Supercontinents 101: Pannotia, Gondwana, and Pangea

Our Earth has looked radically different in the past compared...

The,Diverse,Amazon,Forest,Seen,From,Above,,A,Tropical,Forest

Trees are a valuable part of all of our lives. Trees create the oxygen we breathe, grow the food we eat, provide us with shade on hot days, and beautify our homes and neighborhoods. Learning tree identification is the first step in appreciating this incredible group of woody plants that impact our lives so profoundly. Once you learn to call a tree by name, you will begin to notice more and more features and facts about that type of tree.


[caption id="attachment_1893647" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893647" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1374784175.jpg" alt="eucalyptus trees" width="500" height="334" /> Eucalyptus trees have interesting branching patterns and bark.[/caption]
<h2>What Is A Tree?</h2>
The technical definition of a tree is a woody plant that has a single trunk that grows to a considerable height.
Let's rule out some broad categories of plants that aren't trees.
Any plants that die back to the ground in winter are never trees. This group includes herbaceous and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-gardeners-guide-to-perennial-identification/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">perennial wildflowers</a>. Vines also aren't trees (although some tree branches have vine-like habits).
The line between bush and tree can be blurry. Bushes, like trees, are also woody plants. However, if the plant has many trunks coming from the ground and is less than 15 feet tall, it is a bush rather than a tree. Rarely, some 'bushes' can reach <a href="http://www.madrono.org/san-francisco-landscape/journalism/journey-to-the-worlds-tallest-manzanita.html#.YO48mxNKhhE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">up to 40 feet high</a>. Nature never fits perfectly in the boxes we prescribe to it.
Botanically speaking, only dichotomous plants can produce wood. This means that monocots are never trees. Palm 'trees' and bamboo fall under the monocot category and therefore aren't trees (you can still think of them as trees though, only snobby botanists will call you out on this).

<h3>How Many Tree Species Are There?</h3>
There are about 60,000 species of trees on Earth. This accounts for about 20% of all plant species on the planet. If you're in mainland Alaska then your task as a tree identifier is pretty easy. There are about a <a href="https://www.alaska.org/expert-advice/trees" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">half dozen species</a> of trees in that massive area! If you're in Florida you'd better get to work because there are hundreds of species in that state. Generally, U.S. tree diversity is much higher east of the Mississippi river compared to the West.


[caption id="attachment_1893648" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893648" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1245559723.jpg" alt="giant sequoias" width="500" height="334" /> Giant sequoias are the largest trees on Earth. Their shaggy bark and gigantic size are great identifying factors.[/caption]
<h2>Conifer Versus Broadleaf Tree Identification</h2>
A major distinction between trees groups is coniferous trees and broadleaf trees. Don't get these terms mixed up with evergreen and deciduous. These terms mean different things!
A <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/gymnosperms-and-angiosperms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">conifer tree</a> has needles instead of leaves. These needles are thin and long. Christmas trees, for example, are always a type of conifer. Famous examples of conifers are redwoods, giant sequoias, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-a-monkey-puzzle-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">monkey puzzle trees</a>. Cedars, junipers, and cypresses are conifers that have scales instead of needles. There are only about 600 species of conifers in the world, meaning they represent only about 1% of all tree species.
Broadleaved trees make up the vast majority of tree species. These trees have true leaves, like a sycamore or a red oak.


[caption id="attachment_1893641" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893641" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1568653840.jpg" alt="deciduous conifer" width="500" height="334" /> A larch loses its needles in the fall. Larches are deciduous conifers.[/caption]
<h3>Evergreen and Deciduous Tree Identification</h3>
An evergreen tree is a tree that never drops its leaves or needles. Think spruce, fir, or juniper. Deciduous trees drop all of their leaves for winter. Think dogwood, hickory, or horse chestnut.
People often think of the terms conifer and evergreen as meaning the same thing. This is incorrect. Likewise, broad-leafed is not interchangeable with deciduous.
Almost all conifers are indeed evergreen. However, tons of broad-leafed trees are also evergreen. Magnolias in the American south and live oaks in the American southwest and eucalyptus are common examples of evergreen broad-leafed trees.
In fact, there are tons of broad-leafed evergreen tree species since most species of trees live in the tropics where trees don't need to drop leaves because of a cold winter.
Larches, dawn redwoods, and bald cypresses are all kinds of conifers that drop their needles in the fall. These types of trees are deciduous conifers.

<h2>Next Level Tools for Tree Identification</h2>
There are three main methods for learning tree species; direct, in-person teaching, tree identification guides, and plant identification apps.
The first, and in my opinion most valuable, is to go out with someone who knows the trees and can teach you firsthand. Schools and other institutions offer classes and workshops on plant identification. Perhaps your friend can teach you a thing or two as well. Going to an arboretum or a botanic garden is also a great way to learn trees since trees in these places are usually identified with their species name.
Field guides are only helpful if you know how to use them. If you're looking for a field guide, try to get the one that is the most specific to your region.
A guide to the 'Trees of Western North Carolina' will be much more useful for someone living in Asheville than a generic 'Trees of the South' guide. Similarly, that 'Trees of the South' guide will be better than a 'Trees of North America' guide.
Some field guides are full of pictures or drawings. These sorts of guides act as visual references for tree ID. However, since there are sometimes hundreds of tree species, these guides usually only list the common tree species. For most people, this is sufficient.
More technical, dichotomous keys are the most accurate guides for identifying trees. The niche botanical vocabulary and lack of pictures in these guides are usually daunting for the layperson. People usually need to take botany classes to learn how to use these dichotomous keys.
Lastly, plant identification apps can be quite effective for quick identification. Apps are frighteningly accurate in many situations. All you do is take a picture of the plant and the app will suggest likely plant species based on the appearance and location of the plant. The future is here!

<h2>Use Different Plant Parts for Tree Identification</h2>
Paying attention to features both large and small helps aid proper tree identification. Details as small as the veins on the leaves or as large as the general branching structure of the tree can give you valuable clues into what species of tree you are looking at.


[caption id="attachment_1893642" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893642" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_98706824.jpg" alt="oak leaf" width="500" height="333" /> Oak leaves are generally lobed. This leaf shape is a good clue for identifying oaks.[/caption]
<h3>Leaves Are Essential for Tree Identification</h3>
There are too many types of tree leaves to cover in this guide, but let's touch on some basics. Leaves can be either simple or compound. A simple leaf has no divisions whereas a compound leaf is made up of several leaflets. Leaves can be palmately compound, like the fingers coming off of your palm. Maple leaves are palmately compound. Leaves can also be pinnately compound, which means they look like a fern. Acacias sometimes have pinnately compound leaves.


[caption id="attachment_1893643" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1893643" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_562460287-1024x614.jpg" alt="leaf shapes" width="1024" height="614" /> This illustration shows a few kinds of leaf shapes.[/caption]
The leaf margins are also important to notice. A leaf margin is the shape of the edge of a leaf. A margin is entire if it has no texture to it. Leaves can have serrate or toothed margins, like a bread-cutting knife, along with a whole host of other margin types. Oak leaves generally have lobed margins. There are a few dozen types of leaf margins to learn.
The general leaf shape can give clues to the tree species as well. Is the leaf shaped like an oval or a heart? Lanceolate, oblong, oval, and cordate are just a few of the possible leaf shapes.
Leaf size, the shape of leaf tips, color of the top side versus underside, venation, and even the shape of hairs on the leaves can also be used to identify trees.


[caption id="attachment_1893644" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893644" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1074642392.jpg" alt="jacaranda" width="500" height="452" /> Jacaranda trees display their stunning purple flowers in the spring. This bounty of purple makes them unmistakable when flowering.[/caption]
<h3>Flowers Only Sometimes Work for Tree Identification</h3>
Don't rely on tree flowers for identification! This is for one simple reason; flowers are only present for a short time every year. However, if you do find yourself lucky enough to be identifying a tree with flowers, they are often quite helpful in distinguishing between different tree species.
Get your hands on one of the flowers (or cones) and dissect it with your fingers. Every possible part of the flower you can see has a technical botanical name. The same types of aspects you noticed on the leaf can help with flowers. For example, the shape of the flowers, the margins of the flowers, the hairs on the flowers, and the colors of the flowers are all clues towards finding the right tree species.
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1893645" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_408718939-1024x681.jpg" alt="tree shapes" width="1024" height="681" />

<h3>It Is Important to Notice Overall Tree Structure</h3>
While the teeny tiny details of flowers and leaves can get you to the right tree, you often need to look at the overall tree structure as well. Is the tree wide or tall? Does it have tons of branches or just a few big ones? Can you see through the canopy or is it fully shaded? Is the base of the tree enlarged by the roots or not?
Botanists often refer to the overall gestalt of a plant. Gestalt is a German word that translates loosely to 'entire pattern'. For plant ID nerds, this means the patterns that the entire plant seem to exude. Since plants from the same species can look very different based on environmental factors, a hunch based on the plant's gestalt is often the quickest and most accurate way to identify the plant!
The more ID repetitions you get, the more accurate your gestalt for a plant species becomes. Once you have seen 1,000 of the same tree species in tons of different places, you will no doubt be able to pick out that same species in any forest.


[caption id="attachment_1893646" align="alignnone" width="500"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1893646" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_252615424.jpg" alt="bristlecone pine" width="500" height="331" /> Bristlecone pines are the oldest trees on Earth, living over 5,000 years. They only live in extremely high, windy locations in the Mountain West on nutrient-poor soils.[/caption]
<h2>Pay Attention to Habitat for Tree ID</h2>
Once you feel like you have a good guess on the group of trees your tree is in, you can use environmental factors to parse it out from similar species. Often times you can whittle down potential tree species by taking the geographic range and habitat of a species into account.
For example, incense cedars look similar to western red cedars, but western red cedars don't grow in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California. Therefore, if you see a cedar in the hills of those mountains, you don't need to pick apart the differences between the two cedars because only the incense cedar lives in that ecosystem.
You can weed out additional similar tree species by taking the elevation, sunlight, soil moisture, geology, and slope direction into account.
Learning your local trees, whether they are gnarled oaks or grand chestnuts, adds meaning to the landscape and combats plant blindness.
Once you learn tree species, you can pay attention to which bird species prefer which kinds of trees. You can notice which species of trees tend to grow next to each other. If you're willing to put in the time, the natural world has infinite fascinating stories to tell.
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A Beginner's Guide to Tree Identification

Trees are a valuable part of all of our lives....

Andrewsarchus,,An,Extinct,Creature,Of,The,Eocene,Period,,Was,Possibly

The Terrifying Biology Of Hell Pigs

Ever heard of a hell pig?&nbsp; Yes, they're a real...

Heliconia,Psittacorum,Flower,Plant,In,Florida,Summer,Time

Florida is a state teeming with biodiversity. With the nickname “The Sunshine State,” Florida must have loads of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-protect-sunshine-overdose/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sun-loving plant life</a> - and indeed it does! Although there are thousands of plant species native to the state, a handful of them are quite characteristic and important parts of Florida ecosystems.
One could spend a lifetime learning how to identify all the plants in Florida. Luckily, we’ve created this quick guide to Florida plant identification for beginners. Below is how to identify several Florida palms, trees, shrubs, and more, in no particular order.
<h2>Trees</h2>
We’ll start with the most common Florida trees. These are common wild and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/roadside-hedges-urban-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">roadside trees</a> that are characteristically Floridian.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876548 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/geiger-tree.jpg" alt="geiger tree cordia sebestena" width="1000" height="681" />
<h3>Geiger tree (Cordia sebestena)</h3>
This common South Florida tree is one of the most popular roadside trees in the state. It has large orange flowers that grow in clusters at the tips of branches, and effectively attract hummingbirds.
The tree itself grows to be up to 8 meters (30 feet) tall. The leaves are rather large, growing up to 20 centimeters (9 inches) in length and have a rough, sandpapery texture.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876557 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Taxodium_distichum_exposed_knees.jpg" alt="taxodium distichum bald cypress" width="600" height="800" />
<h3>Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum)</h3>
Bald cypress trees are massive, densely crowned conifers. They typically grow next to or near moving water. Cypress trees typically have <a href="https://www.lewisginter.org/trees-with-knees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">large, woody “knees”</a> which are root protrusions that grow above water to help the tree respire. They resemble small stalagmites. Bald cypresses are deciduous, and shed their light green needles in the winter, unlike other conifers, which are evergreen.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876556 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/mangrove.jpg" alt="red mangrove rhizophora mangle" width="800" height="532" />
<h3>Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)</h3>
Red mangroves are characteristic trees along the coastlines of tropics. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floridas-mangroves-rising-sea-level/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mangrove forests</a> are necessary to protect the land from storms, and they also provide essential habitat for fish and other animals.
The trees themselves can be identified by their tough, dark green leaves that are always clustered together towards the ends of branches. Red mangroves also have numerous prop roots that look like multiple stems.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876555 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/longleaf-pine.jpg" alt="longleaf pine pinus palustris savannah" width="800" height="600" />
<h3>Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)</h3>
Pines are increasingly rare in Florida, but they are incredibly important parts of pine savannah ecosystems throughout the Southeastern United States. The endangered longleaf pine grows up to 35 meters tall, with a trunk diameter of just under a meter.
Long needles up to 45 cm (18 inches) in length give this tall tree its name. The needles are always grouped together in threes, unlike some other pines which have groups of two or five.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876554 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/strangler-fig.jpg" alt="florida strangler fig ficus aurea" width="900" height="675" />
<h3>Florida strangler fig (Ficus aurea)</h3>
Strangler figs are common staples of tropical forests all over the world. Their unique structure allows them to grow around a host tree they use for support.
Because it grows faster than it’s host, it constricts and shades out the tree that once was essential for the fig, giving it a “hug of death.” The leaves are waxy and large, but are often tough to discern from the leaves of the fig’s host tree!
<h2>Palms</h2>
In general, palms are tall, slender plants that often evoke ideas of warm, tropical beaches. Florida is chock full of palms. Not only do they line idyllic coastlines, but they can also be found far inland, as well as in front yards grown ornamentally.
Palms are some of the most quintessential types of Florida plants. Here are two of the most common species found in Florida.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876553 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/everglades-palm.jpg" alt="everglades palm Acoelorrhaphe wrightii" width="1000" height="750" />
<h3>Everglades palm (Acoelorrhaphe wrightii)</h3>
The Everglades palm grows in, you guessed it,<a href="https://www.nps.gov/ever/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> the Everglades</a>! It’s also found throughout other swampy habitats of the Caribbean and Latin America.
The plant has massive palmate, fan-shaped leaves that can be 2 meters (6.6 feet) wide! It doesn’t grow quite as tall as some other palms, capping out at around 7 meters (23 feet) high.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876552 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Sabal_minor.jpg" alt="sabal minor dwarf palmetto palm" width="1000" height="667" />
<h3>Dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor)</h3>
Another swamp loving Florida palm is the dwarf palmetto. The aptly names plant is much smaller than other palms, never growing more than a couple meters (6 feet) in height.
Its leaves are much smaller as well, though similar in shape to the Everglades palm. Horticulturists love this plant due to its ability to withstand cold temperatures.
<h2>Shrubs</h2>
These shrubs all grow wild in The Sunshine State and are also commonly seen in gardens. Admittedly, this list of shrubs contains one plant some people wouldn’t consider a shrub in the technical sense. Nonetheless, it certainly isn’t a tree or palm, so we’ve put it in with the shrubs.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876551 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/beautyberry.jpg" alt="american beautyberry" width="1000" height="664" />
<h3>American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana)</h3>
American beautyberry has some of the most strikingly colored fruits in the plant kingdom. The bright purple clusters of berries that adorn this shrub make it a popular choice for a garden.
The light green leaves are covered in tiny hairs and grow opposite one another. The branches can be extremely long and arching.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876550 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/zamia-pumila.jpg" alt="coontie palm zamia pumila cycad" width="1000" height="666" />
<h3>Coontie palm (Zamia pumila)</h3>
Unlike its name implies, the coontie palm is not actually a true palm. It’s a species of cycad, which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-insect-pollinated-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one of the most primitive types of plants in the world</a>. To make matters more confusing, the leaves look similar to a fern, to which it’s not even closely related.
Coontie palm doesn’t produce showy flowers but will produce a large cone filled with bright red seeds. It seems this plant is having a bit of an identity crisis.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876549 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Psychotria_nervosa.jpg" alt="psychotria nervosa wild coffee" width="1000" height="667" />
<h3>Wild coffee (Psychotria nervosa)</h3>
This coffee relative is another Florida native that’s commonly planted as an ornamental. Its small, white flowers attract butterflies and other insects.
The shiny, green leaves grow opposite of each other and have slightly indented veins. Birds love the small, red fruit produced by the wild coffee plant.
These Florida plants are just a drop in the bucket. There’s an incredibly diverse array of plants found in the state, but now you have a foot in the door of becoming a Florida plant identification expert!


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Florida Plant Identification for Beginners

Florida is a state teeming with biodiversity. With the nickname...

In fields around the world, often dotted along the edge of forests there is a large, brilliantly blue flower: the borage flower. 

This spectacular plant has amazed people from around the world for centuries. Its color and many uses make it an ideal crop. Today, let’s take a dive in to understand: what is a borage flower?
<h2>Taxonomy</h2>
First, let’s understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-classify-life-taxonomy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">biological classification</a> of borage flowers. Like many diverse groups of flora and fauna, “borage” can refer to a variety of different levels of taxonomy. Sometimes, “<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/borago-officinalis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">borage</a>” can refer to the family Boraginaceae. This family contains about 2,000 different species. 

More commonly, “borage” refers to the genus Borago. It contains 5 species, each of which is native to the Mediterranean. The most common of these species, Borago officinalis, is cultivated worldwide and is often referred to as the “star flower.” The family Borago has earned the nickname "forget-me-nots."

<img class="size-large wp-image-1881435" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/borage-3560211_1280-1024x734.jpg" alt="borage star flower" width="1024" height="734" />
<h2>Biology</h2>
While many species within Boraginaceae have similar characteristics, we’ll focus on the biology of B. officinalis. Borage flowers grow well in <a href="https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">USDA Hardiness zones</a> 3-10. 

This means it can withstand mean annual extreme low temperatures of -35 to +35° Fahrenheit. In the US, borage flowers will typically grow well in most areas except the south and southwest. 

The plant itself is very distinct due to its color and size. Borage flowers typically grow 2.5-3 feet tall and bloom brilliant blue flowers. These flowers resemble a star shape, hence the nickname “star flower.” 

Due to mutations, the flower now exists in other colors, including pink and white. Still, the blue color is dominant to these mutations, however.
<h2><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1881437" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/nature-3175122_1920-1024x574.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="574" /></h2>
<h2>Uses</h2>
Since its discovery some millennia ago around the Mediterranean, borage has been utilized for many different applications. Various peoples discovered its edible, potable, medicinal, and other qualities that are still enjoyed today.
<h3>Food</h3>
Generally speaking, the entirely of the borage plant is edible, outside of its roots. The leaves are often said to have a taste that is similar to cucumbers. For this reason, the leaves are used <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/8-edible-flowers-that-taste-great-in-salads/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in salads</a> and as a garnish for a variety of dishes. 

The Mediterranean is the most common place to find borage used in food products. In Germany, borage is present in soups and dishes such as Grüne Soße. 

This traditional sauce originates in Frankfurt and is often paired with boiled potatoes and eggs. In Italy, the plant appears in the traditional filling for ravioli, while in Poland and Russia it is used to flavor pickled dishes.

Borage is often included in herb gardens because of the flavor it adds to many dishes.
<h3>Drink</h3>
The distinct flavor of borage makes it a staple for several different alcoholic drink recipes, like the <a href="https://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/michael-chiarello/pimms-cup-cocktail-recipe-1947977" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pimms Cup cocktail</a>. In original recipes from the 19th century, borage is the main ingredient. 

However, lemon, lime, and cucumber are now more common to find in cocktail recipes. Borage is a botanical present in a variety of spirits, most notably gin, owing to its distinct flavor. 
<h3>Medicinal</h3>
Borage flowers have a long history of reported medicinal uses. The literature on borage and its uses stretches at least back to 1710. 

William Salmon writes <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2hmTVsfWB0C&amp;pg=PA146&amp;lpg=PA146&amp;dq=effectually+purifies+the+blood,+and+is+of+excellent+use+in+all+putrid,+malign,+spotted+and+pestilential+fevers,+to+defend+the+heart+from+their+poison+and+malignity,+and+to+expell+the+same,+as+also+the+poison+of+other+creatures&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=y2r9hTEUrT&amp;sig=ACfU3U1EX1TaHq1HBGCEG-jTxvJ9u2e5BQ&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwig1Law1enpAhVZbs0KHSwqA_gQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=effectually%20purifies%20the%20blood%2C%20and%20is%20of%20excellent%20use%20in%20all%20putrid%2C%20malign%2C%20spotted%20and%20pestilential%20fevers%2C%20to%20defend%20the%20heart%20from%20their%20poison%20and%20malignity%2C%20and%20to%20expell%20the%20same%2C%20as%20also%20the%20poison%20of%20other%20creatures&amp;f=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">in his book</a>, The Earthwise Herbal, about the many uses of the star plant. Borage “effectually purifies the blood, and is of excellent use in all putrid, malign, spotted and pestilential fevers." He continues, "to defend the heart from their poison and malignity, and to expell [sic] the same, as also the poison of other creatures.”

In the same book, another author, Maude Grieve, also writes about borage. “By virtue of its saline constituents, it promotes the activity of the kidneys.” 

During this time frame, it was commonly believed that borage (possibly owing to its color and size) could cure ailments of many kinds. Various texts mention the herb on and off. They often use it as a means to cure “melancholy,” “sterility,” and “grief.”

In modern medicine, borage <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17168669/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">shows</a> high levels of gamma-linolenic acid. This compound is a notable anti-inflammatory molecule. There is also literature suggesting that the star flower could be somewhat effective in alleviating <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3851449/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">asthma</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18078406/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">dermatitis</a>.
<h3>Companion Planting</h3>
Today, borage exists as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/growing-an-herb-garden/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">companion plant</a>. Companion planting is the process of planting multiple crops next to each other in the same field. This tactic has many uses. For borage, the main purpose is <a href="https://www.latimes.com/home/la-xpm-2013-mar-26-la-lh-borage-seeds-how-to-grow-20130323-story.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">typically pollination</a>. 

The vibrant borage flowers are extremely attractive to pollinators like bees and wasps. As such, the insects will usually pollinate other flowers in the area like squash, strawberries, or tomatoes. 

Have you ever come across borage, as an herb, or borage flowers? What's your favorite way to use borage? Let us know in the comments.

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What Is a Borage Flower?

In fields around the world, often dotted along the edge...

If you’ve ever been to <a href="https://www.earth.com/image-category/wonders-of-iceland/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Iceland</a>, you may have been shocked at the otherworldly landscapes that help make it famous. Its volcanoes and stark landscapes make it seem like a place that shouldn’t be rich in plant life. After all, it’s in the name - a land of ice!

The name, however, is highly misleading. Summers in Iceland are notoriously green, with fields carpeted by plants such as wildflowers and grasses. In fact, Iceland is home to <a href="http://en.ni.is/botany/vegetation/vegetation-types/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">around 1,000 plant species</a>. When you include fungi and lichen, this number grows to 5,000 species!

There is a myth, though, that Iceland is completely devoid of trees. Trees can’t survive in temperatures that are too cold year-round. One reason is that prolonged freezing temperatures can freeze the sap for too long, and kill the tree.

Another reason trees can’t survive in extreme cold is that their roots can’t penetrate deep enough through permafrost to access nutrients. So, is Iceland actually devoid of trees? Are there trees in Iceland? To answer these questions, we have to go back to when humans arrived on the small island.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877198 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Forest_habitat_in_Iceland.jpg" alt="forest iceland trees" width="1590" height="1138" />
<h2>History of Iceland Trees</h2>
When Vikings first arrived on the island more than a millennium ago, up to 40% of the landmass was wooded. This percentage could have been even higher long before Vikings set foot on the rocky shores of Iceland.

After their arrival, mass deforestation ensued to provide wood for houses and other structures as people settled. After just a few hundred years, most of the trees in Iceland had been cut down, leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">“desertification.”</a>

Desertification is when once fertile land becomes infertile as a result of drought, unsustainable use, or in this case, deforestation. No trees meant there was more erosion, which led to poor and shallow soil that couldn’t support tree life.

To make matters worse, animal agriculture kept forests from regenerating due to sheep and other animals eating saplings, leading to even more erosion.

The resulting landscape is now extremely characteristic in Iceland. Rocky and barren fields are the first sight visitors see when they land in <a href="https://guidetoiceland.is/reykjavik-guide/top-10-things-to-do-in-reykjavik" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Reykjavík</a>. Even when people completely expect such a sight, it can be a surprising and alien-looking environment.
<h2>Native Trees in Iceland</h2>
Despite diminished numbers, there are some tree species native to Iceland. They were once abundant on the island before it was settled, and made up the bulk of the long-gone forests. Now, they are relics of the past, but you can still find them in certain areas today.

Although trees are often thought of as big, towering giants, trees in Iceland are much smaller due to the limited growing season and harsh conditions. Rarely do even the largest ones get to be 15 meters in height.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877199 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/eurobirch.jpg" alt="iceland trees downy birch betula pubescens" width="1024" height="672" />
<h3>Downy Birch (Betula pubescens)</h3>
This particular birch species is also native to Northern Europe all the way into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hanging-climate-siberia-livable/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Siberian Russia</a>. Downy birch is definitely the most common tree species in Iceland and makes up the bulk of the forested area that’s still present in the country.

Historically, settlers used birchwood as a building material and as a fuel source. Perhaps the most important product of birch was charcoal, which was necessary for metalworking.
<h3>Tea-Leaved Willow (Salix phylicifolia)</h3>
Tea-leaved willow is more of a shrub than a tree, but it does occasionally get to be tree-sized. This is probably the second most common tree in Iceland and often accompanies the downy birch in forest stands. It’s also present in marshlands throughout its range. The Icelandic name of the tea-leaved willow is Gulvíðir.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877201 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/rowan.jpg" alt="iceland trees, sorbus aucuparia" width="900" height="602" />
<h3>Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)</h3>
Rowan is a more uncommon tree species in Iceland. It’s typically pickier than other Iceland trees and is only found in more favorable conditions. Where it is found, it’s often the tallest tree in the area, outperforming other more common species.
<h3>European Aspen (Populus tremula)</h3>
This is the rarest tree species in Iceland, although it’s extremely common throughout the rest of Europe and Asia. Interestingly, it doesn’t actually flower in Iceland. It spreads by shoots that come from the roots, essentially cloning itself over and over again. A different species of aspen in Colorado does this too, and is now the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pando-oldest-organisms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">largest clonal organism on the planet</a>!

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877200 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Thjorsardalur_National_Forest_Iceland.jpg" alt="forest iceland reforestation" width="1000" height="629" />
<h2>Reforestation in Iceland</h2>
In recent years, reforestation efforts have been underway to restore parts of Iceland that were once covered by trees. Downy birch is really the only commercially valuable tree in Iceland, so this particular species has been a target for reforestation efforts.

Unfortunately, climate change is making it hard for native Icelandic trees to thrive. So, many non-native species have been introduced to the country.

These days, we know introducing non-native species can have drastic negative impacts on local ecosystems. Regardless, trees in Iceland are making a comeback one way or another.

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Trees in Iceland, or Lack Thereof

If you’ve ever been to Iceland, you may have been...

Foraging is a fun way to gather your own food from nature - all for free! One of the beauties of the natural world is the bounty of food just waiting to be collected and eaten. This bounty is not just for animals like deer or squirrels. Us humans can take advantage of foraging as well!

Before the advent of agriculture, humans were foraging for food as <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/hunter-gatherers" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hunter-gatherers</a>. The ancient technique of foraging hasn’t been lost though, and there are tons of people who still do it every day.

One common method of foraging is harvesting fruit from trees and shrubs in parks, or even your own neighborhood. Another is collecting herbs and wild greens from fields nearby. One of the most popular is mushroom picking which happens mostly in the fall.

For many people, foraging is an annual tradition. For others, it’s an unknown possibility. Whatever your experience is, (or lack thereof), it’s always important to be smart while foraging for food. Here are some ways to be smart while foraging, and why it’s so important.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1875617 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/apple.jpg" alt="identify fruit plants apple tree" width="1000" height="516" />
<h2>Know About the Foods You’re Collecting</h2>
This is without a doubt the most important rule of foraging. Make sure you know exactly <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-identify-the-10-most-common-fruit-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">how to identify the food</a> you’re planning to collect, and what to look for. This rule is easier to follow if you’re in an orchard foraging for apples, or in a park collecting blackberries. It’s often hard to misidentify those.

However, there are some foods which you don’t want to mistake for their lookalikes. Edible mushrooms, for example, often look very similar to non-edible species. Some toxic mushrooms can make you incredibly sick and others can easily kill a grown human.

The same goes for leafy greens. Although there aren’t as many poisonous lookalikes in this category, there are still a few, such as <a href="https://www.kingcounty.gov/services/environment/animals-and-plants/noxious-weeds/weed-identification/poison-hemlock.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">poison hemlock</a>, that you don’t want to accidentally eat.

If you’re not 100% sure you have an edible mushroom, don’t eat it!

Some people who have lots of foraging experience are experts at identifying mushrooms or plants. If you’re still a beginner forager, try going with a seasoned veteran and learn a thing or two about how to identify your food.
<h2>Leave Some Food for Others</h2>
Another general rule of thumb when foraging is to not exhaust all of the food in a given area, or from a single plant. In other words, don’t be greedy! Make sure you leave some goodies for the people and animals that come after you.

Along these lines, make sure you’re collecting from a public place. That is, don’t haphazardly collect apples from a tree in somebody’s yard, or steal fruit from a farm where you’re not allowed.

If you do happen to see some food that’s too good to pass up in one of these places, consider just asking the homeowner or farmer if you can take a few pieces of fruit home with you.

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876256 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/preserves.jpg" alt="jam preserves jelly apricot cherry" width="1280" height="720" />
<h2>Preserve What You Gather</h2>
Fruit like apples and berries don’t last very long once you take them off the plant. If you harvest a basket-full of blueberries, what do you do if you can’t eat them before they go bad? Here are a few ideas on what to do with your harvest!
<ul>
 	<li>Make preserves, jams, or jellies. These have a long shelf life and can last for months. Many recipes online can show you how to prepare them.</li>
 	<li>Freeze fruit and greens for smoothies.</li>
 	<li>Share your harvest! Although you won’t be saving the food itself, you’ll certainly be preserving friendships along the way.</li>
</ul>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876259 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/raspberry.jpg" alt="raspberry picking basket" width="1000" height="666" />
<div class="mceTemp"></div>
<h2>Don’t Eat Too Much While Foraging</h2>
It’s okay to have a little snack while you’re foraging and eat a few berries along the way. But, the main reason you don’t want to eat too much while foraging is the risk of over-harvesting.

You might not realize how much food you’re taking if half of it goes directly in your mouth!

Another reason for this tip is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-allergies-junk-food/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">risk of allergies</a>. This is especially important if you’re foraging for food you haven’t tried before. If you’re in the forest and you have an allergic reaction after eating a wild berry, it’ll be a lot harder to seek medical attention than if you wait until you’re back home.

Foragers of all levels should be keen on practicing smart foraging. These tips will maximize efficiency and minimize the potential risks that come with finding your own food in the wild, or even <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/growing-an-herb-garden/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">your backyard</a>.

Now that you know the most important ways to be smart while foraging for food, have fun and take advantage of the food around you.

The bounty of the earth is ripe for the picking!

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How to Be Smart While Foraging for Food

Foraging is a fun way to gather your own food...

Common Types of Backyard Mushrooms

Backyards are quite lovely, and backyard mushrooms are equally beautiful....

Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique creatures. These birds cannot fly and don’t have a tail, but they have long, loose feathers and powerful legs.



Hundreds of years ago, these birds thrived abundantly in their home country. Now, their populations have become dispersed and fragmented, as well as vulnerable.&nbsp;



Why are kiwi birds endangered? Let’s take a look at all of the factors that are threatening their long-term survival and driving this species toward extinction.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Habitat-loss-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911708"/><figcaption>Deforestation has reduced New Zealand's landscape dramatically. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/nazar_ab?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">nazar_ab</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat Loss</h2>



In an effort to make room for new farmlands and urban development, a majority of New Zealand’s natural forests have been cleared. As a result, the landscape has changed dramatically.&nbsp;



Around 750 years ago, natural forests covered about 85% of the country’s landscape, or about 23 million hectares. Deforestation efforts have reduced this to around 23%, which equals just 6.2 million hectares.&nbsp;



Many lowland forests, estuaries, and dunes have been converted into grasslands and pastures, while others are transformed into towns. Both measures are designed to boost local economies, though they have devastating effects on certain species, like the kiwi birds, that depend on the forest for survival.&nbsp;



Flat pastures do not provide kiwi birds with the natural protection and barriers they need to survive. Yet, their scope is rapidly increasing. Before New Zealand was populated, only 5% of the country was grassland. Now, more than 38% of the country’s total land area is covered in grass.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-damaging-effects-of-clearing-land">The Damaging Effects of Clearing Land</h3>



What happens to the kiwi birds when forest land is cleared and converted into grasslands and pastures? There are three main ways these actions harm the species.&nbsp;



Population Movement



When land is cleared, kiwis and their predators are forced to move out of their widespread natural habitats. Instead, they migrate into smaller and more concentrated areas, where there are fewer resources and the likelihood of an encounter is greater. If the kiwi birds remain in the farmland, they are often attacked by predators, such as dogs.&nbsp;



Physical Threats



Developers use various means to clear land, including burning and crushing vegetation. Both approaches pose a direct threat to kiwis and other species that call the area home. The large rollers used to crush plants and trees can harm or kill the birds, who cannot fly to higher altitudes for safety. Likewise, the fire and smoke from the burning process are also significant dangers.&nbsp;



Increased Competition



With a smaller habitat to live in, kiwis are affected both physically and socially. Deforestation creates more competition for free space, which leads to boundary wars between kiwi birds and other local inhabitants. Not only can these encounters turn deadly, but they also make breeding less frequent.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-rise-of-the-dairy-farming-industry">The Rise of the Dairy Farming Industry</h3>



In an effort to offset the negative effect of pastureland development, country leaders have led programs to establish plantation forests where the kiwi birds can live. The movement hit its apex in 2006, when planted forests covered around 1.8 million hectares in New Zealand.&nbsp;



However, there’s another movement changing the landscape and diverting attention elsewhere: the growth of the dairy farming industry. Over the past 30 years, dairy exports in New Zealand have increased from around NZ $2 billion per year to nearly $20 billion per year.&nbsp;



Dairy farmers need pastures to support their livelihoods, which means fewer exotic forests are being replanted. In fact, some immature forests have even been converted into dairy farms to support this sector.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/stoat-1024x487.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911710"/><figcaption>Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/Andyworks?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">Andyworks</a> <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/ahmettgiden?mediatype=photography"><img alt=""></a>on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-predatory-activity">Predatory Activity</h2>



While habitat loss contributes to the dwindling numbers of kiwi birds, it isn’t the primary factor affecting their survival.



In fact, kiwi birds are surprisingly adaptable and can conform to a variety of environments. While flat grasslands aren’t ideal, these soil feeders can survive in other areas, from native forests and rougher farmland to sand dunes and mangroves.&nbsp;



The only problem? When they migrate to these different habitats, kiwis aren’t alone. Instead, they meet a variety of predators, including dogs, stoats, and ferrets. Faced with these constant threats, it’s estimated that only 5% of kiwi bird chicks survive into adulthood.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-stoats-and-baby-kiwi-birds">Stoats and Baby Kiwi Birds</h3>



Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. In the same family as ferrets and weasels, these short-tailed mammals are extremely smart, fast, and mobile. They were introduced into New Zealand back in the 1800s in an attempt to control the overpopulation of introduced rabbits.&nbsp;



However, once they arrived in the country, the stoats quickly found that it was easier to attack and kill flightless ground-nesting birds (like the kiwi) than rabbits. Thus, newly-hatched kiwi birds became their primary prey -- a relationship that continues to this day. It’s especially difficult for kiwis to outwit or outrun stoats due to the fact that kiwis are mostly nocturnal, while stoats hunt during the day.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-dogs-and-adult-kiwi-birds">Dogs and Adult Kiwi Birds</h3>



While baby kiwis often fall victim to stoats, dogs are the biggest predator of adult kiwi birds. Even the smallest and most delicate dog can crush a kiwi due to its size and weight. While there has been some legislation to control dog populations in New Zealand, including the Dog Control Act of 1996, some dog owners are not aware of (or choose to openly ignore) the rules required to keep their pets under control in areas where wild kiwi birds live.



<h3 id="h-other-predators">Other Predators</h3>



In addition to dogs, adult kiwi birds also have to be on the lookout for ferrets, which are increasing in number across New Zealand. Ferrets also prey on rabbits and have had plenty of hunting activity lately. As summers become longer, hotter, and dryer, rabbit populations are on the upswing.&nbsp;



Thus, ferrets are thriving as well. It’s not uncommon for them to migrate from farmlands into deep forests, where they can find kiwi among other forms of natural wildlife. Other animals that can kill kiwi birds include possums, cats, and pigs.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-predator-control-efforts">Predator Control Efforts</h3>



As conservation leaders learn more about the types of animals that commonly prey on kiwi birds, they are taking measures to keep them safe. Research shows that when predatory activity is intensively controlled, kiwi hatching rates increase to up to 60%. For population levels to grow, a rate above 20% is necessary, so this is promising progress.&nbsp;



The specific techniques and tools used to control predators will vary depending on the target species, area size, terrain, and personnel responsible. However, there is always a focus on using humane measures (including traps and poisons) to protect the kiwi birds and preserve other native species.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Future-kiwi-1024x550.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911711"/><figcaption>Education and advocacy are key for the future of the kiwi bird population. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/tobiasjo?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">tobiasjo</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-the-kiwi-bird-population">The Future of the Kiwi Bird Population</h2>



As a result of habitat loss and predatory activity, kiwi bird populations across New Zealand are becoming increasingly sparse and fragmented. When this occurs, it becomes more difficult for the species to breed, which further inhibits population growth.&nbsp;



As long as safe and effective pest control measures are in place, kiwi can thrive in various habitats. The key is understanding how to protect the birds that live in your homeland, whether that’s a town, pasture, forest, or farm.&nbsp;



As community leaders continue to look for ways to drive out predators and keep these birds safe, education and advocacy are key. Continue to educate yourself on the measures taken to safeguard this species, and check back here often for all of the eco-central news and updates you need. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Why Are Kiwi Birds Endangered?

Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique...

For millennia, the planet's birds have been an integral part of the ecosystem, playing important roles in pollination, seed dispersal, and controlling insect populations. Sadly, human activity has put many species of birds in danger.



The world's population has <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/news/earth-s-population-doubled-since-1960-1.336155">more than doubled</a> since 1960, and as our demand for resources increases, so does the pressure on the environment. Sure, human activity is the primary threat to birds, but there are other causes, too.



In this post, we'll take a look at some of the most vulnerable bird species and why these birds are endangered. We'll also outline some of the things you can do to help protect them.



<h2 id="h-which-bird-species-are-endangered">Which Bird Species Are Endangered?</h2>



There are <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/birds#:~:text=There%20are%20more%20than%2011%2C000,the%20most%20unique%20bird%20species.">more than 11,000 species</a> of birds in the world, with the tropics being home to the greatest diversity. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List classifies bird species into several categories, including birds that are vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered. The list also includes animals from other groups, such as mammals, reptiles, and fish.



Currently, the IUCN lists <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/more-critically-endangered-birds-iucn-red-list#:~:text=The%20IUCN%20Red%20List%20now,than%20in%20the%202008%20update.">192 bird species</a> as critically endangered. That makes birds the highest category in terms of threat. Some of the most endangered birds include the:



<ul><li>Medium Tree-finch</li><li>Gorgeted Puffleg</li><li>Bateleur</li><li>Sidamo Lark</li><li>Chimney Swift</li><li>Chatham Petrel</li><li>Lear’s Macaw</li></ul>



The threat of bird extinction is spread across the globe. However, there are some hotspots where the problem is more acute. These include the island of Madagascar, Brazil's Atlantic Forest, and the Himalayan region.



<h2 id="h-what-are-the-biggest-threats-to-birds">What Are the Biggest Threats to Birds?</h2>



For a long time, birds thrived, ruling the skies and playing vital roles in ecosystems around the world. But the tables have turned, with these creatures now among the most at risk of disappearing forever. But why are birds endangered? Here are four reasons:



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Deforestation-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911699"/><figcaption>Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/WhitcombeRD?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">WhitcombeRD</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-1-human-activity">1.&nbsp;&nbsp; Human Activity</h3>



Human actions have had an unprecedented impact on the earth and its wildlife. According to a UN report, humans have severely altered <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/human-activity-put-million-species-risk-extinction-report/story?id=62852406#:~:text=Around%2075%25%20of%20Earth's%20terrestrial,mostly%20within%20the%20past%20century.">75 percent</a> of the planet's terrestrial environment, putting at least one million animal species at threat of extinction.



<h4 id="h-a-habitat-loss-and-degradation">a.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Habitat loss and Degradation</h4>



As human settlements expand, they encroach on natural habitats, destroying them in the process. This is one of the biggest threats to bird populations and has contributed to the decline of many species.



<h4 id="h-b-deforestation">b.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Deforestation</h4>



The clearing of forests for timber, agriculture, or urbanization destroys vital habitats for birds and other animals. It also fragments once-continuous habitat, making it harder for birds to find mates and food.



<h4 id="h-c-pollution">c.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pollution</h4>



Air, water, and soil pollution can all take a toll on bird populations. For example, lead poisoning is a major problem for many bird species that feed on insects contaminated by the toxin.



<h4 id="h-d-pesticides">d.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Pesticides</h4>



The widespread use of pesticides has had devastating effects on bird populations, particularly those that eat insects. Studies have shown that some insecticides can cause neurological damage in birds, leading to impaired motor function and death.



<h4 id="h-e-overfishing">e.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Overfishing</h4>



Birds that rely on fish for food are among the hardest hit by overfishing. As fish stocks decline, so do the birds that depend on them. This is a particular problem for seabirds such as albatrosses and penguins.



<h4 id="h-f-illegal-hunting">f.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Illegal Hunting</h4>



In some parts of the world, birds are still hunted for food or trade, despite laws against it. This is a significant problem in Asia, where many bird species are captured and sold as pets.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Climate-change-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911702"/><figcaption>Climate change is one of the biggest threats to birds and other wildlife. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/AegeanBlue?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">AegeanBlue</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com/">iStock</a>. </figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-2-climate-change">2.&nbsp;&nbsp; Climate Change</h3>



Climate change is one of the biggest threats to birds and other wildlife. As temperatures rise and weather patterns become more extreme, many bird species are struggling to adapt. This is especially true for those that breed in the Arctic, where melting sea ice is destroying vital habitats.



Rising temperatures are also causing problems for migrating birds. For example, as spring arrives earlier in the northern hemisphere, some migrant birds are arriving too early to find food. This leads to malnutrition and reduced breeding success.



In the tropics, meanwhile, climate change is making it harder for birds to find food as droughts become more common. Studies have shown that drought can cause widespread starvation among insect-eating birds.



As if that wasn't enough, climate change is also making it easier for diseases to spread. For example, avian malaria is a serious problem in many tropical countries. As temperatures rise, the mosquitoes that carry the disease are able to survive and breed at higher altitudes, putting more birds at risk.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Invasive-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911703"/><figcaption>Invasive species can cause harm to the local ecosystem. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/cmannphoto?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">cmannphoto</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com/">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-3-invasive-species">3.&nbsp;&nbsp; Invasive Species</h3>



Invasive species are a major problem for bird populations around the world. These are plants, animals, or diseases that are not native to an area and can cause harm to the local ecosystem.



For birds, invasive species can destroy habitats, compete for food, or spread disease. In some cases, they can even directly prey on birds. For example, rats introduced to island ecosystems have caused the extinction of many ground-nesting birds by eating their eggs and chicks.



Climate change is making the problem worse by increasing the range of some invasive species. For example, as temperatures rise in the Arctic, mosquitoes that carry <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/diseases-of-terrestrial-wildlife/avian-malaria">avian malaria</a> are able to survive and breed at higher altitudes, putting more birds at risk.



<h2 id="h-what-can-be-done-to-protect-birds">What Can Be Done to Protect Birds?</h2>



The good news is that there are things we can do to protect birds and other wildlife. Here are a few ideas:



<h3 id="h-1-support-conservation-organizations">1.&nbsp;&nbsp; Support Conservation Organizations</h3>



There are many organizations working to protect bird populations around the world. Support their efforts by donating money or time.



<h3 id="h-2-be-mindful-of-your-impact-on-the-environment">2.&nbsp;&nbsp; Be Mindful of Your Impact on the Environment</h3>



We all have a role to play in preserving bird habitats. Be conscious of your impact on the environment and do what you can to reduce your footprint.



<h3 id="h-3-support-sustainable-agriculture">3.&nbsp;&nbsp; Support Sustainable Agriculture</h3>



Agricultural practices are a major threat to bird populations. But there are ways to farm without damaging the environment. Support sustainable agriculture initiatives and buy organic products whenever possible.



<h2 id="h-do-your-part-in-averting-bird-extinction">Do Your Part in Averting Bird Extinction</h2>



Bird species are quickly disappearing from the skies. For the most part, human activity is to blame. But there is hope. By working together, we can protect birds and other wildlife and preserve the planet for future generations.



Would you like to read more interesting articles like this? Keep visiting our blog.



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Mushrooms are one of the most highly sought after <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-be-smart-while-foraging-for-food/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">wild foods</a>. Some of the world's tastiest gourmet mushrooms are only found in the wild, and we haven't figured out how to cultivate them yet!
People all over the globe spend hours and hours “hunting” for wild gourmet mushrooms. Many people even make a decent wage collecting different varieties and selling them to local restaurants or grocery stores.
Whatever the purpose, mushroom hunting can be an excellent and rewarding hobby. Before you embark on your next foraging trip, here are some tips on how to look for gourmet mushrooms in the wild.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877405 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/bolete.jpg" alt="gourmet mushrooms" width="1024" height="683" />
 
<h2>Mushroom Identification is Important</h2>
Being able to identify the mushroom you’re looking for is probably the most important rule of mushroom hunting. There are some types of mushrooms, such as morels, that have only one or two convincing lookalikes but others have many nearly identical clones. Sometimes, the lookalikes can be deadly toxic.
When you’re <a href="http://www.mushroom.world/mushrooms/list" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">identifying mushrooms</a>, know exactly what features to look for, like gills, hollow stems, etc. The general rule of mushroom hunting is: When in doubt, go without! You need to be 100% sure you know which type of mushroom you have before eating it. 110% is even better!
Here are some common types of wild gourmet mushrooms to get started:
<ul>
<li>Chanterelles (Cantharellus)</li>
<li>Morels (Morchella)</li>
<li>Boletus (Boletus)</li>
<li>Lobster mushrooms (Hypomyces)</li>
<li>Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus)</li>
</ul>
Check out this article for more edible wild mushrooms, and how to identify them!
<h2>Look for One Type of Mushroom at a Time</h2>
Mushroom hunters usually stick to only one type of mushroom per trip. This makes identification easier and helps you learn each type separately. Depending on which type of mushroom you’re looking for, you may have to look in a specific place at a certain time of year.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1876843 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/real-chanterelles-1680932_1280.jpg" alt="chanterelle, forage" width="1280" height="854" />
 
<h2>When Should You Look?</h2>
Most mushrooms are incredibly seasonal by nature. The organisms live year-round, but they only grow their fruiting body (called a sporocarp) when they’re ready to reproduce. The fruiting body is what contains spores, and is the part we eat.
The rest of the mushroom is in the form of mycelium, which are strands of tissue that are underground or in dead wood. Now that our little <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-beginners-guide-to-mycology/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mycology</a> lesson is over, what time of year should you look for gourmet mushrooms in the wild?
Most mushrooms grow their fruiting bodies in the fall or spring. The changing of seasons, with rising or lowering temperature, triggers the mushrooms to sprout from the ground and give us the tasty part.
Certain types of mushrooms have very predictable seasons. Morels, for example, usually come out of the ground from anywhere between late April to late May. Chanterelles, on the other hand, thrive in the Fall.
Sometimes, mushrooms seem to pop up overnight and don’t stick around for very long. So, it’s important to know exactly what time of year the mushrooms you’re looking for are going to be available!
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877403 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/morel.jpg" alt="gourmet mushrooms" width="1000" height="625" />
 
<h2>Where to Look?</h2>
Although many types of edible mushrooms aren’t very picky about where they grow, some are associated with specific habitats. It’s important to know where to look for your mushrooms, so you aren’t going on a wild goose chase!
Many seasoned mushroom hunters know of specific areas of the forest where a certain mushroom thrives. Maybe you’ll never uncover one of these closely guarded secrets, but there are certainly habitat types to consider.
Many mushrooms get their energy from dead and decaying wood. Some happen to thrive in a place where there have been fires in the past year or two. If a forest fire destroys lots of trees, there should be plenty of food later for mushrooms like morels. So, recently burned forests are a good place to hunt for gourmet mushrooms!
Other mushrooms are associated with a specific type of tree. These have evolved to live off only one type of tree - sometimes a single species. One example of this is the pine cap mushroom, also called saffron milk cap.
This particular type thrives in pine forests, as its name implies. Others love to grow near the roots of certain fruit plants, like apple trees. Make your way to an old abandoned orchard and try your luck there.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877404 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/mushroom-700041_1280.jpg" alt="gourmet mushrooms" width="1280" height="720" />
 
<h2>Be Persistent!</h2>
Finally, one of the most important keys to mushroom hunting is patience. There are some days when you’ll walk miles and find only a handful of mushrooms - or none at all.
Part of the excitement of mushroom hunting is when you stumble upon a treasure trove of morels or chanterelles in a secluded part of the forest. Perhaps you’ll be the only one who knows about that particular patch!
Hopefully, now you know a little bit more about how to look for gourmet mushrooms in the wild. Happy hunting!


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How to Look for Gourmet Mushrooms In the Wild

Mushrooms are one of the most highly sought after wild...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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