruption, raise red flags.



Large size, for example, not only helps plants establish but also enables them to dominate landscapes. This can lead to overgrowth and displace local flora. 



Toxicity is another trait of concern. While it doesn’t help a plant settle in, it allows it to repel herbivores and spread aggressively - potentially harming native species that share the habitat.



This creates a dilemma. If we avoid all traits associated with invasive species, we may end up ruling out the very traits that could help a plant survive. On the other hand, ignoring the signs of future invasiveness could create a new wave of ecological damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-way-we-measure-risk">Changing the way we measure risk</h2>



The solution, according to the study, is not to ban all plants with certain traits but to refine our risk assessments. 



Current tools used by land managers often take a one-size-fits-all approach. If a plant shares any trait with a known invasive, it may be excluded from relocation efforts. That overly cautious approach could undermine the entire strategy.



“Many of the current risk assessments that managers are using in the field are so risk-averse as to guarantee that managed relocation will fail,” said Professor Bradley.



“And if the relocation fails, then we’ve wasted all sorts of resources and haven’t helped native plants persist," noted Nuhfer.



Instead, the researchers suggest focusing on traits that are most likely to lead to ecological harm - such as toxicity or seed dispersal by water - rather than those that simply help a plant get established.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-in-a-warming-world">A path forward in a warming world</h2>



This research, supported by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usgs.gov/programs/climate-adaptation-science-centers/northeast-casc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey Northeast Climate Adaptation Science Center</a>, marks a pivotal moment in conservation thinking.



As climate change accelerates, strategies that once seemed risky are now essential. Managed relocation, when guided by science and nuanced risk assessments, could help preserve the ecological heritage of countless regions.



By learning from past mistakes and using precise criteria, scientists and conservationists may strike a balance - helping native plants survive without repeating the errors that let invasive species flourish.



The stakes are high. But with thoughtful, evidence-based action, we can give native species a fighting chance in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Native plants can’t outrun climate change on their own

Across the United States, a quiet crisis is unfolding in forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Native plants, many of which have thrived in their home ecosystems for thousands of years, now face an impossible race. Climate change is shifting temperature zones and seasonal patterns faster than these plants can naturally respond. Unlike animals, most plants cannot migrate quickly. Their slow dispersal, tied to seed movement and favorable growing conditions, means many will not survive unless we intervene. Scientists and conservationists are grappling with a difficult question: Should we...

Plant gene breakthrough can help battle fertilizer pollution in waterways. Researchers from <a href="https://btiscience.org/">Boyce Thompson Institute</a> (BTI) have figured out the function of a pair of genes in plants that could aid farmers in phosphate capture and reduce fertilizer pollution in waterways, which is currently a massive environmental issue that can lead to mass fish die-offs among other problems.

This new discovery is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.

Researchers built off of BTI Professor Maria Harrison’s prior work on plants’ symbiotic relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. AM fungi occupy a plant’s roots and allows a plant to trade fatty acids for phosphate and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-runoff-killing-coral/">nitrogen</a>. AM fungi can also aid plants in recovering from stressful situations like drought. But because the AM fungi colonization is so costly, the plants pay close attention to the process.

To better understand how plants control AM fungi colonization, Harrison and colleague Lena Müller studied genes that encode short proteins called CLE peptides in two plants — Medicago truncatula and Brachypodium distachyon. These CLE peptides are important to cell development and response to stress, and they are used by a majority of plants throughout the plant kingdom.

Harrison and Müller found that two CLE genes are key modulators of the AM fungal symbiosis. One of said CLE genes, CLE53, reduces colonization rates once the roots of a plant have already been colonized, and the other, CLE33, reduces colonization rates when there is copious amounts of phosphate available to the colonized plant.

"Being able to control fungal colonization levels in plant roots and maintain the symbiosis even in higher phosphate conditions might be useful to a farmer," Harrison said. "For example, you may want the other beneficial effects of AM fungi, like nitrogen uptake and recovery from drought, as well as further uptake of phosphate.”

"You might be able to achieve these benefits by altering the levels of these CLE peptides in the plants," she added.

Müller saw the CLE peptides act via a receptor protein called SUNN and modulate the plant’s synthesis of strigolactone, which is a compound exuded by plant roots that stimulates AM fungi to grow and occupy the root. Then, once the roots are colonized or receive enough phosphate, the CLE genes suppress the synthesis of strigolactone and restrict colonization.

"In the early 2000's, researchers found that plants had a way to measure and then reduce colonization," Müller said. "But until now, nobody really understood the molecular mechanism of that dynamic."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Mike Carroll/BTI

Plant gene breakthrough can help battle fertilizer pollution in waterways

Plant gene breakthrough can help battle fertilizer pollution in waterways....

Climate change will negatively impact banana crop yields in many countries. Bananas are recognized as being the world's most important fruit crop, providing food, nutrition, and income for millions of people. A new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has investigated the extent to which climate change is impacting the cultivation of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/popular-banana-risk-disappearing/">bananas</a> in some major exporting countries.

Many previous studies have examined how rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are affecting agricultural production, but the potential impacts on important tropical crops like bananas are much less understood.

Led by Dr. Dan Bebber, the Exeter team used sophisticated modeling techniques to assess the climate sensitivity of global dessert banana productivity and yield. The study revealed that 27 countries, which account for 86 percent of banana production worldwide, have seen increased crop yields since 1961 as a result of more favorable climate conditions.

However, these gains will be substantially reduced by 2050 if climate change continues to progress at the expected rate. The findings suggest that 10 countries, including India and Brazil, are set to experience a significant decline in crop yields. For countries such as Ecuador and Honduras, on the other hand, climate change will likely boost crop yields.

"We're very concerned about the impact of diseases like Fusarium Wilt on bananas, but the impacts of climate change have been largely ignored," said Dr. Bebber. "There will be winners and losers in the coming years, and our study may stimulate vulnerable countries to prepare through investment in technologies like irrigation."

Predicting the potential impacts of climate change on banana production systems is crucial to their long-term survival. Dr. Bebber emphasizes that preparing tropical agriculture for future climate change is imperative.

Among the ten countries expected to experience a negative trend in yields are some of the largest producers, including Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama, and the Philippines - all of which are also major exporters. 

"An open exchange of ideas is going to be critical going forward. We believe practical solutions already exist, but these are scattered across banana producing countries," said study co-author Dr. Varun Varma. "This knowledge exchange needs to start now to counteract predicted yield losses due to climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: David Bebber

Climate change will negatively impact banana crop yields

Climate change will negatively impact banana crop yields in many...

American bellflower reveals how plants adapt to climate change. A wildflower native to Virginia is helping biologists understand how plants and animals adapt to new environments due to climate change. 

The American bellflower is a plant native to Virginia, but after the last ice age, the flower colonized new environments and expanded its range as temperatures warmed. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia </a>and <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> saw a unique opportunity in studying the bellflower to see how significant climate change around 15,000 years influenced the plant to evolve and adapt. 

“The plant is ideal for study because it expanded its range when the climate last warmed and glaciers retreated,” said Laura Galloway, a co-author of the study. “We learned that migration causes evolution that is both beneficial - making it easier for plants to reproduce - and detrimental - reducing the success of that reproduction.”

Research has shown that some species working to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/american-pikas-climate-change/">adapt to environmental changes due to climate change</a>. However, many plants and animals are at risk of extinction and perhaps the past can offer clues for what to expect in the future as the impacts of climate change become more severe. 

For this study, the researchers sequenced the genome of bellflowers across their native habitats. 

After tracing patterns of genetic mutations to an area in Eastern Kentucky, the researchers theorize that this is where the plant was able to survive the last glaciation and as temperatures warmed, the flower expanded into the eastern United States.  

Populations of the flower that were furthest from their area of origin in Kentucky had evolved the ability to self-fertilize to aid reproduction, but this adaptation came at a cost, and the plant populations also gained harmful mutations. 

“These combined changes - self-fertilization and detrimental mutations - provide strong evidence that while colonizing new environments causes plants to adapt to the absence of mates in those environments - and that’s why they can now self-fertilize - at the same time, it creates genetic change that reduces overall vigor,” said Galloway. 

The study, published in the journal Evolution Letters, shows that while species can evolve and adapt to new areas, these evolutionary changes can also increase the risk of detrimental mutations that ultimately decrease survival odds. 

“While migration will lead to individuals that are better able to reproduce in the small populations expected in new habitats, it may also cause genetic change that limits their ability to survive in the long term,” said Galloway. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

American bellflower reveals how plants adapt to climate change

American bellflower reveals how plants adapt to climate change. A...

Invasive disease could nearly wipe out the UK’s ash trees this century. Human-induced changes to the environment are increasing the rate at which pests and diseases are introduced, which is severely threatening to native species. Long-lived species that reproduce slowly, such as forest trees, are particularly susceptible to new pathogens. 

It is estimated that in 2015, 100 million hectares of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-activity-forests-alaska/">forest</a> were affected by pests and diseases around the globe. However, the subsequent impacts to any given forest ecosystem cannot be detected for years, so experts use computer models to predict future outcomes.

In a recent study, Professor Matthew Evans from the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">University of Hong Kong</a> created a computer model to estimate how ash dieback (ADB) disease may affect the UK's 125 million ash trees. 

ADB disease, which is caused by a fungus native to East Asia, was introduced to the UK seven years ago. This incurable infection leaves diamond-shaped scars on the bark and causes the leaves to fall off of the trees.

About one in every 100 ash trees is able to resist the fungus and avoid infection. This is likely due to a genetic advantage which allows the trees to shed their leaves earlier to prevent the fungus from establishing itself.

Professor Evans found that at the current level of resistance, 95 percent of the UK's ash trees could be wiped out by the end of the century. He determined that breeding more ash trees with resistance will prevent millions of deaths. 

"In addition, several studies have shown that resistance to ADB appears to be heritable," wrote Professor Evans. "This is potentially a route by which a reasonably high ash tree population could be sustained after this new threat, with dead susceptible trees being replaced by resistant individuals."

According to Professor Evans, if one in 10 British trees could fight off ash dieback, the ash tree population would only be reduced by one-third of its current size. However, Professor Evans explained that this number of resistant trees will not appear on their own.

"As has been suggested by other authors, it seems reasonable that selective breeding could play a role in the conservation of ash forests," said Professor Evans. "The establishment of a source of resistant individuals that could be used to boost the numbers of naturally resistant trees in the population would help increase the chances of a population sustainability."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive disease could nearly wipe out the UK’s ash trees this century

Invasive disease could nearly wipe out the UK’s ash trees...

Wildfire activity and global warming are transforming forests in Alaska. A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Berkeley Lab</a> has determined that the combination of climate change and increased wildfires could permanently change the composition of forests in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nurturing-hotspots-salmon-alaskan-rivers/">Alaska</a>. According to the study, the state's evergreen conifer trees may be largely replaced by broadleaf deciduous trees, which shed their leaves seasonally.

"Expansion of deciduous broadleaf forests in a warmer climate may result in several ecological and climatic feedbacks that affect the carbon cycle of northern ecosystems," explained study first author Zelalem Mekonnen.

Using a well-tested ecosystem model, the experts predicted that through the end of this century, the relative dominance of evergreen conifer trees will decline by 25 percent and plants such as moss and lichen will decline by 66 percent. At the same time, broadleaf deciduous trees will nearly double in abundance and become dominant. 

"We predict the forest system will remain a net sink for carbon, meaning it will absorb more carbon than it emits," said study co-author William J. Riley. "But will it be more or less of a sink? Our next study will quantify the carbon and surface energy budgets. This study focused more on how vegetation types are expected to change."

Large shifts in vegetation and changes in forest cover type may alter the ecosystem and climate in various ways. For example, increased leaf shedding from deciduous broadleaf trees could result in more rapid microbial decomposition and increased transpiration, two processes that contribute to climate warming. 

On the other hand, when more snow is exposed because of fewer evergreen trees, higher surface reflectance may have a cooling effect. Furthermore, deciduous trees are less flammable than evergreen trees. Wildfire activity and global warming are transforming forests in Alaska

The researchers found that both climate change and increased wildfires were required for broadleaf deciduous trees to become more dominant. When the team modeled an increase in fires, this shift was projected to occur around the year 2058. However, if warming continues without an increase in fire activity, or vice versa, evergreen conifers are expected to remain the dominant tree in Alaska through 2100.

The modeling technique used for this study could also be applied to other geographic areas to investigate how climate change and wildfire activity may affect vegetation. "Our modeling approach is applicable to other northern regions because the fundamental mechanisms that control these dynamics are similar everywhere," said Mekonnen.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Scott Rupp, University of Alaska Fairbanks

Wildfire activity and global warming are transforming forests in Alaska

Wildfire activity and global warming are transforming forests in Alaska....

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/flame-retardants-hyperthyroidism-cats/">Flame retardants</a> are used in thousands of common products to help prevent fire-related injuries and deaths. However, these chemicals are thought to be threatening to the environment as well as to human health. Organohalogens, which are derived from petroleum, are of particular concern. 

In a groundbreaking new study, experts have found a way to produce flame retardants from natural plant compounds that have the potential to be much safer and eco-friendly.

"The best flame-retardant chemicals have been organohalogen compounds, particularly brominated aromatics," said Bob Howell, who is the project's principal investigator. "The problem is, when you throw items away, and they go into a landfill, these substances can leach into the environment."

Most organohalogen flame retardants are very stable and cannot be degraded, which means that they can persist in the environment for many years. These chemicals are also sometimes released from household items, such as electronics, and are collected in the dust. While the health effects of exposure are largely unknown, many studies indicate that flame retardants are harmful.

"A number of flame retardants are no longer available because of toxicity concerns, so there is a real need to find new materials that, one, are nontoxic and don't persist, and two, don't rely upon petroleum," said Howell. His team set out to identify compounds from plants that could easily be converted into flame retardants by adding phosphorus atoms, which are known to quench flames. 

"We're making compounds that are based on renewable biosources. Very often they are nontoxic; some are even food ingredients. And they're biodegradable - organisms are accustomed to digesting them," explained Howell.

In one test, the researchers demonstrated that their new flame retardants could strongly reduce the peak heat release rate of the epoxy resin, which reflects the intensity of the flame and how quickly it is going to spread. The plant-derived substances performed as well as many organohalogen flame retardants. 

"As a matter of fact, they may be better," said Howell. "Because gallic acid has three hydroxyl groups within the same molecule that can be converted to phosphorous esters, you don't have to use as much of the additive, which reduces cost."

The research team has not yet tested the toxicity of the compounds, but Howell said that other groups have conducted such tests on similar substances. "In general, phosphorous compounds are much less harmful than the corresponding organohalogens." 

Furthermore, the substances obtained from plants are not as volatile and are less likely to migrate from items into household dust. Howell hopes that the new flame retardants will attract the attention of a company that could help to get them on the market.

The research was presented at a meeting of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Yoseph Getachew

Scientists are creating safer flame retardants using plants

Flame retardants are used in thousands of common products to...

As the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/moisture-vegetation-climate-change/">climate changes</a> and temperatures rise, many species of plants and animals are showing noticeable changes as well. In the UK, two exotic trees have now produced both male and female cones for the first time in an estimated 60 million years, and experts say this is a direct result of milder winters and hotter summers.

Cycads are seed plants that are found in tropical regions of the world. Around 280 millions years ago, these trees were much more diverse and widely distributed. The three Cycad families that survived the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event have changed very little since that time, which is why they are considered "living fossils."

Native to Japan, cycads are commonly kept as indoor houseplants in the UK because they thrive in warm conditions. At the Ventnor Botanic Garden on the Isle of Wight, botanists can grow plants that would not usually survive in the British Isles. 

According to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/">CNN</a>, the Isle of Wight is an average of five degrees Celsius warmer than the rest of mainland Britain. Chris Kidd, the curator of Ventnor Botanic Gardens, explained that his team started growing cycads 15 years ago as an experiment. 

"Fifteen years on, they're not only surviving winters, growing and producing leaves. Five years ago we had a male cycad that produced a cone, and this year we have a male and female both producing cones," Kidd told CNN. "This is the first time that cycads have produced male and female cones in the British Isles since 60 million years ago."

[caption id="attachment_1876973" align="aligncenter" width="640"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/exotic-trees.png"><img class="size-full wp-image-1876973" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/exotic-trees.png" alt="" width="640" height="739" /></a> Image Credit: Phil LeMay[/caption]

Kidd said that the intense heat over the last two summers helped to stimulate the production of the cones, and the mild winters have also contributed. 

“This is not something that’s happened with a short-term mild spell. It’s a longer-term warming which is making these things happen," said Kidd.

“Twenty years ago we couldn’t have grown them. In 1986, the cycads at the gardens were very badly damaged by cold weather, since then we’ve not had any conditions even close to giving them any problems." 

"These are relics from flora that dominated the Earth when dinosaurs were here, their demise led to the arrival of flowering plants, but that was a catastrophic event, and I can see a similar change happening before my eyes right now.”

Kidd said that the phenomenon is further proof of climate change in action. "It is a strong indicator of climate change being shown, not from empirical evidence from the scientists but by plants."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Lily Bartlett

Exotic trees in the UK are proof of climate change in action

As the climate changes and temperatures rise, many species of...

Inventory of plant defense tools is a major step toward disease-resistant crops. An international team of researchers has taken an inventory of the monitoring tools that are used by plants to detect harmful microbes. This catalog represents a major step forward in understanding plant biology and has important implications for the improved management of dangerous <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-surveillance-system-crop-diseases/">crop diseases</a>. 

Just like animals, plants depend on their immune systems for protection against pathogenic microbes such as bacteria and fungi. Proteins called Nucleotide-binding Leucine-rich Repeat receptors (NLRs) coordinate efforts to detect the ever-changing variety of microbes present in the plant's environment.

The team set out to identify the full spectrum of NLRs produced by plants and to investigate how much these receptors vary within a typical plant species. The study was focused on Arabidopsis plants, which come under attack by pathogenic organisms of all types.

In the lab of Detlef Weigel at the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, the experts used advanced sequencing technologies to analyze the genetic diversity of NLRs in plants sampled from Europe, North America, and Asia. 

As expected, the collections of these receptors varied among geographic regions, likely due to their evolutionary response to local pathogens. The team was surprised to find that there is an upper limit on NLR gene numbers across the species.

"While the diversity is perhaps more limited than anticipated, it is the mixing of genes that makes each individual uniquely resistant to a different spectrum of pathogens," explained Weigel.

According to Jonathan Jones at <a href="http://www.tsl.ac.uk/">The Sainsbury Laboratory</a>, the study will change the way researchers approach the subject in future.

"One of the remarkable conclusions that emerge from this study is that so many populations need to be sequenced to define the full immune system repertoire of any plant," said Jones. "Gone are the days when a single reference sequence is sufficient to reveal the secrets of a species; it is now clear that we need to understand the genetic diversity of a species in order to understand its immune system."

The research has the potential to transform our understanding of agriculture and plant evolution. 

"This work will help drive new NLR receptor function discovery for developing disease-resistant crops and also guide the analysis of their evolution across the plant kingdom," said Jeffery Dangl of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Coordination and support for the study was provided by the 2Blades Foundation, an international organization dedicated to understanding plant disease and advancing crop disease resistance. The research was funded in part by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Inventory of plant defense tools is a major step toward disease-resistant crops

Inventory of plant defense tools is a major step toward...

A new method for protecting plants from viral infections. A team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a> (MLU) has developed a new method which may ultimately make it easier to immunize plants for protection against viruses.

Based on plant cell extracts, the researchers created a screening process that can quickly identify and produce substances to combat various pathogens. The technique was modeled after a plant's natural defense system, which is triggered by viral infections and other threats. 

When a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-water-acid-rain/">plant</a> is attacked by a virus, the cells serve as a host where the virus can reproduce and establish infection by producing viral ribonucleic acid molecules (RNAs). 

Plants detect these molecules and cut them up using special enzyme scissors. As a result, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are generated throughout the plant to launch a second line of defense. 

The siRNA molecules attach themselves to Argonaute protein complexes, which play a central role in RNA silencing. Next, the siRNA molecules try to guide the Argonaute proteins to the harmful RNAs in an effort to break them down into harmless compounds. 

"By implementing this two-stage process, the plant is trying to protect itself from the virus both at the site of the infection and throughout its structure," said Professor Sven-Erik Behrens. However, he explained, this process is not very efficient. "When a viral infection occurs, lots of different siRNA molecules are produced, but very few of them have a protective effect. The majority simply saturate the Argonaute complexes, rendering them inactive."

The team established a strategy to identify the few antiviral siRNA molecules that are effective against specific viruses so that their dexterity can be exploited for the development of new plant vaccines. 

The siRNA molecules that make the best candidates for reliable vaccination must have two key properties - the ability to bind strongly to the Argonaute complexes and the capacity to lead these proteins in the right direction. 

"If the pathogen changes or the plant needs to be protected against another virus, the established screening process enables suitable RNA molecules to fight the respective pathogen to be identified very quickly," said Behrens. "This means we can be very flexible when it comes to combating new pests."

The researchers plan to continue improving upon their method, and further studies may help to clarify how vaccines can be produced in larger quantities, as well as how they can be absorbed by plants. 

According to Behrens, the research suggests that there is potential for a spray that can be used in greenhouses."Tomato growers have to contend with whiteflies, for example, and these can transfer viruses from one plant to another very quickly." 

While harsh pesticides have been required to kill off insects in the past, the new system may prove to be a much safer and eco-friendly alternative.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nar">Nucleic Acids Research</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: MLU / Markus Scholz

A new method for protecting plants from viral infections

A new method for protecting plants from viral infections. A...

For decades, Professor Sharon Long has studied the symbiotic relationships among bacteria that help alfalfa grow, publishing more than 150 papers on this single topic. But now, Long has shifted her focus to citrus greening, which is one of the deadliest diseases for citrus crops in the world. 

"I'm only two generations off a farm, and I read about citrus farmers losing their livelihood and land, and thus also losing generations of family tradition," said Long, who is a biologist at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>. "We decided to redirect our efforts to work on this problem because we wanted to make a difference."

In the time since Professor Long realized her lab's research could contribute to a solution for citrus greening, her team has found potential treatments for the disease. The researchers have identified 130 compounds to explore further. 

"What we've completed is just a small part of what needs to be done," said study lead author Melanie Barnett. "It's beyond our expertise to pursue these findings to the level needed for real-world application, but it's a foot in the door for researchers who can take those next steps."

By the time that symptoms of the lethal bacterial infection appear, it is too late to save crops from the lethal damage of citrus greening. 

The bacteria that cause the disease, Liberibacter asiaticus, will not grow in a lab and this makes it difficult for scientists to study infected plants. The experts in Professor Long's lab realized they could focus on a distant relative, Sinorhizobium meliloti, which forms symbiotic relationships with certain plants. 

"We've been working on this bacterium for 40 years and have developed tools that allow finely detailed genetic studies to be done," explained Professor Long. "That provides an experimental platform not possible by working directly on this pathogen or even its close relatives."

The researchers introduced genes from the citrus greening bacterium into their familiar S. meliloti cell. These genes are believed to code for a protein that regulates certain aspects of infection.

Next, the team engineered the bacteria so that when the infection-critical proteins were active, the bacteria glowed green in certain light. When they exposed the bacteria to a chemical that inhibits the proteins, the cell would become noticeably less green.

Screening over 120,000 different compounds allowed the experts to pinpoint 130 compounds that visibly reduced the green glow without without affecting the growth of the cell.

"Our system allowed us to find very specific inhibitors that do not harm beneficial bacteria," said Professor Long. "Such inhibitors would be a big improvement compared to environmental spraying of general antibiotics."

The system developed by the team could also be used to test additional chemicals and genes. 

"With this system, any gene from this pathogen or closely related pathogens can be tested in a very controlled way, very efficiently," said Barnett. "The years of research that have gone into studying and working with Sinorhizobium can now save years of time that others would have spent developing such a system from scratch."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists are one step closer to developing treatments for citrus greening

For decades, Professor Sharon Long has studied the symbiotic relationships...

An international team of researchers based in Australia have struck upon a discovery that could revolutionize food production: how to boost photosynthesis in plants.

Led by Dr. Maria Ermakova of the <a href="https://photosynthesis.org.au/">ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis</a>, the team found that a specific protein controls the rate of electron flow in photosynthesis – the process that allows plants to use sunlight to turn carbon dioxide and water into food. Increasing the amount of that protein in plants can speed up that process.

"We tested the effect of increasing the production of the Rieske FeS protein, and found it increases photosynthesis by 10 percent," Ermakova said.

The protein is part of a complex system that she described as similar to a hose. 

“By overexpressing this protein, we have discovered how to release the pressure of the hose, so more electrons can flow, accelerating the photosynthetic process," she said.

The discovery could have a massive impact on agriculture and food production, particularly among plants that use what scientists have dubbed C4 photosynthesis, such as maize and sorghum. These staple crops are already among the most productive in the world. If scientists can boost photosynthesis, that could mean higher crop yields.

The process has been tested on a plant called Setaria viridis, a C4 plant closely related to maize and sorghum. The tests showed that boosting production of the Rieske FeS protein led to faster photosynthesis.

“It is an important proof of concept that helps us enormously to understand more about how C4 photosynthesis works," said Dr. Susanne von Caemmerer, a co-author of the study and deputy director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis.

The team is now ready to test the process on sorghum, she said.

The researchers from all over the world have spent decades essentially “breaking” plants so that they could figure out potential ways to boost photosynthesis, according to Dr. Robert Furbank, the centre’s director. 

“However, this is the first example in which we have actually improved the plants," he said.

The researchers plan to study other parts of the complex that includes the Rieske FeS protein, to see whether they can boost the photosynthesis process even more.

The study adds to other new research on photosynthesis, including the discovery that the process can be altered so that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/altering-photosynthesis-crops-less-water/">plants need less water</a>.

It has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-019-0561-9">Communications Biology</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Natalia Bateman, ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis

Researchers discover how to boost photosynthesis

An international team of researchers based in Australia have struck...

Colombia has declared a national emergency after a destructive fungus was found in the soil that could ultimately wipe out most large <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/gene-editing-save-bananas-virus/">banana</a> farms, leading to major shortages.

The fungus is a strain of fusarium oxysporum called Tropical Race 4 (TR4) that was first discovered in Taiwan. Before making its way to Colombia, TR4 had already destroyed crops in Australia, Israel, India, and Lebanon over the last two decades. 

The soil-dwelling fungus causes a lethal disease called Panama disease that infects the roots of bananas and blocks the flow of water and nutrients. TR4 can lay dormant in the soil for years, so once an infection is spotted, it is difficult to know how widespread the damage will become.

There is currently no fungicide or method for combatting the destructive fungus. 

"As far as I know, ICA and the farms are doing a good job in terms of containment, but eradication is almost impossible,” Fernando García-Bastidas, a Colombian scientist, told <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/">National Geographic</a>.

The fungus has been found across 180 hectares in the province of La Guajira, where farmers were ordered to destroy the crops and quarantine plantations. The appearance of TR4 in South America has the potential to completely wipe out the cultivated Cavendish banana, which is the most widely grown and consumed type of banana across the globe.

As National Geographic reports, there is not another banana that can replace the Cavendish. However, this banana has a lack of genetic diversity that makes it vulnerable to extinction.

For many years, the Cavendish was second in popularity to the Gros Michel in the United States and Europe. Around 100 years ago, the first known strain of Panama disease killed off the Gros Michel. The Cavendish, which was believed to be resistant to the disease, was chosen as a replacement. 

According to the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/">BBC</a>, the Cavendish accounts for nearly half of all bananas grown worldwide, and nearly all of the bananas imported by Europe, the UK, and the United States. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/pp1

The world’s most popular banana is now at risk of disappearing

Colombia has declared a national emergency after a destructive fungus...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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