When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



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How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography. A new study led by researchers from Purdue University and Peking University has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress. Fungi hidden beneath forests Jingjing Liang, an associate...

A desire for sweet foods is hard-wired into each and every human. Sugar is the simplest form of energy for our bodies, and our brains. As a result, we are programmed to seek out sweet foods and even gorge on them when they are abundant. This may have made sense when humans spent days searching for their next meal, but in our modern society sugar is always available. 

Sugar is now the ingredient that <a href="https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2013/03/04/Mintel-Shoppers-more-concerned-about-total-sugar-than-HFCS">consumers are most worried about avoiding</a>. This concern is well founded. The prevalence of sugar has led to a huge array of health problems, from obesity, to type 2 diabetes and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2769828/">has even been implicated as a cause of alzheimer’s disease</a>. 

In light of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/that-sugar-film-sugar-consumption/">concerns surrounding high-sugar foods</a>, many people choose artificial sweeteners. Products such as Diet Coke and Splenda offer a calorie-free alternative to sugar. However, there are growing concerns about the safety and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-sugar-sweeteners/">effectiveness of these products</a>. 

As a result, many consumers are looking for a healthier and more natural way to reach the sweetness we’ve grown accustomed to. There are a few big contenders in the race for the best natural sweetener.
<h2>Stevia - <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/stevia-rebaudiana/">Stevia rebaudiana</a></h2>
Stevia has dominated the world of natural sugar alternatives in the last few decades. This small shrub from the daisy family (Asteraceae) is native to Paraguay where it has been used for centuries as a sweetener. The leaves of this plant contain compounds called steviol glycosides that are <a href="https://www.purecirclesteviainstitute.com/healthy-lifestyle/great-taste/how-sweet-is-stevia">up to 300X sweeter than sugar by weight</a>. 

The artificial sweetener industry sees Stevia as the most hopeful natural sweetener. There are already multiple stevia based sweeteners on the market including Cargill’s Truvia, as well as some mid-calorie sodas. Current products are made from the natural rebaudioside-A. However to get close to the flavor of sugar, it needs to be mixed with other sweeteners. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/05/magazine/the-quest-for-a-natural-sugar-substitute.html">Research is under way into how the sweeteners in stevia can be improved.</a>
<h2>Monk Fruit (Lou han guo) - <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/siraitia-grosvenorii/">Siraitia grosvenorii</a></h2>
Monk fruit is the second most popular natural sugar alternative. It has garnered some commercial attention and is used in Cumberland Packaging’s Monk Fruit in the Raw sweetener. 

However, monk fruit is far more expensive to produce than stevia, and therefore has lagged behind its more popular competitor. In addition, the active chemicals (mogrosides) work far better in a neutral pH, making them less versatile for sodas and coffee. Some mixtures combine monk fruit and stevia <a href="https://www.foodbusinessnews.net/articles/9592-be-wary-of-new-natural-sweeteners">to take advantage of the best parts of each</a>.
<h2>Chinese Blackberry (Chinese Sweet Tea) - <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/rubus-chingii-suavissimus/">Rubus suavissimus</a></h2>
The Chinese Blackberry is a close relative of the blackberries that grow in North America. However, the Chinese Blackberry has more sweetness to offer than just its berries. The leaves of this plant are brewed into a tea that is sweet, despite having no sugar at all. This plant is less well-researched than some other natural sweeteners. It is believed that it owes its sweetness to compounds <a href="https://examine.com/supplements/rubus-suavissimus/">similar to the steviol glycosides found in stevia</a>. There may be a lot of potential in this sweet leaf, but it still needs to be studied more extensively.
<h2>Miracle Berries - <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/synsepalum-dulcificum/">Synsepalum dulcificum</a></h2>
A different type of sweetener exists in the boldly named miracle berry. This fruit contains a protein called miraculin, which causes sour foods to taste sweet. After eating miracle berries, lemons and vinegar will taste excessively sweet. 

This fruit may seem like a great way to add sweetness to a sour meal, but as a food additive it isn’t practical. For it to work, you must coat your mouth before consuming the sour food. In addition, it cancels out the sour flavors that are essential in many delicious meals.

Miracle berries make a much better party trick than a natural sweetener, but their unique properties make them worth mentioning.
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
The amazing diversity of the plant world offers up quite a few different natural sweeteners, though they each have their unique shortcomings. In addition, there is no guarantee that a chemical produced by a plant is any safer than one created in a lab. These plant sweeteners still need to undergo extensive testing before they are considered safe as a food additive.

To make matters worse, it has not been proven that artificial sweeteners actually improve health. Although they don’t have the fattening calories of sugar, as we have reported, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweeteners-obesity-diabetes/">they may still contribute to obesity and diabetes</a>. The only proven solution to the dangers of sweetness is eating food that isn’t quite so sweet.

--

By <a href="mailto:casey.hofford@gmail.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Which plant-based natural sweetener is the best pick?

A desire for sweet foods is hard-wired into each and...

An international team of researchers has found that online behavior mimics the natural rhythms of the real world. In particular, the experts discovered that online interest in plants and animals often changes with the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/infectious-diseases-seasonal/">seasons</a>. 

The study was focused on a massive dataset of 2.33 billion views on Wikipedia, which involved 31,715 species over the course of three years. The team identified seasonal trends in the page views of more than 25 percent of the plant and animal species. The timing and extent of this internet activity was found to be an accurate representation of when and where the species were present in the world.

The seasonal interest in Wikipedia pages was found to reflect seasonal patterns in the species themselves. For example, page views of flowering plants had stronger seasonal patterns than those for coniferous trees, which do not have an obvious flowering season. Insects and birds trended more by the season compared to most mammals.

The researchers also identified instances where seasonal patterns responded to cultural events. Wikipedia’s page for the wild turkey showed repeated annual spikes around Thanksgiving and during the dates of the spring hunting season.

“People are becoming increasingly detached from nature and as a result we didn't really expect their activity online to respond to patterns in the natural world,” said study lead author John Mittermeier, who is a PhD student at the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>. “To see that online activity often correlates strongly with natural phenomena suggests that people are paying attention to the world around them, and from a conservation perspective that is really exciting.”

Professor Richard Grenyer added, “Really widespread, accurate monitoring of all the world's species is still science fiction, unfortunately. But by using these big data approaches we can begin to shortcut some of the more difficult problems, and cut to the core questions in modern conservation: how is the world changing, for which species is it changing the most, and where are the people who care the most and can do the most to help.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Uri Roll

Public interest in plants and animals changes with the seasons

An international team of researchers has found that online behavior...

A new study led by British botanist Dr. Aaron Davis has revealed that dozens of species of wild coffee are at risk of vanishing as a result of climate change and deforestation. The team found that 60 percent of all wild coffee varieties on three continents are threatened. 

For the risk assessment, the researchers applied an index developed by the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN). The analysis revealed that the current rate of climate change may push wild arabica from an (IUCN) classification of “near threatened” to “extinct” by the year 2100.

According to the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/">New York Times</a>, Dr. Davis has spent 30 years investigating the state of the world's <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/coffee-taste-buds/">coffee plants</a>. He has reported that the conditions in traditional coffee-producing regions, such as Ethiopia, will become unsuitable for coffee production as temperatures continue to rise. 

Dr. Davis has also mapped out regions that will become more suitable for growing coffee, which are basically cooler, interior regions. 

The wild species that the experts have analyzed for the current study are critical for the development of new coffee varieties that can survive global warming. 

Dr. Davis, who is a senior researcher at the <a href="https://www.kew.org/">Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew</a>, told the New York Times: “There are a broad range of traits, which have good potential for addressing specific issues in the future, whether its drought tolerance or disease resistance. As we lose those coffees, our options diminish.”

Wild coffees can be stored in seed banks or preserved in protected forests, but the team found that nearly half of all wild coffee species are not stored and a third do not grow in national forests.

The study is published in two separate papers in <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many wild coffee species could disappear by the end of this century

A new study led by British botanist Dr. Aaron Davis...

New discovery could pave the way for a plant-based. A genetically engineered microbe could be used to break down woody plant material and create a biodegradable alternative for plastic.

Finding environmentally friendly alternatives to plastic is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protein-squid-alternative-plastics/">mission</a> taken on by a number of research teams, and the focus of these endeavors is typically the sugars and cellulose in plant cell walls. 

But while researchers have been able to break down plant materials and extract sugars, an abundant polymer called lignin is stripped away in the process. Lignin is so abundant and carries such little value that it’s typically just burned during manufacturing processes. 

If this lignin could be broken down and utilized efficiently, it could be used to make durable materials that could replace plastic. Unfortunately, the molecule is large, complex, and challenging to break down, and so it has been long overlooked until now. New discovery could pave the way for a plant-based plastic substitute 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Madison-Wisconsin</a> discovered that a microbe called Novosphingobium aromaticivorans efficiently digests the different components of lignin and produces smaller aromatic hydrocarbons in the process. 

A study detailing how the bacterium breaks down lignin and potential future implications for the microbe was published in the journal Green Chemistry. 

“Other microbes tried before may be able to digest a few types of aromatics found in lignin,” said Miguel Perez, the lead author of the study. “When we met this microbe, it was already good at degrading a wide range of compounds. That makes this microbe very promising.”

As Novosphingobium aromaticivorans digests lignin, it produces pyrone-4,6-dicarboxylic acid,  also known as PDC. The researchers found that by removing three genes from the microbe, they could expedite the PDC process. 

Bioengineers are already using PDC in Japan as a plastic replacement, but the difficult extraction process has kept lignin from being used over a wide scale. 

Now, the researchers say that the microbe could make PDC production at the industrial level a real possibility. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New discovery could pave the way for a plant-based

New discovery could pave the way for a plant-based. A...

Declining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-bees-extinction/">bee populations</a> may not be the only reason plant pollination has been suffering in some regions. 

A new study has found that in New York, increased in agricultural activity has stunted the evolution of pollinators and as a result, millions of years of evolutionary history and diversity are in the process of being lost. 


Researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> led a study examining phylogenetic diversity among bee communities that pollinated apple orchards in New York. 

Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships, and phylogenetic diversity shows the evolution and diversification of different species. Studying phylogenetic diversity within a community of pollinators can also help illustrate different environmental stresses that prompted evolutionary changes. 

However, most conservation research uses biodiversity and species population numbers to gauge how well a species is doing in an ecosystem. 

The researchers analyzed a decade of data documenting bee activity, species richness, and biodiversity in 27 apple orchards as well as bee evolutionary history. The team found that declines in bee populations alone were not enough to explain the decreases in pollination services in the orchards. 

Instead, the researchers were able to link increases in agricultural activity in the orchards to losses in phylogenetic diversity which suggests millions of years of evolution has been lost for bee communities in the area. The study compares the losses in diversity to a “pruning” of the bee tree of life. 

Without phylogenetic diversity, bee species in the orchards were more closely related and this negatively impacted pollination. In turn, apple yields and quality suffered. 

The study, published in the journal Science, shows that phylogenetic diversity should also be used to help measure species’ adaptability and resilience going forward. 

Biodiversity alone cannot be counted on as an accurate measurement of a healthy ecosystem. Evolution also needs to factor into the mix to gain a better understanding of how a species reacts to environmental changes. 
--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bee losses are not enough to explain pollination problems

Declining bee populations may not be the only reason plant...

When volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) react in sunlight and stagnant air, they produce a secondary pollutant known as ground-level <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-bubbles-bad-ozone-levels/">ozone</a> that damages trees, crops, and other vegetation. A new study led by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> (U of I) has investigated the impact that rising ozone levels may have on corn plants. 

After exposing a diverse group of corn plants to future ozone concentrations, the team discovered that some varieties have a higher risk of yield losses than others. The researchers said that pinpointing the genetic basis of these differences could help scientists develop ozone-resistant corn.

"Ozone enters plants the same way carbon dioxide does: It diffuses from the atmosphere into the leaf," said study co-author Lisa Ainsworth of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. She explained that carbon dioxide is a nutrient for plants, but ozone damages biological tissues and limits carbon capture in plant leaves. 

According to Ainsworth, even background levels of ozone do some damage. "Our research suggests that current ozone levels decrease corn yields by as much as 10%. That's as much as drought or flooding or any single pest or disease, but this is a relatively unstudied component of yield loss in the U.S."

At the U of I's Free Air Concentration Enrichment (FACE) facility, the researchers tracked the real-world consequences of higher atmospheric ozone levels in an agricultural field. 

"The level that we're fumigating to in this study is a level that is commonly found today in China and India," said Ainsworth. "So, it's not excessively high, even though we're using a concentration that is 2 1/2 times the level of background ozone in central Illinois."

The investigation was focused on 45 hybrid corn plants, which represented all the major types of corn, and the variation in their responses to high ozone levels. The researchers identified specific hybrid plants that were more sensitive to ozone stress than others.

"We found two maize lines whose offspring were more sensitive to ozone pollution, regardless of which other types of corn we bred them with," said study co-author Professor Andrew Leakey. "Their genetic deficiencies manifested in different ways when exposed to the high ozone conditions."

Professor Leakey said that the genetics of commercial corn are a trade secret, so it is unknown which of these varieties may become susceptible to rising ozone levels. "Breeders would not know about these differences since they are not apparent under clean-air conditions."

He added that more genetic analysis and more experiments like those conducted at the FACE facility will be needed to determine how today's plants will respond to future conditions. 

"It's important to understand how plants are going to respond to climate change before the climate changes," said Professor Leakey. "That is the only way we can find the solutions that will be needed in the future."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Maks Narodenko

Rising ozone levels pose a serious threat to some corn plants

When volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) react...

A warming climate will limit the amount of CO2 that plants can absorb. Plants depend on carbon dioxide to grow, and the exchange of CO2 and oxygen that occurs during photosynthesis has given some reason to hope that plant growth may help counter the increases in global greenhouse gas emissions.

But a new study led by <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> and published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0848-x">Nature</a> shows that the environmental stress of climate change is actually causing plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-temperatures-soil-expelling-co2/">soil to absorb less CO2</a> than normal. 

“We have this image of the planet getting very, very green as we move into the future,” Pierre Gentine, a co-author of the study told the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/23/climate/plants-co2-climate-change.html">New York Times</a> which reported on the findings. “But it may be the opposite.”

The world’s plant life and soils absorb around 25 percent of human-emitted greenhouse gasses, providing an important buffer against the snowball effect of climate change. 

As atmospheric greenhouse gas levels increase, as will temperatures and sea level, and extreme weather events will become more frequent. 

During long bouts of warm and dry weather, researchers have noticed that atmospheric emissions increase because plants and soil are unable to uptake as much CO2 during droughts. 

For this study, the researchers used data from four different Earth climate models as well as satellite data to project how climate change will impact future rates of plant and soil carbon storage during extreme droughts and unpredictable patterns of precipitation. 

The researchers found that future droughts will limit photosynthesis and reduce the amount of CO2 absorbed into the soils. While plants can catch up and take in more CO2 during wetter years, the amount will never balance out to what was lost during the dry years. 

“Our results emphasize that the capacity of continents to act as a future carbon sink critically depends on the nonlinear response of carbon fluxes to soil moisture and on land-atmosphere interactions,” the researchers wrote. “This suggests that the increasing trend in carbon uptake rate may not be sustained past the middle of the century and could result in accelerated atmospheric CO2 growth.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

A warming climate will limit the amount of CO2 that plants can absorb

A warming climate will limit the amount of CO2 that...

Wildlife losses due to illegal hunting have overlooked climate consequences. Wildlife losses due to illegal hunting have overlooked climate consequences. A new study led by <a href="https://lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> has revealed that the loss of animals, often as a result of illegal hunting, negatively impacts the carbon storage capacity of forests. Despite these consequences, however, this association is hardly ever addressed in climate policy negotiations. 

Many animals play an important role in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/color-fruit-evolved-attract-animals/">seed dispersal</a> for tropical trees, particularly large-seeded tree species that tend to have a higher wood density. The loss of animals directly affects the survival of these tree species, with cascading effects on the overall carbon storage capacity of tropical forests.

The researchers investigated the extent to which the link between wildlife losses and carbon storage capacity was addressed in forest governance. The team focused on a particular mechanism referred to as Reducing<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-turning-into-a-source-of-harmful-emissions/"> Emissions</a> from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+).

The study revealed that while higher-level policy documents acknowledge the importance of biodiversity, hunting as a driver of forest degradation is rarely acknowledged. Furthermore, the link between fauna and forest ecosystem function was not mentioned in any documents.

According to the researchers, this may not be a simple oversight, but could be the result of a deliberate political choice to avoid adding further complexity to REDD+ negotiations and implementation. 

“Although biodiversity has moved from a side issue to an inherent feature over the last decade, we show that the ecological functions of biodiversity are still only mentioned superficially,” said study co-author Torsten Krause. “At the sub-national level, fauna and hunting were much more likely to be mentioned in project documents, but we still found no explicit mentioning of a link between defaunation and carbon storage capacity.”

The study highlights the fact that wildlife loss is essentially overlooked in both climate negotiations and forest governance.

“The assumption that forest cover and habitat protection equal effective biodiversity conservation is misleading, and must be challenged,” said study co-author Martin Reinhardt Nielsen. “The fact that defaunation and particularly the loss of large seed dispersers through unsustainable hunting have lasting repercussions throughout the forest ecosystem, must be acknowledged and considered in forest governance broadly, or we risk losing the forest for the trees.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/forests">Forests</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildlife losses due to illegal hunting have overlooked climate

Wildlife losses due to illegal hunting have overlooked climate consequences....

According to preliminary research from the <a href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association</a>, it is never too late to reduce your risk of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-heart-disease-risk/">heart disease</a> by adding fruits and vegetables to your diet. The experts also report that high-quality plant-based foods can increase longevity.

Study lead author Dr. Megu Y. Baden is a postdoctoral research fellow in the Department of Nutrition at the <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a> in Boston.

“Not all plant-based diets are equal, but boosting the intake of high-quality plant-based foods over time lowers the risk of death even among people who started off with poor-quality diets,” said Dr. Baden.

While previous studies have shown that a healthy, plant-based diet can reduce the risk of diabetes and heart disease, this study is the first to look at how changes in diet may influence the risk of mortality - no matter when the changes were made. 

Healthy plant-based foods include whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Lower-quality plant-based foods are items such as fruit juices, refined grains, potatoes, and sweets. The researchers developed three diet scales to represent the overall consumption of these types of plant-based foods.

The study was focused on 47,983 women with an average age of 64, who were participating in the Nurses' Health Study. The investigation also involved data from 25,737 men with an average age of 64 participating in the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study. 

When they started the programs, the participants had no history of heart disease or cancer. The individuals self-reported any changes in their diet for 12 years prior to a 12-year follow-up period from 1998-2014.

Compared to individuals who had fairly stable diets, the researchers found that deaths from all causes were eight percent lower in those with the biggest increase in an overall plant-based diet and ten percent lower in those with the biggest increase in a healthy plant-based diet. 

On the other hand, for individuals with the biggest increase in an unhealthy plant-based diet, death from all causes was 11 percent higher.

The study also revealed that gaining an extra 10 points on the healthy plant-based diet scale was associated with a 10 percent lower risk of death from cardiovascular disease. A 10-point increase in score can be achieved, for example, by replacing one serving of refined grains with a serving of whole grains each day. 

Dr. Baden explained, “Over a period of time, consuming more whole grains, fruits, vegetables, while decreasing your intake of refined grains, sweets and desserts, and animal foods such as animal fat meat, and miscellaneous animal-based foods, may lower your risk of death from heart disease and other causes.”

The research was presented at the American Heart Association's Epidemiology and Prevention | Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health Scientific Sessions 2019.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Healthy plant-based foods lower the risk of death from heart disease

According to preliminary research from the American Heart Association, it...

Changes in precipitation expected to impact vital crops worldwide. A new study has found that principal crops like wheat, maize, and rice will be impacted by future changes to rainfall patterns caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-shifting-climate-boundaries/">climate change</a> even if greenhouse gas emissions are drastically reduced.

Researchers from the <a href="https://ciat.cgiar.org/">International Center for Tropical Agriculture </a>and the <a href="http://www.uchile.cl/">Universidad de Chile </a>studied how permanent changes to regional precipitation across the globe will impact future crop production of wheat, maize, rice and soybean, four crops that represent 40 percent of the world’s total caloric intake. 

While some regions are already experiencing irregular precipitation patterns and climate change is expected to cause changes to rainfall and temperatures, many of the world’s key crop regions have yet to undergo any imminent precipitation changes. 

For this study, the researchers examined how changes to regional precipitation would impact crop production under four emissions scenarios to predict when an area can expect permanent precipitation changes, which the researchers call the time of emergence (TOE). 

Already, some areas have new climate norms compared to the generation before. 

The study, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, shows that 14 percent of land that produces key cereals will be drier and 31 percent will be wetter by 2040.

[caption id="attachment_1869475" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/drier.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1869475" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/drier.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="502" /></a> Image Credit: Lucelly Anaconas / International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)[/caption]

Under a medium climate mitigation scenario, the researchers found that dry regions like Australia, Southern Africa, and Southwestern South America will only get even drier. 

27 percent of wheat cropland in Australia, 100 percent of cropland in Algeria, 79 percent of land in South Africa, and 74 percent of land in Mexico will face less precipitation under a medium emissions reduction scenario. Changes in precipitation expected to impact vital crops worldwide 

With a business-as-usual scenario, these numbers only increase. 

“These are definitely countries that will need to think rather quickly what they'd like to do with their wheat production,” said Maisa Rojas, the study's lead author. “What we're predicting are probably conservative years for time of emergence. Detectable precipitation changes are of course not only important for agriculture, but for water resource management more in general, so our results are relevant for other sectors as well.”

The researchers say countries like China and India will see an increase in precipitation no matter how much emissions are reduced, and the amount of rainfall could lead to increases in cropland and production.

[caption id="attachment_1869476" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/wetter.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1869476" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/wetter.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="502" /></a> Image Credit: Lucelly Anaconas / International Center for Tropical Agriculture[/caption]

Wheat fields in the US, Canada, and Russia will also have higher levels of precipitation, but the researchers warn that the precipitation changes will also cause rising sea levels, higher temperatures, and increase the risk of floods. 

Regardless of region or when the expected time of emergence is, farmers worldwide will see a huge change in precipitation in the coming years. 

“Farmers growing crops in those areas are going to experience significantly different conditions than what they are used to,” said Julian Ramirez-Villegas, a co-author of the study. “They're going to be completely outside their normal historical environments and many farmers are already struggling with historic variability.”

The results call for swift action and adaptation on the part of farmers likely to be hit hardest by precipitation changes. 

While changes are expected under any emission scenario, if greenhouse gas emissions are significantly reduced under the Paris Agreement guidelines, it could buy farmers more time to adapt, and less land would be impacted. 

“The precise nature of the changes is impossible to predict,” said Andy Challinor, a co-author of the study. “What this study tells us is that adaptation needs to be agile. For the first time, we can tell what changes to be ready for - and when they are expected - in our major crop-growing regions. Prior to this study, the rainfall changes experienced by crops were thought to be so unpredictable that no real advice could be given.”

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Neil Palmer/CIAT

Changes in precipitation expected to impact vital crops worldwide

Changes in precipitation expected to impact vital crops worldwide. A...

It doesn’t take a full-blown wine snob to know that older bottles tend to have higher price tags. But it’s not just the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/red-wines-taste-dry/">wine</a> itself that may tie back to the past, as scientists have discovered that a grape variety still used in wine production in France can be traced back 900 years to just one ancestral plant.

Researchers have long suspected that some grape varieties grown today have an exact genetic match with plants grown 2,000 years ago or more, but there was never a way to genetically test an uninterrupted genetic lineage of that age. However, using an extensive genetic database of modern grapevines, scientists were able to analyze and compare 28 archeological seeds from French sites dating back to the Iron Age, Roman era, and medieval period. 

In a study published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>, the researchers used similar ancient DNA methods utilized in tracing human ancestors to draw genetic connections between seeds from different archaeological sites, along with links to modern-day grape varieties.

“From our sample of grape seeds we found 18 distinct genetic signatures, including one set of genetically identical seeds from two Roman sites separated by more than 600km, and dating back 2,000 years ago,” says Dr. Nathan Wales from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>. “These genetic links, which included a ‘sister’ relationship with varieties grown in the Alpine regions today, demonstrate winemakers’ proficiencies across history in managing their vineyards with modern techniques, such as asexual reproduction through taking plant cuttings.”

One of the grape seeds found at a medieval site in Orléans in central France was genetically identical to Savagnin Blanc (not to be confused with Sauvignon Blanc), which means the variety has grown for at least 900 years after beginning as cuttings from one ancestral plant. This grape is still grown in the Jura region of France and is used to make expensive bottles of Vin Jaune.

“We suspect the majority of these archaeological seeds come from domesticated berries that were potentially used for winemaking based on their strong genetic links to wine grapevines,” explains Dr. Jazmín Ramos-Madrigal, a postdoctoral researcher from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>. “Berries from varieties used for wine are small, thick-skinned, full of seeds, and packed with sugar and other compounds such as acids, phenols, and aromas - great for making wine but not quite as good for eating straight from the vine.”

None of the Roman seeds excavated were found to have an identical genetic match with modern-day seeds, but the researchers did find two very close relationships with important grape families used in making high quality wine. Seeds were connected to the Syrah-Mondeuse Blanche family, with Syrah being one of the most planted grapes in the world today. Another connection was found with the Mondeuse Blanche, which is used to produce high quality AOC (protected regional product) wine in Savoy.

“It is rather unconventional to trace an uninterrupted genetic lineage for hundreds of years into the past,” says Dr. Wales. “Instead of exploring broad patterns in genetic ancestry, as in most ancient DNA projects, we had to think like forensics scientists and find a perfect match in the database.”

The researchers are now trying to find more archaeological evidence to further expand the history and knowledge of grape wine varieties. “Large databases of genetic data from modern crops and optimized palaeogenomic methods have vastly improved our ability to analyze the history of this and other important fruits,” Wales explains. “For the wine industry today, these results could shed new light on the value of some grape varieties; even if we don’t see them in popular use in wines today, they were once highly valued by past wine lovers and so are perhaps worth a closer look.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit S. Ivorra CNRS/ISEM

Ancient seeds trace wine grape variety back 900 years to one ancestral plant

It doesn’t take a full-blown wine snob to know that...

Diversity of land species has remained the same for 60 million years. The amount of biodiversity we have on land today has remained the same for at least 60 million years, soon after the dinosaurs were wiped out. An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> has found that the number of species has increased only occasionally throughout time, with sudden spikes in diversity being followed by plateaus lasting tens of millions of years.

Scientists have previously theorized that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-dictates-biodiversity-hotspots/">diversity</a> increased steadily throughout time, which would mean that biodiversity today is much greater than it was in prehistoric times. Modern computing techniques that are capable of analyzing hundreds of thousands of fossils are showing patterns of land diversity that challenge this theory. 

The current study was focused on fossil data collected by palaeontologists over the past 200 years at around 30,000 different fossil sites worldwide. The fossil data represented land vertebrates dating back to the first evidence of this group nearly 400 million years ago.

The study revealed that it has been tens of millions of years since there was a significant increase in the average number of species. The research suggests that competition for food and space among land vertebrates limits the number of species that can coexist.

“Scientists often think that species diversity has been increasing unchecked over millions of years, and that diversity is much greater today than it was in the distant past,” said study lead author Dr. Roger Close. “Our research shows that numbers of species within terrestrial communities are limited over long timescales, which contradicts the results of many experiments in modern ecological communities - now we need to understand why.”

[caption id="attachment_1867942" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Diversity-of-land-species-has-remained-the-same-for-60-million-years.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1867942" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Diversity-of-land-species-has-remained-the-same-for-60-million-years.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="337" /></a> Image Credit: Mark Ryan, Mary Parrish &amp; Jay Matternes[/caption]

“Contrary to what you might expect, the largest increase in diversity within land vertebrate communities came after the mass extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period," Dr. Close added. "Within just a few million years, local diversity had increased to two or three times that of pre-extinction levels - driven primarily by the spectacular success of modern mammals.”

Study co-author Professor Richard Butler added, “Our work provides an example of the combined power of the fossil record and modern statistical approaches to answer major questions about the origins of modern biodiversity. By understanding how biodiversity has changed in the past, we may be able to better understand the likely long-term impact of the current biodiversity crisis.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Diversity of land species has remained the same for 60 million years

Diversity of land species has remained the same for 60...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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