Life needs proteins for almost everything, from cell repair to immune defense. Scientists have long asked how the first proteins were formed before cells had complex machinery.



A new study reports a simple, water-friendly reaction that links early ingredients into the first steps toward protein-making. 



The project was led by Professor Matthew Powner at University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>), a chemist whose lab explores prebiotic chemistry.



"At life’s functional core, there is a complex and inseparable interplay between nucleic acids and proteins, but the origin of this relationship remains a mystery," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecules-that-build-proteins">Molecules that build proteins</h2>



The team showed that RNA - a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-water-molecules-will-force-chemistry-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">molecule</a> that stores and transfers genetic information and can catalyze reactions - can become chemically linked to amino acids. 



These small molecules build proteins, and the linkage occurs under mild conditions in water.



The researchers changed amino acids into a more reactive form that holds extra energy, then linked those energized amino acids to RNA at a specific spot in the molecule, all without needing enzymes.



The reaction preferred the end of a double stranded RNA over interior positions, which avoids random chemistry that would scramble sequences. 



The experts also reported strong yields for several amino acids, including arginine linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgotten-chemical-reactions-offer-clues-to-lifes-origins/">adenosine</a> at up to 76 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-chemistry-drives-origins">Sulfur chemistry drives origins</h2>



A thiol is a sulfur-containing compound common in metabolism, and thioesters made from thiols power many reactions in modern cells. 



Using thioesters makes chemical sense for early Earth because they react in water without falling apart quickly, helping drive protein-related chemistry.



Earlier work from the same community showed that pantetheine, the active fragment of Coenzyme A that forms many biological thioesters today, can form under prebiotic conditions in water. 



That work supports the idea that the same types of sulfur chemistry existed before life began.



This new result connects that energy-rich chemistry to RNA handling of amino acids. It links metabolism- like reactions to information carriers, which is exactly the bridge origin of life research has needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecules-found-in-all-living-cells">Molecules found in all living cells</h2>



The team uncovered a switch that controls two different steps. In step one, thioesters favor attaching the amino acid to RNA, creating aminoacyl RNA in water at neutral pH. 



In step two, converting to thioacids and adding a mild oxidant pushed peptide bond formation, which produced peptidyl RNA in very high yields.



Peptides are short chains of amino acids, usually two to 50 units long, while larger folded chains are proteins. 



Making peptidyl RNA shows that RNA-bound amino acids can be extended into short chains, a necessary move toward protein-like function.



“What is groundbreaking is that the activated amino acid used in this study is a thioester, a type of molecule made from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-compound-suggests-that-life-beyond-earth-could-be-common/">Coenzyme A</a>, a chemical found in all living cells," said Dr. Jyoti Singh of UCL Chemistry. "This discovery could potentially link metabolism, the genetic code, and protein building,”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neutral-waters-spark-proteins">Neutral waters spark proteins</h2>



The chemistry works in water at near neutral pH, which points to pools, lakes, or wet shorelines rather than the open ocean. 



Concentrations would have been higher in small bodies of water, and minerals could have helped organize the molecules.



Freeze concentrate cycles also help. The researchers observed effective aminoacylation under eutectic ice conditions near 19°F. 



In this environment, ice excludes salt and concentrates solutes into brines, which speed reactions without harsh reagents.



“It seems pretty probable that this reaction would have been occurring on early Earth,” said Professor Powner. That assessment reflects the mild requirements and the water compatibility of the chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-chemistry-and-biology">Bridging chemistry and biology</h2>



Modern cells make proteins with the ribosome, a ribonucleoprotein machine that reads messenger RNA and couples amino acids with the help of transfer RNAs. 



The new chemistry provides a path for RNA to handle amino acids without proteins, easing the chicken or egg problem.



An earlier study proposed an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-breakthrough-sheds-light-on-the-beginning-of-life/">RNA</a> peptide world in which RNA and short peptides co-evolved, forming chimeric molecules that could grow and select function. 



The present result shows a plausible way for RNA to acquire and extend amino acids in water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-modern-genetic-code">The modern genetic code</h2>



The genetic code is the set of rules that maps RNA triplets to amino acids. 



By preferring attachment at RNA termini and operating under duplex control, this chemistry hints at how sequence specific pairing could later become coded instruction.



The researchers point to the need for sequence preferences that pair specific RNA sequences with specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-building-blocks-may-have-formed-near-newborn-stars-and-planets/">amino acids</a>. That would move from chemistry that charges RNA to chemistry that begins to encode.



Success there would show how early RNA could use simple rules to shape peptide sequences, with later evolution building the fully fledged ribosome and the modern code.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09388-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists think they discovered the origin of life on Earth

Life needs proteins for almost everything, from cell repair to immune defense. Scientists have long asked how the first proteins were formed before cells had complex machinery. A new study reports a simple, water-friendly reaction that links early ingredients into the first steps toward protein-making. The project was led by Professor Matthew Powner at University College London (UCL), a chemist whose lab explores prebiotic chemistry. "At life’s functional core, there is a complex and inseparable interplay between nucleic acids and proteins, but the origin of this relationship...

Researchers have uncovered a surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and the onset of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-reduces-the-risk-of-autoimmune-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autoimmune diseases</a>, such as lupus. The findings suggest that these mental health and neurological symptoms could serve as early warning signs of disease flares.



This revelation comes from a comprehensive study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King's College London</a>, published in eClinicalMedicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-between-nightmares-and-disease">Connection between nightmares and disease</h2>



The research team surveyed 676 people living with lupus and 400 clinicians, as well as conducting in-depth interviews with 69 individuals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-a-greater-risk-of-autoimmune-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systemic autoimmune</a> rheumatic diseases (including lupus) and 50 clinicians. 



The study aimed to explore the timing and prevalence of 29 neurological and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spending-67-minutes-daily-outdoors-boosts-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> symptoms, such as depression, hallucinations, and loss of balance, in relation to disease flares.



Professor David D'Cruz from Kings College London, a senior author of the study, shared his experience.



"For many years, I have discussed nightmares with my lupus patients and thought that there was a link with their disease activity," D'Cruz recounted. 



"This research provides evidence of this, and we are strongly encouraging more doctors to ask about nightmares and other neuropsychiatric symptoms -- thought to be unusual, but actually very common in systemic autoimmunity -- to help us detect disease flares earlier," D'Cruz concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Prevalence of disrupted dreams and hallucinations</h2>



The study revealed that three in five patients experienced disrupted dream sleep, with a third reporting this symptom appearing over a year before the onset of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-food-diets-linked-to-rise-in-autoimmune-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lupus disease</a>. 



Hallucinations were reported by just under one in four patients, with 85% experiencing this symptom around the onset of the disease or later.



Interestingly, when interviewed, three in five lupus patients and one in three with other rheumatology-related conditions reported increasingly disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-dreams-influence-our-perceptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dreaming sleep</a> – usually vivid and distressing nightmares – just before their hallucinations. These nightmares often involved being attacked, trapped, crushed, or falling.



One patient from Ireland described their nightmares as: "Horrific, like murders, like skin coming off people, horrific…I think it's like when I'm overwhelmed which could be the lupus being bad…So I think the more stress my body is under then the more vivid and bad the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasomnia-awake-dream-exploring-sleepwalking-deep-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dreaming</a> would be."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Power of "daymares"</h2>



The study interviewers found that using the term "daymares" to discuss hallucinations often led to a "lightbulb" moment for patients, as it felt less frightening and stigmatized.



A patient from England shared their experience: "[When] you said that word daymare and as soon as you said that it just made sense, it's like not necessarily scary, it's just like you've had a dream and yet you're sitting awake in the garden…I see different things, it's like I come out of it and it's like when you wake up and you can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confronting-nightmares-good-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remember your dream</a> and you're there but you're not there… it's like feeling really disorientated, the nearest thing I can think of is that I feel like I'm Alice in Wonderland."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Recognizing nightmares as disease symptoms</h2>



Lead author Dr. Melanie Sloan from the Department of Public Health and Primary Care at the University of Cambridge emphasized the importance of clinicians discussing these symptoms with their patients and documenting each individual's progression of symptoms. 



Recognizing nightmares and hallucinations as early flare symptoms may provide an "early warning system," enabling improved care and potentially reducing clinic times by averting flares at an earlier stage.



Professor Guy Leschziner is a study author, neurologist at <a href="https://www.guysandstthomas.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guys' and St Thomas' hospital</a>, and author of The Secret World of Sleep. He added, "We have long been aware that alterations in dreaming may signify changes in physical, neurological and mental health, and can sometimes be early indicators of disease."



Leschziner went on to say that this is the first evidence that nightmares may also help monitor such a serious autoimmune condition like lupus. The science indicates this is an important prompt to patients and clinicians alike that sleep symptoms may tell us about impending relapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Misdiagnosis and increased awareness</h2>



The study also highlighted the importance of recognizing these symptoms to avoid misdiagnosis. Some patients reported initially being misdiagnosed or even hospitalized with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-sleep-deprivation-linked-to-adult-psychosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychotic episode</a> and/or suicidal ideation, which was only later found to be the first sign of their autoimmune disease.



A nurse from Scotland shared her experience: "I've seen them admitted for an episode of psychosis and the lupus isn't screened for until someone says 'oh I wonder if it might be lupus'...but it was several months and very difficult… especially with young women and it's learning more that that is how lupus affects some people and it's not anti-psychotic drugs they needed, it's like a lot of steroids."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-disease-by-monitoring-nightmares">Managing disease by monitoring nightmares</h2>



The fascinating research led by Dr. Melanie Sloan and Professor David D'Cruz uncovers the surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and autoimmune disease flares. 



By recognizing these mental health and neurological symptoms as potential early warning signs, clinicians and patients can work together to improve disease management and enhance the quality of life for those living with autoimmune conditions. 



This study emphasizes the importance of open communication between patients and healthcare providers, as well as the need for increased awareness within the medical community. 



As we continue to explore this fascinating link, we move closer to a future where autoimmune diseases are detected earlier, managed more effectively, and their impact on individuals' lives is minimized.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S258953702400213X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EClinicalMedicine</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Nightmares and hallucinations may be early warning signs of serious disease

Researchers have uncovered a surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and...

Focused,African,Business,Man,In,Headphones,Writing,Notes,In,Notebook

It's a phrase we've all heard countless times: "practice makes perfect." But is there any truth behind this age-old adage? According to new research, the answer is a resounding yes. Practice, it turns out, is the key to mastering a skill, as it solidifies the neural memory pathways in your brain.



In a collaborative effort, researchers from <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Rockefeller University</a> and <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> have shed new light on the mechanisms behind skill acquisition and memory formation. 



Their findings, published in the prestigious journal Nature, reveal that memory representations in working memory circuits transform from an unstable state to a solid one as an individual repeatedly practices a task over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-the-brain-in-action">Observing the brain in action</h2>



To unravel the mysteries of learning and memory, the research team employed a cutting-edge technology developed by Rockefeller's Alipasha Vaziri. 



This innovative tool allowed them to simultaneously observe an astonishing 73,000 cortical neurons in mice as the animals learned and repeated a specific task over a two-week period.



"In this work we show how working memory -- the brain's ability to hold and process information -- improves through practice," explains Vaziri, head of Rockefeller's Laboratory of Neurology and Biophysics. 



Vaziri expects that these insights will advance our understanding of learning and memory while helping to address memory-related disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-practice-in-memory-transformation">Role of practice in memory transformation</h2>



As the mice in the study practiced identifying, recalling, and repeating a sequence of odors, the researchers witnessed a remarkable transformation in their working memory circuits. 



Initially, these circuits were unstable, but with repetitive training, they began to stabilize and solidify -- a process the researchers refer to as "crystallization."



"The findings essentially illustrate that repetitive training not only enhances skill proficiency but also leads to profound changes in the brain's memory circuits, making performance more accurate and automatic," Vaziri elaborates.



UCLA Health neurologist and corresponding author Peyman Golshani offers a beautiful analogy.



"If one imagines that each neuron in the brain is sounding a different note, the melody that the brain is generating when it is doing the task was changing from day to day, but then became more and more refined and similar as animals kept practicing the task," Golshani said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illuminating-the-brain-with-light-beads-microscopy">Illuminating the brain with light-beads microscopy</h2>



One of the most significant aspects of this study was the use of light-beads microscopy (LBM), a high-speed volumetric imaging technology developed by Vaziri. 



LBM enables cellular resolution in vivo recording of neuronal populations up to 1 million neurons -- a 100-fold increase compared to previous methods.



Initially, the researchers used standard two-photon imaging of smaller neuronal populations in upper cortical layers but failed to find evidence for memory stabilization from practice. 



It was only when they employed LBM to record from over 70,000 neurons in deeper cortical regions that they observed the crystallization of working memory representations accompanying the mice's increasing mastery of the task.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practice-learning-and-the-future-of-memory-research">Practice, learning, and the future of memory research</h2>



With these fascinating findings, the researchers have opened up new avenues for exploring the intricacies of learning and memory. 



"In the future, we may tackle the role of different neuronal cell types involved in mediating this mechanism, and in particular the interaction of different types of interneurons with excitatory cells," Vaziri shares.



"We're also interested in understanding how learning is implemented and could be transferred into a new context -- that is, how the brain could generalize from a learned task to some new unknown problems," Vaziri concluded.



In summary, the study highlights the profound impact of repetition on skill mastery and memory formation. By employing cutting-edge imaging technology, the researchers have unveiled the neural mechanisms that transform working memory representations from an unstable state to a solid one as individuals practice a task repeatedly. 



This research deepens our understanding of learning and memory and paves the way for future investigations into the intricacies of the brain. 



As we continue to explore the neuronal underpinnings of skill acquisition and memory, we move closer to unlocking the full potential of the human mind and developing innovative approaches to address memory-related disorders.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07425-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Practice actually does 'make perfect' when it comes to memory and mastering skills

It's a phrase we've all heard countless times: "practice makes...

Yoga, mindfulness, meditation, breathwork, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wim-hof-method-helps-fight-stress-inflammation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a> have surged in popularity due to their potential health benefits. While these practices often lead to positive and sometimes transformational effects, they can also induce altered states of consciousness.



Recent research by a team from <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts General Hospital</a>, part of the <a href="https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mass General Brigham</a> healthcare system, sheds light on how common these altered states are. 



The findings, published in the journal Mindfulness, reveal that such experiences are more prevalent than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-common-yet-complex-experiences">Meditation: Common yet complex experiences</h2>



Dr. Matthew D. Sacchet, the director of the Meditation Research Program at Massachusetts General Hospital and an associate professor of Psychiatry at <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a>, led the study. 



"With more people engaging in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-training-improves-mental-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mindfulness</a>, meditation, and other contemplative practices, we anticipated that altered states and their effects might be common. Our international surveys confirmed that these experiences are widespread," Sacchet explained.



The study surveyed 3,135 adults in the US and the UK. Surprisingly, 45% reported experiencing non-pharmacologically induced altered states of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-deeply-enhances-meditation-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consciousness</a> at least once in their lives. 



This far exceeds the estimated 5% (US) to 15% (UK) of people who have practiced mindfulness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-effects-of-altered-states-in-meditation">Varied effects of altered states in meditation</h2>



Participants reported a range of experiences, including:



<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-deeply-enhances-meditation-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Derealization</a> (feeling detached from the environment)</li>



<li>Unitive experiences (a sense of unity or "oneness")</li>



<li>Ecstatic thrills</li>



<li>Vivid perceptions</li>



<li>Changes in perceived size</li>



<li>Bodily heat or electricity</li>



<li>Out-of-body experiences</li>



<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perception</a> of non-physical lights</li>
</ul>



"Altered states were most often followed by positive and sometimes transformational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-rate-influences-our-perception-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> on well-being. However, negative effects were also reported, with a small subset experiencing substantial suffering," Sacchet noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-better-support">The need for better support</h2>



Among those who experienced suffering, 13% reported moderate or greater suffering, and 1.1% claimed life-threatening suffering. Alarmingly, 63% of these individuals did not seek help.



"Rather than being extremely unusual and rare, our study found that altered states of consciousness are a common variant of normal human experience," Sacchet said. 



"Yet, those who experience negative outcomes often do not seek help, and clinicians are poorly prepared to support these experiences. This represents a public health issue, as some people struggle to integrate these experiences into their existing conceptions of self and reality," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-states-research-and-care">Meditation states research and care</h2>



The study highlights the need for further research to identify individual characteristics associated with experiencing altered states and the potential suffering that may follow. 



"We should not dismiss meditation and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heated-yoga-shows-promise-as-a-treatment-for-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a> as inherently dangerous. Instead, we need to better understand and support meditators to fully realize the potential of these practices," Sacchet emphasized



Similar to psychotherapy, pharmacology, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-gives-rise-to-unique-physical-sensations-in-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapeutic tools</a>, it's important to implement and support people engaging with these powerful practices effectively.



Sacchet also pointed out that ancient meditation manuals from wisdom traditions might help classify and manage altered states, saying, "These manuals could provide guidance on how to better manage difficult altered states. More research is clearly needed to explore this possibility."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-education-and-meditation-teaching">Clinical education and meditation teaching</h2>



Dr. Sacchet called for the development of clinical curricula on altered states of consciousness to better equip clinicians. 



"Those who teach meditation should ensure that participants are aware of potential risks. Implementing safeguards will help ensure that these promising and powerful practices are taught and experienced safely," he concluded.



This research highlights the complex nature and importance of altered states of consciousness experienced during meditation and similar practices. These states can have profound effects on individuals, often leading to significant positive changes in well-being. 



However, they can also cause negative experiences for some, ranging from mild discomfort to substantial suffering. The findings emphasize the necessity for a balanced approach to these practices. It is essential to harness their potential benefits while being aware of and mitigating the associated risks. 



The study calls for better support systems and education for both practitioners and clinicians. By understanding these altered states better, healthcare providers can offer appropriate guidance and support to those who experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venting-your-anger-ineffective-does-more-harm-than-good/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">difficulties</a>. 



The research advocates for the development of clinical curricula and safeguards in teaching meditation, ensuring that these powerful practices are approached with the necessary caution and understanding to maximize their benefits and minimize any harm.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12671-024-02356-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mindfulness</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Meditation reveals common altered states of consciousness

Yoga, mindfulness, meditation, breathwork, and other practices have surged in...

Woman,Using,Daily,Activity,Tracking,App,On,Mobile,Phone,Showing

In today's age of smartwatches and fitness trackers, monitoring exercise through step counts has become second nature for many. However, current physical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-exercise-routine-can-cut-your-risk-of-early-death-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> guidelines do not specify step goals for health benefits. 



A recent study suggests that both step and time-based exercise targets offer similar health <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-reduces-aging-related-fat-buildup-in-tissues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a>. This means choosing a goal that suits personal preferences is more important than the type of goal itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goal-of-exercise-in-promoting-longevity">Goal of exercise in promoting longevity</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a> have explored the effectiveness of step and time-based exercise goals. 



Their study, published in JAMA Internal Medicine, found that both approaches are equally beneficial in reducing the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-prove-how-many-daily-steps-you-should-take-to-avoid-early-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early death</a> and cardiovascular disease.



Regular physical activity is known to reduce the risk of chronic illnesses and infections, promoting longevity. 



The current U.S. guidelines recommend adults engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resistance-exercise-may-be-the-secret-to-relieving-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> (like brisk walking) or 75 minutes of vigorous activity (such as jogging) per week. 



These guidelines, last updated in 2018, were primarily based on studies using self-reported physical activity data. However, the rise of wearable fitness devices has popularized step counts as a metric for tracking physical activity and exercise goals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-step-based-physical-activity-guidelines">Step-based physical activity guidelines</h2>



“We recognized that existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leisure-time-physical-activity-is-a-powerful-tool-to-prevent-stroke/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a> guidelines focus primarily on activity duration and intensity but lack step-based recommendations,” said lead author Rikuta Hamaya, MD, PhD, MS. 



“With more people using smartwatches to measure their steps and overall health, we saw the importance of ascertaining how step-based measurements compare to time-based targets in their association with health outcomes – is one better than the other?”



To explore this, researchers collected data from 14,399 women participating in the Women’s Health Study. 



These women, aged 62 and older and free from cardiovascular disease and cancer, wore research-grade wearables for seven consecutive days between 2011 and 2015 to record their physical activity. They only removed the devices for sleep or water-related activities. 



Annual questionnaires tracked health outcomes, particularly death from any cause and cardiovascular disease, with follow-ups continuing until the end of 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-health-effects-of-physical-activity">Long-term health effects of physical activity</h2>



During the device wear period, participants averaged 62 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise per week and accumulated a median of 5,183 steps per day. 



Over a median follow-up of nine years, approximately 9% of participants passed away, and 4% developed cardiovascular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evening-exercise-can-reduce-major-health-risks-of-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a>. 



Higher levels of physical activity, whether measured by steps or time, were linked to significant risk reductions in death or cardiovascular disease. 



The most active women had 30-40% lower risks compared to the least active. Additionally, those in the top three quartiles of physical activity outlived those in the bottom quartile by an average of 2.22 to 2.36 months over nine years, regardless of BMI differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-vs-time-pros-and-cons">Steps vs. time: Pros and cons</h2>



While both exercise goals effectively portray health status, each has its advantages and downsides. 



Step counts may not account for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cardiorespiratory-fitness-cuts-early-death-risks-by-53-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fitness</a> level differences. For example, a 20-year-old and an 80-year-old walking for 30 minutes at moderate intensity will have different step counts. 



Steps are straightforward to measure and less subject to interpretation compared to exercise intensity. They also capture sporadic movements in daily life, which are common among older individuals.



"For some, especially younger individuals, exercise may involve activities like tennis, soccer, walking, or jogging, all of which can be easily tracked with steps. However, for others, it may consist of bike rides or swimming, where monitoring the duration of exercise is simpler,” said Hamaya.



That's why it's important for physical activity guidelines to offer multiple ways to reach goals. Movement looks different for everyone, and nearly all forms of movement are beneficial to our health."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-goals-and-metrics-in-shaping-guidelines">Exercise goals and metrics in shaping guidelines</h2>



The study has several limitations. It relied on a single assessment of time and step-based physical activity metrics. 



Additionally, the majority of the participants were white women of higher socioeconomic status, and because the study was observational, it does not establish causality. 



Furthermore, Hamaya intends to gather more data through a randomized controlled trial to better understand the relationship between time and step-based exercise metrics and health outcomes.



"The next federal physical activity guidelines are scheduled for 2028. Our findings underscore the importance of including step-based targets to allow for flexible goals that can accommodate individuals with varying preferences, abilities, and lifestyles," stated senior author I-Min Lee, MBBS, ScD.



This study underscores the importance of finding a personal exercise tracking method—whether in steps or minutes—that is sustainable and effective for you, enabling you to reap the health benefits of regular physical activity.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2818632" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Internal Medicine</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Step and time-based exercise goals are equally beneficial

In today's age of smartwatches and fitness trackers, monitoring exercise...

Loneliness isn't just a fleeting feeling of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/depression-and-cardiovascular-diseases-are-genetically-linked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sadness</a>. Last year, the U.S. Surgeon General Vivek H. Murthy labeled it a national epidemic, with health risks comparable to smoking or obesity. To combat this, Murthy urged Americans to strengthen social connections. New research suggests a simple solution: buy experiences, not things.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retail-therapy-experiences-and-social-connections">Retail therapy, experiences and social connections</h2>



Dr. Amit Kumar, a marketing and psychology researcher at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>, believes that experiences could be a key factor in combating the loneliness epidemic. 



Kumar posits that the act of purchasing and engaging in experiences can foster "social capital," the network of relationships and connections that contribute to our well-being.



"What this work suggests is that we might actually be able to build social capital from what we buy. That, in turn, could lead to more health and happiness," Kumar says. 



This concept might seem counterintuitive, especially considering the common association of retail therapy with material goods. However, Kumar's research suggests a nuanced perspective. 



While traditional retail therapy might offer temporary relief, the satisfaction derived from material possessions tends to fade quickly. Experiences, on the other hand, can have a more enduring impact on our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-body-connection-wounds-heal-faster-if-we-think-more-time-has-passed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">happiness</a> and our connections with others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiences-for-social-connections">Experiences for social connections</h2>



Kumar's prior research established that experiences, such as concerts or travel, tend to provide a more enduring sense of satisfaction compared to the fleeting pleasure derived from acquiring material possessions like luxury cars or designer clothing. 



However, his latest findings delve deeper into the impact of experiences on our lives, revealing that they don't merely enhance personal happiness but also significantly contribute to our social connections.



"All of our buying habits are, to some extent, part of who we are, and they can connect us to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spending-less-time-on-social-media-improves-your-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">other people</a>," Kumar says. "But that’s much more likely to be true of experiences we buy than material items we buy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-better-social-connections-come-from-experiences">Why do better social connections come from experiences?</h2>



To validate their hypotheses, Kumar and his research team conducted seven distinct experiments involving over 1,400 participants. 



The results of these experiments provided compelling evidence to support the idea that experiences foster stronger social connections compared to material goods.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-sense-of-similarity">Increased sense of similarity</h3>



Participants consistently reported a heightened sense of similarity and connection with others who had partaken in the same experience. 



This finding suggests that shared experiences create a common ground that transcends material possessions, fostering a sense of camaraderie and understanding.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-identity-link">Stronger identity link </h3>



The research also revealed that beyond social connections, experiences play a significant role in shaping our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-posts-are-not-a-good-representation-of-our-true-selves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personal identities</a>. 



Participants reported a stronger association between their experiences and their sense of self compared to material possessions. 



This implies that experiences contribute to a deeper understanding of who we are and what we value, which in turn can enhance our connections with others who share similar values.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-envy">Reduced Envy</h3>



Interestingly, the research found that even when faced with disparities in the quality or intensity of an experience (such as front-row seats versus nosebleed seats at a concert), individuals still felt a sense of social connection with others who shared the same experience. 



This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-over-social-media-less-stress-more-life-satisfaction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shared nature</a> of the experience itself outweighs any differences in individual circumstances, promoting a sense of community and belonging.



"You feel a significantly stronger sense of connectedness when you find out that you just saw the same band in concert, than when you learn you have the same shoes as someone else," Kumar says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-to-humanity">Connection to humanity</h2>



You might think it's obvious that experiences make us feel more socially connected because they often involve other people. However, Kumar's research reveals a deeper insight. 



Experiences don't just increase our connection to the people we share them with; they enhance our sense of connection to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-humanity-can-work-together-to-solve-global-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humanity</a> as a whole. 



People feel a greater "sense of connection to humanity" after reflecting on experiential purchases compared to material purchases. 



Experiences foster more empathy and kinship towards others, beyond just those we directly interact with.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



This research is immediately actionable and offers practical applications for both individuals and businesses.



For individuals, if you're feeling lonely or disconnected, consider investing in experiences. Engaging in activities like attending concerts, going on weekend getaways, or taking cooking classes can significantly enhance your social well-being. 



For businesses, this research suggests that emphasizing the experiential aspects of products can be highly beneficial. Companies can tap into this by creating and promoting experiences associated with their offerings. 



For instance, Apple’s Genius Bar provides a personalized, interactive experience, while Nike’s running clubs offer a sense of community and shared activity. 



Highlighting these experiential elements can enhance customer satisfaction, increase brand loyalty, and drive long-term success. 



In sum, loneliness is a real problem, but it's not insurmountable. By choosing experiences over things, we can not only enjoy life more but also forge meaningful connections that enrich our lives and boost our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-teddy-bears-so-special-its-an-emotional-connection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well-being</a>. 



So next time you're contemplating a purchase, remember: experiences might just be the social glue we've all been missing.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bdm.2376" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Behavioral Decision Making</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Experiences, not things, are the key to deeper social connection

Loneliness isn't just a fleeting feeling of sadness. Last year,...

Researchers have uncovered the fascinating and widespread phenomenon of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-cells-could-be-used-to-slow-down-or-even-reverse-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell-in-cell events</a>, where one cell engulfs and sometimes consumes another in a type of cellular cannibalism. 



This study, led by scientists from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, challenges the long-held belief that such behavior is unique to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/micro-nanoplastics-mnps-help-cancer-cells-spread/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a>. Instead, these interactions are common across diverse life forms, from single-celled organisms to complex multicellular animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-widespread-occurrence-of-cellular-cannibalism">Widespread occurrence of cellular cannibalism</h2>



The research reveals that cell-in-cell events are not restricted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unique-fingerprint-of-cancer-cells-revealed-in-hydrogen-atoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancerous behavior</a>. These interactions are prevalent in non-cancer cells, suggesting that they play vital roles in normal development, homeostasis, and stress response. 



The researchers argue that targeting cell-in-cell events as a cancer treatment strategy should be reconsidered, as these behaviors are deeply embedded in the genetic makeup of a wide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-egg-cells-have-a-swirl-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">array of organisms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-conventional-views-on-cellular-behavior">Challenging conventional views on cellular behavior</h2>



Published in the renowned scientific journal Scientific Reports, the study is the first to systematically investigate cell-in-cell phenomena across the tree of life. 



By demonstrating that these occurrences span numerous life forms, the research encourages a reevaluation of fundamental concepts of cellular cooperation, competition, and the complexity of multicellularity. This discovery opens new avenues for research in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phospholipids-tiny-bubbles-that-may-have-been-earths-first-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary biology</a>, oncology, and regenerative medicine.



“We first got into this work because we learned that cells don’t just compete for resources -- they actively kill and eat each other,” says <a href="https://newsroom.asu.edu/expert/carlo-maley" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carlo Maley</a> of ASU. 



“That’s a fascinating aspect of the ecology of cancer cells. But further exploration revealed that these phenomena happen in normal cells, and sometimes neither cell dies, resulting in an entirely new type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anthrobots-scientists-create-tiny-biological-robots-from-human-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hybrid cell</a>," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-significance-of-cell-in-cell-events">Evolutionary significance of cell-in-cell events</h2>



The earliest genes responsible for cell-in-cell behavior date back over 2 billion years, indicating that these phenomena play an important, though not yet fully understood, role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living organisms</a>. 



Understanding the diverse functions of cell-in-cell events in both normal physiology and disease is crucial for developing more effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer therapies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cataloging-the-diversity-of-cellular-cannibalism">Cataloging the diversity of cellular cannibalism</h2>



The review delves into the occurrence, genetic underpinnings, and evolutionary history of cell-in-cell phenomena. The researchers reviewed more than 500 articles to catalog various forms of these interactions across the tree of life. 



They identified 16 different taxonomic groups where cell-in-cell behavior occurs and classified these events into six distinct categories based on the relationship between the host and prey cells and the outcome of the interaction.



A spectrum of cell-in-cell behaviors is highlighted in the study, ranging from selfish acts, where one cell kills and consumes another, to cooperative interactions, where both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mitochondria-cells-batteries-leaking-causes-inflammation-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells remain alive</a>. 



For instance, "heterospecific killing," where a cell engulfs and kills a cell of a different species, was observed across a wide range of organisms. In contrast, "conspecific killing," where a cell consumes another cell of the same species, was less common.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-important-biological-functions-beyond-competition">Important biological functions beyond competition</h2>



The team also documented cases where both the host and prey cells remained alive after the interaction, suggesting that these events may serve significant biological functions beyond just killing competitors. 



“Our categorization of cell-in-cell phenomena across the tree of life is important for better understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-living-creature-on-earth-identified-emerging-700-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution and mechanism</a> of these phenomena,” says first author Stefania E. Kapsetaki. 



“Why and how exactly do they happen? This is a question that requires further investigation across millions of living organisms, including organisms where cell-in-cell phenomena may not yet have been searched for," she continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-origins-of-cellular-cannibalism">Evolutionary origins of cellular cannibalism</h2>



The researchers investigated the evolutionary origins of the genes involved in cell-in-cell processes. They found that many key genes emerged long before the evolution of obligate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organisms-called-protosterol-biota-lived-1-6-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>. 



“When we look at genes associated with known cell-in-cell mechanisms in species that diverged from the human lineage a very long time ago, it turns out that the human orthologs are typically associated with normal functions of multicellularity, like immune surveillance,” explains  <a href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/1669300" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luis Cisneros</a>, formerly with ASU and currently a researcher at <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mayo Clinic</a>.



In total, 38 genes associated with cell-in-cell phenomena were identified, with 14 of these originating over 2.2 billion years ago, predating the common ancestor of some multicellular organisms. This suggests that the molecular machinery for cell cannibalism evolved before the major transitions to complex multicellularity.



The ancient cell-in-cell genes are involved in various cellular processes, including cell–cell adhesion, phagocytosis, intracellular killing of pathogens, and regulation of energy metabolism. 



This diversity of functions indicates that cell-in-cell events likely played important roles even in single-celled and simple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-early-animal-evolution-start-with-predatory-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organisms</a> well before the emergence of complex multicellular life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-cannibalism-and-the-future-of-medicine">Cellular cannibalism and the future of medicine</h2>



In summary, this study revolutionizes our understanding of cell-in-cell phenomena, cellular cannibalism, revealing their widespread occurrence across the tree of life and challenging the notion that these events are unique to cancer cells. 



By demonstrating the ancient evolutionary origins of cell-in-cell genes and the diverse roles these interactions may play in normal development, homeostasis, and stress response, the research highlights new areas for investigation in evolutionary biology, oncology, and regenerative medicine. 



As we continue to unravel the complexities of cellular behavior and its implications for the evolution of multicellularity, this study serves as a catalyst for further exploration, inviting us to reconsider fundamental concepts of cellular cooperation, competition, and the intricate dance of life at the cellular level.



Carlo Maley is a researcher with the <a href="https://biodesign.asu.edu/biocomputing-security-and-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Biocomputing, Security and Society</a>; professor in the <a href="https://sols.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Life Sciences</a> at ASU; and director of the <a href="https://cancer-insights.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona Cancer Evolution Center</a>.



The study was conducted in collaboration with first author Stefania E. Kapsetaki, formerly with ASU and now a researcher at Tufts University, and <a href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/1669300" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luis Cisneros</a>, formerly with ASU and currently a researcher at Mayo Clinic.  



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-57528-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cannibalism at the cellular level is common across most life forms

Researchers have uncovered the fascinating and widespread phenomenon of cell-in-cell...

Flowers brighten our gardens, fill our vases, and inspire countless poets. But have you ever wondered about the drama unfolding within their petals? It turns out, plants have a fascinating (and surprisingly complex) way of choosing their fertilization partners. 



Scientists at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> in Japan have just pulled back the curtain on this hidden world, and what they've found could change the way we think about agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-fertilization">Flower fertilization</h2>



Flowering plants, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/plant-encyclopedia/angiosperms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">angiosperms</a>, have male and female parts. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-family-tree-explains-evolution-of-flower-symmetry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reproduction</a> kicks off when a pollen grain (carrying male genetic material) lands on the stigma of a flower (the female part). 



This triggers the growth of a pollen tube, a microscopic tunnel that delivers sperm cells to the ovule for fertilization. It's like a tiny, botanical version of a sperm whale diving to the depths of the ocean.



But how does a flower choose which pollen grain gets to fertilize it? To answer this, the Nagoya University team developed a technique using a two-photon microscope, allowing them to <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/suppl/10.1038/s44319-024-00151-4/suppl_file/44319_2024_151_moesm13_esm.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peer deep inside a living flower</a> for the first time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attraction-and-repulsion-in-flower-fertilization">Attraction and repulsion in flower fertilization</h2>



What they saw was a captivating pattern of attraction and rejection in flower fertilization. The female tissue of the flower emits a signal that lures a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> tube towards it. It's like a siren song, guiding the pollen tube along the precise path towards fertilization.



Once the lucky pollen tube has been chosen, the female tissue releases a second signal, this one designed to repel any other suitors. It's as if the flower says, "Thanks, but I'm taken!" This dual mechanism ensures that only one pollen tube gets to fertilize the ovule.



Lead researcher Yoko Mizuta described this repulsion system as "fascinating," noting the complex interplay of different cell types involved in this intricate process of attraction and repulsion. It's like a botanical soap opera, complete with love triangles and dramatic rejections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



This discovery goes beyond mere scientific curiosity about flower fertilization. It has significant implications for agriculture. By understanding how plants regulate fertilization, we can potentially optimize seed production and improve crop yields. 



The precise mechanism of one-to-one pollen tube guidance ensures successful fertilization and efficient seed production. This knowledge can help develop methods to enhance these natural processes. 



By mimicking or enhancing the signals that attract and repel pollen tubes, agricultural scientists could increase seed production and improve germination rates. This could lead to more efficient crop production, especially under challenging environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-alters-the-dynamics-of-plant-pollinator-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. 



Ultimately, this research provides valuable insights that could benefit agricultural breeding practices, leading to higher yields and more robust crops. This could play a crucial role in addressing food security issues by making agricultural practices more efficient and productive.



"By precisely orchestrating the behavior of pollen tubes, plants have evolved a mechanism to ensure successful fertilization and efficient seed production on dry land with a limited number of suitors," Mizuta explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plant-breeding">Future of plant breeding</h2>



This research opens up a whole new world of possibilities for plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-does-a-lotus-flower-grow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a>. 



By manipulating the signals that attract and repel pollen tubes, scientists could potentially develop crops that are more resistant to environmental stressors, produce higher yields, and have better germination rates. 



Understanding the precise mechanisms of one-to-one pollen tube guidance allows for targeted interventions in plant reproduction processes. 



By enhancing the attraction signals, we can ensure that more pollen tubes reach the ovules, leading to successful fertilization and increased seed production. 



Conversely, by optimizing the repulsion signals in flowers, we can prevent multiple pollen tubes from fertilizing the same ovule, improving the efficiency of fertilization. 



This could lead to the development of crops that thrive in challenging environmental conditions, such as drought or poor soil quality. Overall, this research provides a foundation for innovative plant breeding techniques that could significantly enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability.



So, the next time you see a flower, remember, there's more going on than meets the eye. It's not just a pretty face, but a complex organism with a fascinating reproductive strategy – one that could help us feed a growing planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44319-024-00151-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Reports</a>.



—–



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



—–

Flowers are picky when choosing their mate for fertilization

Flowers brighten our gardens, fill our vases, and inspire countless...

Why is the warm gas-giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-class-of-exoplanets-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet</a> WASP-107 b so puffy? With a moderate temperature and an extremely low density similar to a microwaved marshmallow, it seems to defy standard theories of planet formation and evolution. Now, two independent teams of researchers have provided an answer.



Data collected using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, combined with prior observations from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, show surprisingly little methane (CH4) in the planet’s atmosphere, indicating that the interior of WASP-107 b must be significantly hotter and the core much more massive than previously estimated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-puffy-exoplanets">The mystery of puffy exoplanets</h2>



The unexpectedly high temperature is thought to be a result of tidal heating caused by the planet’s slightly non-circular orbit, and can explain how WASP-107 b can be so inflated without resorting to extreme theories of how it formed.



The results, which were made possible by Webb’s extraordinary sensitivity and accompanying ability to measure light passing through exoplanet atmospheres, may explain why dozens of low-density exoplanets are puffy, helping to solve a long-standing mystery in science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-the-least-dense-planets">One of the least dense planets</h2>



At more than three-quarters the volume of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> but less than one-tenth the mass, the “warm Neptune” exoplanet WASP-107 b is one of the least dense planets known. While puffy planets are not uncommon, most are hotter and more massive, and therefore easier to explain.



“Based on its radius, mass, age, and assumed internal temperature, we thought WASP-107 b had a very small, rocky core surrounded by a huge mass of hydrogen and helium,” explained Luis Welbanks from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> (ASU), the lead author of a paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07514-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>. 



“But it was hard to understand how such a small core could sweep up so much gas, and then stop short of growing fully into a Jupiter-mass planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-chemistry-of-wasp-107-b">The chemistry of WASP-107 b</h2>



If WASP-107 b instead has more of its mass in the core, the atmosphere should have contracted as the planet cooled over time since it formed. Without a source of heat to re-expand the gas, the planet should be much smaller.&nbsp;



Although WASP-107 b has an orbital distance of just 5 million miles (one-seventh the distance between Mercury and the Sun), it doesn’t receive enough energy from its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a> to be so inflated.



“WASP-107 b is such an interesting target for Webb because it’s significantly cooler and more Neptune-like in mass than many of the other low-density planets, the hot Jupiters, we’ve been studying,” said David Sing from Johns Hopkins University (JHU), lead author of a parallel study also published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07395-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.&nbsp;



“As a result, we should be able to detect methane and other molecules that can give us information about its chemistry and internal dynamics that we can’t get from a hotter planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-puffy-exoplanets">Studying puffy exoplanets</h2>



WASP-107 b’s giant radius, extended <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-finds-a-water-rich-planet-with-a-steamy-atmosphere-named-gj-9827d/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>, and edge-on orbit make it ideal for transmission spectroscopy, a method used to identify the various gasses in an exoplanet atmosphere based on how they affect starlight.



Combining observations from Webb’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera), Webb’s MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument), and Hubble’s WFC3 (Wide Field Camera 3), Welbanks’ team was able to build a broad spectrum of 0.8- to 12.2-micron light absorbed by WASP-107 b’s atmosphere. Using Webb’s NIRSpec (Near-Infrared Spectrograph), Sing’s team built an independent spectrum covering 2.7 to 5.2 microns.



The precision of the data makes it possible to not just detect, but actually measure the abundances of a wealth of molecules, including water vapor (H2O), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and ammonia (NH3).



Both spectra show a surprising lack of methane in WASP-107 b’s atmosphere: one-thousandth the amount expected based on its assumed temperature.



“This is evidence that hot gas from deep in the planet must be mixing vigorously with the cooler layers higher up,” explained Sing. “Methane is unstable at high temperatures. The fact that we detected so little, even though we did detect other carbon-bearing molecules, tells us that the interior of the planet must be significantly hotter than we thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tidal-heating-and-puffiness-nbsp">Tidal heating and puffiness&nbsp;</h2>



A likely source of WASP-107 b’s extra internal energy is tidal heating caused by its slightly elliptical orbit. With the distance between the star and planet changing continuously over the 5.7-day orbit, the gravitational pull is also changing, stretching the planet and heating it up.



Researchers had previously proposed that tidal heating could be the cause of WASP-107 b’s puffiness, but until the Webb results were in, there was no evidence.



Once they established that the planet has enough internal heat to thoroughly churn up the atmosphere, the teams realized that the spectra could also provide a new way to estimate the size of the core.



“If we know how much energy is in the planet, and we know what proportion of the planet is heavier elements like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, versus how much is hydrogen and helium, we can calculate how much mass must be in the core,” explained Daniel Thorngren from JHU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



It turns out that the core is at least twice as massive as originally estimated, which makes more sense in terms of how planets form. Thus, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potential-signs-of-life-found-on-nearby-exoplanet-wasp-107b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WASP-107 b</a> is not as mysterious as it once appeared.



“The Webb data tells us that planets like WASP-107 b didn’t have to form in some odd way with a super small core and a huge gassy envelope. Instead, we can take something more like Neptune, with a lot of rock and not as much gas, just dial up the temperature, and poof it up to look the way it does,” said Mike Line, an astrophysicist at ASU.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Puffy exoplanets have the density of a marshmallow, but how is it possible?

Why is the warm gas-giant exoplanet WASP-107 b so puffy?...

Mars, a planet often associated with a lifeless, dusty expanse, holds a puzzling amount of organic matter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-explores-mars-ridge-with-intriguing-watery-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">on its surface</a>. Despite the absence of visible signs of life, the Red Planet's geological features, such as deltas, lakebeds, and river valleys, strongly suggest a past where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water once flowed</a> abundantly. 



To unravel the mysteries of Mars' history, scientists have been diligently examining sediments preserved near these formations, hoping to find clues about the early environmental conditions and the processes that shaped the planet over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-rover-s-unexpected-discovery">Curiosity rover's unexpected discovery</h2>



A new and intriguing study led by Professor Yuichiro Ueno from <a href="https://www.titech.ac.jp/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a> and Professor Matthew Johnson from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> shed light on a peculiar finding made by NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-records-a-martian-day-from-dawn-to-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a>. 



The rover collected sediments from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gale-crater-reveals-secrets-of-water-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gale Crater</a>, believed to be an ancient lake formed approximately 3.8 billion years ago due to an asteroid impact. 



Analysis of these sediments revealed the presence of organic matter, but with a significantly lower amount of the carbon-13 isotope (13C) relative to carbon-12 isotopes (12C) compared to what is found on Earth.



"On measuring the stable isotope ratio between 13C and 12C, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> organic matter has a 13C abundance of 0.92% to 0.99% of the carbon that makes it up," explains Ueno.



"This is extremely low compared to Earth's sedimentary organic matter, which is about 1.04%, and atmospheric CO2, around 1.07%, both of which are biological remnants, and are not similar to the organic matter in meteorites, which is about 1.05%," Ueno continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-isotope-conundrum">Carbon isotope conundrum</h2>



To understand the discrepancy in carbon isotope ratios, the researchers conducted laboratory experiments simulating different conditions of the Martian atmosphere's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-martian-sky-often-has-an-eerie-green-glow-at-night-called-nightglow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">composition and temperature</a>. 



They discovered that when 12CO2 is exposed to solar ultraviolet (UV) light, it preferentially absorbs UV radiation, leading to its dissociation into CO depleted in 13C, leaving behind CO2 enriched in 13C.



This phenomenon, known as isotopic fractionation, is also observed in the upper atmospheres of Mars and Earth, where UV irradiation from the sun causes CO2 to dissociate into CO with depleted 13C content. 



In a reducing Martian atmosphere, CO transforms into simple organic compounds such as formaldehyde and carboxylic acids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recreating-mars-organic-matter-in-the-lab">Recreating Mars organic matter in the lab</h2>



Using model calculations, the researchers found that in an atmosphere with a CO2 to CO ratio of 90:10, a 20% conversion of CO2 to CO would lead to sedimentary organic matter with δ13CVPDB values of -135‰. 



Also, the remaining CO2 would be enriched in 13C with δ13CVPDB values of +20‰. 



These values closely match those seen in sediments analyzed by the Curiosity rover and estimated from a Martian meteorite, indicating that the main source of organic matter formation on early Mars was an atmospheric process rather than a biological one.



"If the estimation in this research is correct, there may be an unexpected amount of organic material present in Martian sediments. This suggests that future explorations of Mars might uncover large quantities of organic matter," says Professor Ueno.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-organic-matter-and-future-exploration">Mars organic matter and future exploration</h2>



The findings of this study have significant implications for our understanding of Mars' past and the potential for future discoveries. 



As scientists continue to explore the Red Planet, they may uncover even more evidence of organic matter, shedding light on the complex processes that shaped the Martian environment billions of years ago.



While the presence of organic matter alone does not confirm the existence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past life on Mars</a>, it serves as a tantalizing clue, urging us to delve deeper into the planet's history. 



As we continue to unravel the mysteries of Mars, we inch closer to answering the age-old question: Did life ever exist beyond Earth?



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01443-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mars' surface contains more organic matter than previously believed

Mars, a planet often associated with a lifeless, dusty expanse,...

Social media platforms can be potent tools for influencing behaviors, particularly among the youth. Recent research highlights a concerning trend: the more time children and young people spend on social media, the more likely they are to engage in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-at-any-age-brings-big-and-immediate-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaping-epidemic-half-of-students-who-try-e-cigs-get-hooked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaping</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-screen-time-and-smoking-habits">Screen time and smoking habits</h2>



A study focusing on individuals aged 10 to 25 has revealed a strong correlation between the hours spent on social media during weekdays and the inclination to smoke or vape. 



Participants logging more than seven hours a day on these platforms were found to have more than double the risk of engaging in these habits compared to those who spent less time.



The <a href="https://www.understandingsociety.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Household Longitudinal Study</a>, conducted from 2015 to 2021, provided a dataset of 27,962 observations from 10,808 young participants. 



The findings were startling: 8.5% of the respondents reported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-cigarettes-accelerates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking cigarettes</a>, and 2.5% were into vaping, with just over 1% indulging in both. 



Notably, those who did not use social media at all reported significantly lower rates of smoking (2%) and vaping (less than 1%).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incremental-risks-with-increased-social-media-use">Incremental risks with increased social media use</h2>



The research delineates a clear gradient in risk associated with increased social media use. For example, those who spent less than an hour per day on these platforms were 92% more likely to smoke compared to non-users. 



This risk escalated dramatically for heavy users, who were more than 3.5 times as likely to smoke if they spent over seven hours per day on social media.



Likewise, a similar pattern was observed with vaping. Moderate social media users (1–3 hours per day) were 92% more likely to vape, whereas heavy users (over seven hours) were nearly three times as likely to engage in vaping compared to those who abstained from social media.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-beyond-social-media">Factors beyond social media</h2>



The study also controlled for various demographic and socioeconomic factors such as age, sex, household income, and parental smoking habits. 



Although the core findings were consistent across different groups, certain nuances emerged. For instance, males and individuals from higher-income households were more likely to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teenagers-vape-alarming-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vape</a>, but no significant differences were found for smoking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corporate-influence-and-advertising-tactics">Corporate influence and advertising tactics</h2>



The researchers speculate that the increased risk of smoking and vaping among young people could be partly due to aggressive marketing strategies on social media. 



Many tobacco and vaping companies employ algorithmically targeted ads to reach specific users, ensuring their products are seen by those most likely to be influenced. 



These companies also invest in paid influencers, who promote smoking and vaping by showcasing these activities as trendy and desirable. Such influencers often have large followings, including many young and impressionable individuals.



The exposure to these targeted ads and influencer promotions is significantly higher among users who spend more time on social media. As a result, frequent social media users are more likely to encounter messages that normalize or glamorize smoking and vaping. 



This increased exposure can lead to higher rates of smoking and vaping initiation among young people, as they are continuously bombarded with persuasive marketing tactics designed to make these habits seem appealing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-social-media-companies">Role of social media companies</h2>



The implications of this study are significant, suggesting that social media companies hold considerable power to curb the promotion of tobacco and vaping products on their platforms. 



The researchers advocate for more stringent regulations and the implementation of bans on advertisements targeting underage users to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-people-who-smoke-or-vape-have-a-higher-risk-of-severe-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">young people</a> from these harmful influences.



Dr. Kim Lavoie of the <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montreal</a> also points out the risks posed by the easy accessibility and addictive nature of nicotine products, exacerbated by clever marketing tactics on social media that target young people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safeguarding-youth-in-the-digital-age">Safeguarding youth in the digital age</h2>



The research makes a compelling case for the need for legislative action and stricter enforcement to address the corporate determinants of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teen-vaping-rates-surge-despite-health-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health risks</a> associated with social media use. 



As the digital landscape continues to evolve, ensuring the safety of young users remains a critical challenge that needs urgent attention.



This study serves as a crucial reminder of the impact of our digital environments on health behaviors and the need for comprehensive strategies to combat the influence of powerful corporate interests in the digital age.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://thorax.bmj.com/content/early/2024/04/18/thorax-2023-220569" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thorax</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social media use increases smoking and vaping risks among youth

Social media platforms can be potent tools for influencing behaviors,...

The human brain is constantly bombarded with a flood of sensory experiences, yet only a few of these experiences become memorable. What determines which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-waves-move-in-opposite-ways-to-make-memories-and-to-remember/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memories</a> stick and which fade away?



A recent study published in Nature Human Behavior by scientists from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> provides new insights into this age-old question. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-human-brain-memory">Complexity of human brain memory</h2>



Led by Ilker Yildirim, an assistant professor of psychology, and John Lafferty, the John C. Malone Professor of Statistics and Data Science, the research indicates that the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-lasting-memories-damages-dna-brain-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> gives more importance to memories it cannot easily explain or interpret. 



The study proposes that if an experience is difficult to understand or unexpected, the brain is more likely to retain it. This suggests that the brain's ability to explain or predict an event plays a crucial role in determining which experiences become lasting memories.



"The mind prioritizes remembering things that it is not able to explain very well," says Yildirim. "If a scene is predictable and not surprising, it might be ignored."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-memories">Surprising memories</h2>



To illustrate this point, consider a scenario where you encounter a fire hydrant in a remote natural environment. 



The presence of the fire hydrant in such an unexpected setting makes the scene difficult to interpret, and thus, more memorable. 



This suggests that the human brain is wired to pay more attention to and remember unusual or complex experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-ai-with-behavioral-analysis">Combining AI with behavioral analysis</h2>



The study involved developing a computational model to explore the process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-breathing-impacts-memory-formation-during-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory formation</a> in human brain, focusing on two key steps: the compression of visual signals and their reconstruction. 



The researchers then conducted a series of experiments where participants were shown a rapid sequence of natural images and later asked to recall specific ones.



The findings revealed that images which were harder for the computational model to reconstruct were more likely to be remembered by the participants. 



Moreover, this suggests that the complexity and unpredictability of a visual scene play significant roles in determining its memorability.



"We used an AI model to try to shed light on perception of scenes by people," says Lafferty, who is also the director of the Center for Neurocomputation and Machine Intelligence at the <a href="https://wti.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wu Tsai Institute at Yale</a>. "This understanding could help in the development of more efficient memory systems for AI in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ai-and-human-brain-memory">Implications for AI and human brain memory</h2>



The insights from this study not only advance our understanding of human memory but also have potential applications in the field of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-invent-computer-that-operates-just-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a>.



By mimicking the human brain's approach to memory, AI systems could be designed to prioritize and remember information more efficiently.



Our brains focus on experiences that are difficult to interpret, ensuring that the most significant and potentially useful memories are retained.



This new understanding could pave the way for advancements in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence, offering a deeper appreciation of how we remember and why some memories stand out more than others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-understanding-human-brain-memory">Potential of understanding human brain memory</h2>



Understanding how the human brain forms and retains memories can significantly impact various fields. The potential applications include:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Enhancing educational methods</h3>



Understanding memory mechanisms can lead to the development of personalized learning strategies that make information more memorable. 



Educators can design curricula that leverage memory retention principles, ensuring that complex and unexpected information is presented in an engaging way to enhance student retention.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Improving mental health treatments</h3>



Knowledge of memory formation in human brain can aid in developing therapies for conditions like PTSD, where traumatic memories are overly vivid. Techniques could be devised to help reframe or diminish the impact of these memories. 



Additionally, cognitive rehabilitation programs can be designed for individuals with memory impairments due to injury or disease, using principles derived from this research to strengthen memory retention.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Enhancing user experience in technology</h3>



Personalized content delivery algorithms can be developed to deliver content that is more likely to be remembered by users, improving engagement and satisfaction. 



Virtual and augmented reality technologies can use principles of memory retention to create more impactful and memorable experiences, whether for entertainment, education, or training purposes.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-024-01870-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How the human brain decides which memories to remember

The human brain is constantly bombarded with a flood of...

By documenting and sampling 75 locations across Alaska’s Brooks Range, researchers have found that dozens of Alaska’s remote streams and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> have turned from crystal clear blue to cloudy orange, likely due to minerals exposed by thawing permafrost.&nbsp;



This significant transformation of Alaska’s rivers could impact drinking water and fisheries in Arctic watersheds as the climate changes, according to a team of experts led by the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Park Service</a> (NPS), the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, and the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-changes-in-alaska-s-rivers">Color changes in Alaska’s rivers</h2>



“The more we flew around, we started noticing more and more orange rivers and streams,” said lead author Jon O’Donnell, an ecologist at the NPS’ Arctic Inventory and Monitoring Network. 



“There are certain sites that look almost like a milky orange juice. Those orange streams can be problematic both in terms of being toxic but might also prevent migration of fish to spawning areas.”



O’Donnell first noticed the issue in 2018 when he saw a river that appeared rusty, despite being clear the previous year. He began compiling locations and collecting water samples from the remote region, where helicopters are often the only way to access these rivers and streams. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="sMz4krAm5b-3633602-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-river-changes-are-visible-from-space">River changes are visible from space</h2>



“The stained rivers are so big we can see them from space,” said senior author Brett Poulin, an assistant professor of environmental toxicology at UC Davis. “These have to be stained a lot to pick them up from space.” While&nbsp; the staining resembled acid mine drainage, no mines are near the impaired rivers.



One hypothesis is that thawing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-traveling-pathogens-from-melting-permafrost-pose-great-risk-to-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost</a>, which stores minerals, releases metal ores when exposed to water and oxygen, causing acid and metal release. “Chemistry tells us minerals are weathering,” Poulin explained. “Understanding what’s in the water is a fingerprint as to what occurred.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metals-are-changing-the-colors-of-alaska-s-rivers">Metals are changing the colors of Alaska’s rivers</h2>



The affected rivers are on federal lands managed by the <a href="https://www.blm.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bureau of Land Management</a>, <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">Fish and Wildlife Service</a>, and NPS, including Gates of the Arctic and Kobuk Valley national parks. Poulin and Ph.D. candidate Taylor Evinger analyzed initial samples and collected more in August, with additional samples taken in June and July. This year, they will conduct three more sampling trips during the summer.



Some water samples had a pH of 2.3, compared to an average pH of 8, indicating highly acidic conditions that release metals such as iron, zinc, nickel, copper, and cadmium. “We see a lot of different types of metals in these waters,” Evinger said. “One of the most dominant metals is iron. That’s what is causing the color change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-water-changes-nbsp">Implications of the water changes&nbsp;</h2>



While O’Donnell first noticed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-colors-are-shifting-from-blue-to-yellow-and-green/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a> in 2018, satellite images have shown stained waters dating back to 2008. “The issue is slowly propagating from small headwaters into bigger rivers over time,” he said. “When emergent issues or threats come about, we need to be able to understand them.”



The researchers are in the second year of a three-year grant aimed at understanding the water changes across Alaska's rivers, modeling other at-risk areas, and assessing implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strict-pfas-limits-will-make-drinking-water-safer-for-100-million-americans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a> and fisheries.&nbsp;



The problem affects habitat, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-at-risk-climate-change-is-diminishing-global-water-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water quality</a>, and ecological systems, turning healthy areas into degraded habitats with fewer fish and invertebrates. If rural communities rely on these rivers for drinking water, they may eventually need treatment, and local fishing stocks could be impacted.



“There’s a lot of implications,” said O’Donnell. “As the climate continues to warm, we would expect permafrost to continue to thaw and so wherever there are these types of minerals, there’s potential for streams to be turning orange and becoming degraded in terms of water quality.”



More research is needed to understand whether rivers and streams can recover, possibly after cold weather promotes permafrost recovery. “I think there will be a lot more detailed work to follow up to address some of the uncertainties that we currently have,” O’Donnell concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01446-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications: Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



Image Credit: Ken Hill / National Park Service



Video Credit: UC Davis CAES



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Alaska’s rivers are rusting and the changes are visible from space

By documenting and sampling 75 locations across Alaska’s Brooks Range,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.



However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.



Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.



Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.



The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.



The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.



The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>. This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.



Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."



The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.



"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.



The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.



Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.



Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.



Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.



Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.



The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.



As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal Neuron</a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.



When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.



"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.



Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.



When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.



Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.



Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.



"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.



Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.



People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.



This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.



New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.



Recent findings published in Science Advances show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.



That solace came through H.G. Wells' The Time Machine. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.



In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.



Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."



"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."



In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.



This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



His work, published in respected journals including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.



Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's This American Life</a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's Today Show</a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.



There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.



The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.



Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."



His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.



More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.







-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way