In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do.



This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the most complex problems in science: how species evolve, and even how cancer works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-with-chopped-up-chromosomes">Butterfly with chopped up chromosomes </h2>



Inside every living thing, from a mushroom to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-whale-species-is-already-threatened-with-extinction/">whale</a>, there’s DNA - the instruction manual of life. That DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs, and most butterflies have 23 or 24 pairs.



The Atlas blue butterfly carries 229 pairs of chromosomes - more than any other multicellular animal. Scientists had long suspected it held the record, and new genome sequencing has now confirmed it.



And here’s what’s even more surprising: the butterfly's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-analysis-can-predict-which-animals-are-at-risk-of-extinction/">DNA</a> hasn’t been duplicated. Instead, the chromosomes have been chopped up into smaller pieces - like taking 24 books and ripping them into 229 booklets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-evolution-s-toolbox">A peek into evolution’s toolbox</h2>



The researchers behind the new study came from the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> in the UK and the Institute of Evolutionary Biology in Barcelona. They produced the first-ever high-quality genome for the Atlas blue and discovered that its extra chromosomes were not caused by copying, but by splitting.



This process happened fast in evolutionary terms. In about three million years, the butterfly went from 24 to 229 chromosomes. That’s like a blink of an eye for species development.



The cuts happened in parts of the DNA that were loosely packed. That means the total genetic information didn’t really change, it was just reorganized. All of the chromosomes, except for sex chromosomes, were broken up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-evolving-butterfly">A rapidly evolving butterfly </h2>



Changes in chromosome number are one way that species evolve. They can affect how genes are turned on or off, how traits are passed down, and how well an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomics-can-help-farm-animals-adapt-to-climate-change/">animal adapts</a> to its environment. The Atlas blue butterfly belongs to a group that evolved rapidly, creating lots of closely related species.



This new research helps explain how that might have happened. The split chromosomes may have allowed more mixing and matching of DNA, possibly helping the species survive in tough environments.



But that same complexity could also come with risks. Too many chromosomes might make a species more vulnerable over time. And unfortunately, the Atlas blue is already in trouble. Climate change, overgrazing, and destruction of cedar forests are putting pressure on its populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-chromosomes-and-cancer">Butterfly chromosomes and cancer</h2>



The implications go far beyond butterflies. Professor Mark Blaxter noted that genomes hold the key to how a creature came to be, but also, where it might go in the future.



“To be able to tell the story of our planet, we must have the story of each species and see where they overlap and interact with each other. It also allows us to apply learnings from one genome to another."



"For example, rearranging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-chromosomes-have-conserved-specific-elements-for-600-million-years/">chromosomes</a> is also seen in human cancer cells, and understanding this process in the Atlas blue butterfly could help find ways to limit or stop this in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-scientist-discovers-that-common-non-cancer-drugs-when-combined-can-kill-cancer-cells/">cancer cells</a> in the future.”



That might seem like a stretch - a tiny insect helping us battle a major disease - but it’s happened before. From bacteria to mice and worms, scientists have used all kinds of living things to understand human health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extreme-atlas-blue-butterfly">The extreme Atlas blue butterfly</h2>



There are still big questions to answer. What benefits, if any, come from having so many chromosomes? Are there specific genes that make this butterfly more adaptable? Could this give clues about how life responds to a changing planet?



“When we set out to start to understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> in butterflies, we knew we had to sequence the most extreme, and somewhat mysterious, Atlas blue butterfly,” said Dr. Charlotte Wright, first author of the study. 



She noted that it was thanks to Dr. Roger Vila, who had previously worked with his colleague to find and identify this elusive butterfly, that the team was able to sequence this species.



"Being able to see, in detail, how the Atlas blue butterfly chromosomes have been split over time in specific places, we can start to investigate what benefits this might have, how it impacts their ability to adapt to their environment, and whether there are any lessons we can learn from their DNA that might aid conservation in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-species-evolution">Understanding species evolution</h2>



This kind of research is just the beginning. The team now has a “gold-standard” genome to compare with other butterflies and moths, opening the door to understanding more about how species split, adapt, or vanish.



“Breaking down chromosomes has been seen in other species of butterflies, but not on this level, suggesting that there are important reasons for this process which we can now start to explore," said Dr. Vila, senior author of the study. 



"Additionally, as chromosomes hold all the secrets of a species, investigating whether these changes impact a butterfly’s behavior could help form a full picture of how and why new species occur."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01098-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS096098222501098X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Roger Vila



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Butterfly sets an astonishing  chromosome record

In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do. This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin – Madison</a> has found that some species of copepods such as Eurytemora affinis – tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-crustaceans-italian-cave/">crustaceans</a> measuring about a millimeter in length and roaming coastal waters of oceans and estuaries around the world in massive numbers – can evolve fast enough to survive in the face of rapid climate change.



“This is a dominant coastal species, serving as very abundant and highly nutritious fish food,” said study senior author Carol Eunmi Lee, a professor of Integrative Biology at UW Madison. “But they’re vulnerable to climate change.”&nbsp;



Since ocean salinity is dropping rapidly as ice melts and precipitation patterns change, this saltwater species that evolved over the ages in waters high in salinity, now needs to adapt to much fresher water in their environment.&nbsp;



In order to study how copepods respond to drops in salinity, the scientists kept a population of Eurytemora affinis&nbsp;from the Baltic Sea in their laboratory and observed them over a few generations. After splitting the copepods into 14 groups of a few thousands each, they placed four of these groups in environments similar to the Baltic, while exposing the other ten groups to declining salinity levels that simulated the type of pressure caused by climate change. For a total of ten generations, these groups had their water gradually reduced to lower salinity levels.



To track evolutionary changes across the genomes of the tiny crustaceans, the researchers sequenced the genome of each line of copepods at the beginning of the experiment, as well as after six and ten generations. 



The analysis revealed that the strongest signals of natural selection – where changes were largest and more frequent across the groups exposed to low salinity levels – were in areas of the genome that are important in regulating ions, such as sodium transporters.



“In saltwater, there are a lot of ions, like sodium, that are essential for survival. But when you get to freshwater, these ions are precious,” Professor Lee explained. “So, the copepods need to suck them up from the environment and hang on to them, and the ability to do that relies on these ion transporters that we found undergoing natural selection.”



At the end of the experiment, the copepods with certain genetic combinations of the ion transporter were more likely to survive, even as the salinity of their water decreased. According to the researchers, the gene variants found in the copepods that managed to survive the salinity decline in the laboratory are also common among copepods living in the fresher regions of the Baltic Sea.



“This copepod gives us an idea of what it takes, an idea of what conditions are needed, that enable a population to evolve rapidly in response to climate change. It also shows how important evolution is for understanding our changing planet and how — or even whether — populations and ecosystems will survive,” Professor Lee concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31622-8">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Tiny crustaceans have what it takes to survive climate change

A recent study led by the University of Wisconsin –...

By analyzing stress hormones in elephants that lost their mothers, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> has found that young, orphaned elephants appear to physically benefit from the support of other young elephants. The study revealed that elephants with more similarly aged “friends” in their group had lower stress levels than their more solitary conspecifics. Thus, “social support” appears to be crucial in reducing the stress caused by the loss of a mother in these highly intelligent and social animals.



&nbsp;“If you’re out in the field, watching elephants, you can just tell that family life is everything,” said study lead author Jenna Parker, an ecologist at Colorado State University. “Calves are rarely more than maybe ten meters from their mother until they’re about eight or nine years old. And if some of the elephants go off, you’ll hear them calling to one another. They want to know where each other are all the time.”



Between 2009 and 2013, there was a marked increase in poaching for ivory in the two reserves in Kenya where this study took place, leaving a large number of young elephants orphaned. “I wanted to follow that up and look at what happens physiologically for these orphans,” Dr. Parker said.



Together with her colleagues, Dr. Parker followed groups of African elephants for over a year and analyzed their fecal samples to measure stress hormone levels. By carefully monitoring 25 young orphaned elephants that had lost their mothers between one and 19 years earlier, the researchers found that those with more similarly aged companions had significantly lower stress hormones than others.



These findings are similar to previous research done on humans which discovered that orphaned children who had a strong level of social support from family and peers were less likely to develop post-traumatic stress disorder after losing their parents. “And what we seem to find in elephants is that those with their family and social support maintain more normal stress hormone levels in the long term,” Dr. Parker said. “I just think it’s really cool that such a social animal has evolved so separately from humans, and that we still seem to converge on how important social ties are.”



According to the scientists, this study could inform future conservation efforts of these endangered animals. By better understanding their social structure – characterized by strong elephant-to-elephant support in the face of loss – conservationists could devise better initiatives to help these animals adapt to the myriad threats that they face.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03574-8">Nature Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Social support can lower stress levels in orphaned elephants

By analyzing stress hormones in elephants that lost their mothers,...

Climate change poses a number of threats to plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-different-types-of-animals-see/">animals</a>, and many species may disappear altogether. This is only expected to worsen due to human impacts such as altering land use for agriculture.&nbsp;



The habitats and preferred climate conditions of species have been drastically impacted. When there is a divergence between the climatic conditions suitable for a particular species and its abundance and distribution through time, this is known as climate decoupling.&nbsp;



For example, the grasshopper sparrow lives in grasslands across North America. However, because grasslands continue to be degraded, this has hindered the species from fully adjusting to changing climatic conditions. Climate decoupling and habitat loss may explain the high rates of grasshopper sparrow abundance declines and local extinctions.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">iDiv</a>, Leipzig University and MLU used the best available evidence on bird population changes through time from the North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS).



The study revealed that at least 30 out of 114 species (26 percent) of North American birds have become less adjusted to their climate over the last 30 years. This means that their distributions and abundances were increasingly decoupled from climate over time.&nbsp;



This can happen for various reasons, depending on the species. Some species might remain where they historically lived, while others might be limited by climate-independent resources and habitats. On the other hand, some species might be declining due to global changes, unable to adjust to the changing climate.&nbsp;



“One of the most surprising results of our analysis was that the overall trend of climate decoupling showed no signs of slowing down,” said lead author Dr. Duarte Viana. “This suggests a possible feedback between climate decoupling and declining populations that might emerge in the face of a multitude of current global changes."



The researchers showed that climate decoupling was more prevalent among habitat specialists than generalists. This is because specialists may have greater difficulty finding a suitable habitat and climate conditions in increasingly modified landscapes.



“We also found that climate decoupling was more prominent among species that were considered threatened and that were declining in population sizes,” said study senior author Dr. Jonathan Chase, head of the Biodiversity Synthesis research group at iDiv and MLU.&nbsp;



“There are many known factors that are contributing to the population declines of many species of birds, but our study adds a new facet to our understanding of the potential causes of some of these changes – that species are less likely to be living in their optimal climate conditions as the world changes around them. This, like the proverbial canary in the coal mine, might be something we humans should pay attention to as we will likely soon find ourselves similarly living in places outside of our optimal climate ranges.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate decoupling is an increasing threat to birds

Climate change poses a number of threats to plants and...

Anna's,Hummingbird,Adult,Male,Hovering,And,Feeding.,Santa,Cruz,,California,

Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-fleas-adapt-to-life-with-deadly-carnivorous-plants/">plant</a> and animal species are seeking refuge in higher elevations to escape the stress of rising temperatures.&nbsp; In a study funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, experts have discovered that hummingbirds will not be able to adjust to life at higher altitudes, and this is primarily due to lower oxygen availability.



"Many species have not tracked their thermal niches upslope as predicted by climate change, potentially because higher elevations are associated with abiotic challenges beyond temperature. To better predict whether organisms can continue to move upslope with rising temperatures, we need to understand their physiological performance when subjected to novel high-elevation conditions," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Here, we captured Anna's hummingbirds - a species expanding their elevational distribution in concordance with rising temperatures - from across their current elevational distribution and tested their physiological response to novel abiotic conditions."



After the birds had time to adjust to a high-altitude habitat, the researchers measured their metabolic rates. The results showed found that these rates had dropped by nearly 40 percent compared to the rates measured in the birds' natural habitat.



"Overall, these results suggest low air pressure and oxygen availability may reduce hovering performance in hummingbirds when exposed to the challenge of high-elevation conditions," said study lead author Austin Spence of the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>.



According to the experts, the birds also spent more time in a torpid state at higher altitudes regardless of the elevation of their original habitat. "Whether they're from a warm or cool spot, they use torpor when its super-cold," said Spence.



Hummingbirds from higher elevations do not have enlarged lungs to compensate for a lack of oxygen, but their hearts are larger and can circulate more oxygen.



"Our results suggest lower oxygen availability and low air pressure may be difficult challenges to overcome for hummingbirds," said Spence.&nbsp;



"Future studies should investigate how chronic exposure and acclimatization to novel conditions, as opposed to acute experiments, may result in alternative outcomes that help organisms better respond to abiotic challenges associated with climate-induced range shifts," concluded the researchers.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor

Hummingbirds will not be able to retreat to high altitudes

Many plant and animal species are seeking refuge in higher...

The forces endured by a woodpecker’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-shifts-change-the-brain-structure-of-butterflies/">brain</a> as it hammers away at a dead tree branch must be considerable, or so we always thought. Conventional wisdom has it that the woodpecker’s skull must act as some sort of shock-absorbing helmet and cushion the blows. When a brain experiences sudden deceleration it undergoes compression at the impact site and expansion at the opposite side, both of which can damage neurons and result in injury. And, since woodpeckers don’t seem to suffer brain injuries, the logical inference is that some dissipation of the impact force must occur between the beak and the brain.&nbsp;



New research published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a> refutes this long-held notion and finds instead that woodpeckers’ heads act more like stiff hammers than protective helmets. The authors state that hypotheses on shock absorption by the woodpecker’s cranial musculoskeletal system remain untested in natural situations, and would, in fact, run counter to natural selection pressures to increase pecking performance.&nbsp;



The researchers used high-speed video footage of six woodpecker individuals from three species to test whether the deceleration of the brain is significantly reduced compared with the deceleration of the beak upon impact. They analyzed 109 videos of the birds as they hammered into wood, tracking the positions of various markers on the skulls and beaks. The experts found no significant difference between the deceleration of the beak and that of the skull on impact.



“By analyzing high-speed videos of three species of woodpeckers, we found that woodpeckers do not absorb the shock of the impact with the tree,” said Sam Van Wassenbergh&nbsp;of Universiteit Antwerpen, Belgium.



The researchers then used the data collected to model the functional implications of varying the degree of cranial shock. Their biokinetic models included springs between the beak and the brain that could absorb varying amounts of shock and measure the implications of this for hammering performance.&nbsp;



Their simulations confirmed that absorbing part of the kinetic energy of the head into a compressing electric structure during impact significantly reduced the penetration of the beak into the tree. This means that, if a woodpecker’s beak absorbed any of the impact from its pecking action, the bird would actually have to peck harder in order to perform successful pecks. In fact, model birds with cranial shock absorbers would have to expend more energy to peck to a certain depth than those without cranial shock absorbers.



But if their skulls don’t act as shock absorbers, does the furious pecking put their brains at risk? It turns out that it doesn’t. While the deceleration shock that causes concussion in monkeys and humans is around 103 kPa at the site of impact, hammering woodpeckers experience only between 40 and 60 percent of this pressure, depending on species. This means these species would need to hit their selected spot twice as fast as observed or strike at its top speed on wood that is four times as stiff to suffer a concussion, state the authors.



“The absence of shock absorption does not mean their brains are in danger during the seemingly violent impacts,” said Van Wassenbergh. “Even the strongest shocks from the over 100 pecks that were analyzed should still be safe for the woodpeckers’ brains as our calculations showed brain loadings that are lower than that of humans suffering a concussion.”



Van Wassenbergh says that woodpeckers could make a mistake, for instance if they were to peck on metal at full power. But their usual pecking on tree trunks is generally well below the threshold that causes a concussion, even without their skulls acting as protective helmets. They are known to have smaller brains and less cerebrospinal fluid around the brain, which are factors that could also protect their brains during impacts.



The findings refute the long-held theory of shock absorption, which has been popularized in the media, books, zoos, and more, noted Van Wassenbergh. “While filming the woodpeckers in zoos, I have witnessed parents explaining to their kids that woodpeckers don’t get headaches because they have shock absorber built into their head. This myth of shock absorption in woodpeckers is now busted by our findings.”



Van Wassenbergh and colleagues conclude that the heads of woodpeckers function as stiff hammers during pecking, and that this ensures maximum penetration of the wood at each peck. They emphasize that, from an evolutionary point of view, there may well be limits to the head size, maximal strike speed and hardness of trees selected by woodpeckers.



The findings also have some practical implications, adds Van Wassenbergh, given that engineers have previously used the anatomy of the woodpecker’s cranial skeleton as a source of inspiration for the development of shock-absorbing materials and helmets. The new findings show that’s not such a good idea, given that woodpecker anatomy actually negates shock absorption.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Woodpecker skulls do not absorb the shock of hammering

The forces endured by a woodpecker’s brain as it hammers...

An underwater photographer has recently captured footage of the world’s fastest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-important-deserve-protections/">shark</a> swimming in the waters close to Barcelona’s coastline. This is the first time in over ten years that the shortfin mako shark – an endangered species that can reach speeds of up to 45 miles per hour – was spotted in the Mediterranean.&nbsp;



This recent sighting was reported off the Garraf coast close to Barcelona by an expedition team. Underwater photographer David Jara, who captured the images, said that the shark was swimming “calmly” in the open waters and measured about eight feet in length. “We saw a large black shadow in motion,” he recounted. “We were a bit confused. But suddenly we saw something protruding from the sea. At first we thought it was a sunfish, but soon we noticed a dorsal fin. Then we approached, stopped at a safe distance, and he also approached the boat. It was impressive.”



Although, at first, Jara and his colleague Carlos Molina wanted to dive into the water in order to get close up footage of this amazing shark, they quickly realized it may not be very safe, and decided to remain in their boat. Later analyses of the footage revealed that the creature was indeed an endangered shortfin mako shark – a slick, spindle-shaped shark with a long conical snout and a mouth full of long, slender teeth that preys on fishes such as herring, mackerel, swordfish, and small cetaceans. Adults – known for their fighting qualities and ability to repeatedly leap out of the water - can measure up to 14.8 feet in length and weigh over 1,000 pounds.



The <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) has listed this shark species as endangered since 2019. The demand for shark fin soup, particularly in Asian countries, has significantly depleted their populations, with scientists estimating that approximately 100 million sharks are killed each year in commercial fisheries. Moreover, their slow growth, late maturity, and lengthy gestation has put them at risk of overfishing, leading to a 99.9 percent reduction in their global population since the 19th century.



According to Claudio Barria, a marine biologist at the <a href="http://www.icm.csic.es/en">Institute of Marine Sciences</a> in Barcelona, this recent sighting is a good sign for the Mediterranean ecosystem, offering new hopes that perhaps the rampant destruction these sharks have faced over the past century is about to stop, and their population could once more increase.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

World’s fastest shark spotted near Barcelona

An underwater photographer has recently captured footage of the world’s...

A new study published in the journal <a href="about:blank">Nature</a> has found that modern ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emerging-issues-that-may-impact-marine-biodiversity-are-poorly-understood/">biodiversity</a> - which is currently at its highest level ever – was achieved through long-term stability of “biodiversity hotspots,” or regions where an exceptionally high number of different species co-exist.&nbsp;



The experts reached this conclusion by employing a pioneering computational model which reconstructs the diversity of marine animals from their origin about 550 million years ago to the present, based on plate tectonics and environmental factors, such as ocean temperatures and food supply. Since the history of diversity in the model is numerically simulated rather than reconstructed from fossil data, this method is free from the gaps and sampling biases characterizing the fossil record.



“The question is how did we get to where we are,” said study lead author Pedro Cermeño, a postdoctoral fellow in Marine Biology at the <a href="http://www.icm.csic.es/en">Institute of Marine Sciences</a> in Barcelona, Spain. “Gaps in the fossil record require the use of a new computational approach to reconstruct the history of life. Our model is able to recreate the geographic distribution of modern ocean diversity, especially the hotspots, and reveals the mechanisms that have created them.”



This new model can also shed more light on one of the most controversial questions in Evolutionary Ecology: whether or not there is a limit to the biodiversity that our planet can support. While some scientists argue that as diversity increases and biological competition intensifies, the process of diversification slows down to a halt, so that the emergence of new species depends upon the extinction of older ones, others claim that the Earth’s ecosystems are so heterogeneous that there will always be room for more species. 



The new model helps reconciling the two views, suggesting that while most of the oceans exhibit diversity levels far below their maximum potential, regions hosting biodiversity hotspots may be close to their limit.



Although ocean biodiversity is currently at its highest level, this may not last long, since human interference in the natural functioning of Earth’s systems has prompted what scientists call “the sixth great mass extinction.” According to the United Nations, over the last century as many species have already disappeared as those that would be extinguished in 10,000 years assuming a normal, non-extinction evolutionary scenario.



“Our study emphasizes that, if current trends continue, projected diversity loss can take millions of years to recover, arguably beyond our own existence as a species,” concluded co-author Michael Benton, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Environmental stability helped ocean biodiversity flourish

A new study published in the journal Nature has found...

We all know rats can be taught to navigate mazes and do other tasks for food rewards, but can they teach each other to find <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-make-unhealthy-food-choices-based-on-their-emotions/">food</a>? A new study suggests that rats can, in fact, learn navigation through observation.&nbsp;



The research, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/behavioral-neuroscience">Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</a>, looked at how animals form mental maps using lab rats as a research model. Specifically, the scientists wanted to see if rats could learn about a physical space by watching another rat explore it rather than exploring it themselves. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Learning by observation is the most common form of learning from school to daily life,” said Dr. Thomas Doublet of the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>. “We wanted to understand whether or not a spatial representation could be acquired remotely. This is important to understand how spatial representations can be generated and stabilized.”



To explore this question, rats were put into a two part cage, with an observer rat inside an internal clear cage, watching a rat explore the outer cage. The observer rat learned the location of food by watching the demonstrator rat in the outer cage.



Rats that had the benefit of watching a friend find the food were tested against naive rats who didn’t watch another find the food. Naive rats were found to be 12 percent successful compared to the 100 percent successful observer rats. This shows that rats can create mental navigation maps with only indirect experience to guide them Doublet explained,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our study shows that the cognitive representation of a space formed by observation is stable and can be used by the animals to navigate more efficiently through the observed space,” said Dr. Doublet, “This study is a means to better understand how our brain represents the behavior of conspecifics, but also how our internal GPS works.”



The researchers say that the findings represent a step toward understanding how mental navigation works in animals but there’s still more research to be done before it’s fully understood. For one, it is still not known whether rats use the same neurons to create mental maps from observation as from their own experience.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How does mental navigation work in animals?

We all know rats can be taught to navigate mazes...

Purple sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchins-feet-see/">urchins</a> are currently munching their way through California’s kelp forests at an unprecedented speed and scale that has amazed scientists. However, since kelp forests have long been home to purple and red urchins, it is clear that the three species can get along. A research team led by the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a> (UCSB) has set out to investigate what prompts urchins to munch their way out of a home. They discovered that the availability of kelp scraps, or detritus, might be the deciding factor.&nbsp;



“Why is it that in some places urchins cause the demise of a kelp forest, and in other places urchins and kelp can coexist?” asked study senior author Adrian Stier, an associate professor of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology at UCSB. “Our analysis shows what’s going on under the hood. It offers a lot more resolution in explaining when and where you might expect urchins to devour kelp.”



By combining laboratory experiments with two decades of field data, Professor Stier and his team discovered that the availability of kelp detritus alters the foraging behavior of urchins from passive feeding, when detritus is abundant, to active grazing of living kelp, when detritus is scarce. The analyses revealed that when urchin demand was greater than detrital supply, there was a stunning 50-fold decrease in the standing stock of kelp biomass.&nbsp;



Thus, the less kelp available to supply enough detritus, the more are urchins likely to venture out and forage on living kelp. This phenomenon creates a feedback loop that can push an ecosystem over a tipping point, causing a sudden shift in the composition of kelp-urchin communities.



These findings can inform how to effectively approach kelp forest management. “The study suggests that the places most likely to benefit from restoration are those with a hardy supply of detrital kelp coming from elsewhere,” Professor Stier explained. “The best place to restore kelp isn’t in the middle of an urchin barren, where there’s no kelp around. It’s actually in places that are closer to other kelp forests. So maybe we ought to try extending the leading edge of a given kelp forest nearby,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecy.3673">Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Why are urchins sometimes feeding on living kelp?

Purple sea urchins are currently munching their way through California’s...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has found that habitat shifts in populations of Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-predators-have-outsmarted-monarch-butterflies/">butterflies</a> accurately predict changes in their brain structures, particularly in areas that process visual information. These findings provide strong evidence that habitat shifts are adaptive and that local adaptation to distinct light environments can occur at very small ecological scales.



“It was known that niche partitioning in complex habitats, like tropical rainforests, might pose perceptual challenges for the animals living in them,” said study lead author Benito Wainwright, a biologist at the University of Bristol. “Work on fish in freshwater ecosystems had previously shown that dramatic changes in light availability with depth can result in impressive visual adaptations, but little was known whether evolution could select for such adaptations in a terrestrial environment like a tropical forest.”



The scientists studied 160 samples across 16 species of Amazonian butterflies belonging to the Neotropical tribe called Ithomiini. The sample size makes this the largest neuroanatomical comparison undertaken for any type of insect. Habitat shifts were indicated by changes in mimicry patterns.&nbsp;



The results highlight the importance of visual ecology in adaptively shaping entire communities of closely related species in complex terrestrial ecosystems.&nbsp; In future research, the scientists aim to investigate sensory evolution across the entire community of butterflies to rigorously assess whether convergence in habit always predicts convergence in brain structure. &nbsp;



“In other words, we want to know whether when faced with the same perceptual challenges, species evolve sensory adaptations via similar mechanisms,” Dr. Wainwright explained. “We also wish to quantify the light environment within these forests to investigate to what degree small changes in forest structure affect the sensory environment.”&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;



Since Ithomiine butterflies play a crucial role in a large variety of tropical ecosystems, understanding their evolutionary responses can help make more accurate predictions on how sudden changes in the sensory environment may affect the composition of entire rainforests.



“Our work shows that the way species have evolved to process the world around them plays an important role in the way entire animal communities are structured. Natural selection can lead to adaptive change in brain structure over relatively short periods of evolutionary time,” Dr. Wainwright concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/evo.14547">Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Habitat shifts change the brain structure of butterflies

A recent study led by the University of Bristol has...

Common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) are widespread and highly mobile marine mammals. They inhabit coastal and pelagic environments in temperate and subtropical waters in both the northern and southern hemisphere. In these environments they form regional subpopulations that are discernible on a genetic basis, despite the fact that individuals can migrate between populations. An understanding of the geographic locations of the regional subpopulations is important for the long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rhinos-show-that-diseases-can-disrupt-conservation-efforts/">conservation</a> and management of the species.



Previous research has identified three distinct regional populations of common dolphins in Australasian waters; a single population inhabits the southern coast of Australia, a different one is found along the eastern coast while a third lives in the waters around Tasmania and New Zealand. However, there are numerous subpopulations in all these areas, and little information exists about the factors that separate them or the genetic characteristics of the groups.&nbsp;



In marine environments, it is difficult to identify the specific barriers and conditions that separate genetically distinct populations. These may include factors such as spatial distance, oceanographic features such as currents, upwellings or environmental gradients, or ecological differences that require specific feeding or behavioural strategies. The complexity of these factors makes it difficult to disentangle them in order to identify appropriate policies for conservation and management.



A new, comprehensive study from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has now undertaken the first, widespread census of the genetic diversity of common dolphin populations living along 3000km of Australia’s southern coastline. The study, published in <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Ecology and Evolution</a>, aims to quantify the genetic diversity of the dolphin subpopulations and to understand what oceanic conditions act as barriers between the groups. The authors hope that their results will help inform conservation and management strategies that will support long-term gene flow between the populations.



Study first author Dr. Andrea Barceló says high levels of genomic variation can play an important part in the long-term survival of these wide-ranging marine mammals and other species, particularly during the ongoing habitat changes associated with climate change and human activities.&nbsp;



“Information about how the environment affects DNA diversity of marine populations can assist with the population management and in forecasting how they may cope with climate change and other anthropogenic impacts,” said Dr. Barceló.



In addition, researchers from Flinders and Macquarie Universities stress the importance of maintaining connectivity between the different groups to promote gene flow and long-term genomic variation. This will, in turn, enhance population viability under anthropogenic impacts, including unfavorable climatic events.



“While so many breeding and feeding conditions are still unknown, it’s important for managers of our coastal environments to consider the importance of DNA diversity, particularly in the event of changes in key environmental conditions such as water temperatures, salinity, and food sources,” said study co-author<a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/people/luciana.moller"> Professor Luciana Möller</a>.



The genomic analysis of more than 200 dolphins from along the southern coast of Australia revealed the presence of five dolphin populations between Western Australia and Victoria. The adaptive divergence was compared with the key environmental conditions and available fish food supplies, fueled by oceanic upwellings and local seasonal circulations. &nbsp;



The results indicated that genomic variation in dolphins of the southern coast of Western Australia was associated with local currents, while genomic differentiation of common dolphins from sites along the continental shelf break was impacted by fluctuations of primary productivity and sea surface temperatures. In&nbsp;contrast, genomic differentiation of dolphin populations from protected coastal habitats and more enclosed embayment areas was associated mainly with fluctuations in salinity and local environmental temperatures.



Common dolphin subpopulations appear to show localized site fidelity and adaptations to feeding and living in environments with specific conditions. This enhances genetic variation of the species on a global scale, and is likely to enable adaptation to changing conditions as long as there is genetic exchange between subpopulations.&nbsp;



The researchers conclude that such seascape genomic assessment allows the identification of candidate genes for future comparative studies of common dolphins and potentially other delphinid species that share similar dynamic environments around the world.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dolphin DNA study reveals adaptations to local oceanography

Common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) are widespread and highly mobile marine...

Hawk moths, with a wingspan of over four inches, are among the largest night fliers in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-may-be-able-to-experience-pain/">insect</a> world. Three new species from the Bahamas are breaking new records for size - but not for being large. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> discovered the smallest-ever hawk moths that are about the size of a vitamin pill.&nbsp;



“By comparison, we have a few other small hawk moths like the hummingbird moth, but of all of them these new species are the smallest,” said Deborah Matthews, a biological scientist at the museum’s McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity.&nbsp;



There are 1,700 diverse hawk moth species worldwide. They have incredibly long proboscises, the straw-like tongues used to siphon nectar. The variation in tongue length is used to predict what local flowers the moths feed on. This method was first applied by Charles Darwin, who predicted the long proboscis after observing an orchid with unusually long nectar spurs.



The study began when Matthews and Jacqueline Miller reviewed the Florida Museum’s hawk moth collection to identify Bahamas specimens and sort survey material island by island. To differentiate closely related moths, researchers must study their anatomy. For Matthews and Miller, that meant making a detailed examination of the moths’ genitalia.



“You just can't always make out distinctive wing patterns, whereas with genitalia you can cross-compare structures,” said Matthews.



The genitalia were dissected and observed under a microscope, and the differences were striking. This led to suspicions that they had discovered three new species.&nbsp;



“In terms of moths, the giant silk moths and hawk moths are very popular and well-studied, kind of like the butterflies of the moth world. So, for us to find three new hawk moth species, that’s a really big deal,” said Matthews.



The Bahamas, with their proximity to diversity hotspots like Cuba and mainland areas of Mexico and the U.S., makes it easier for plants and animals to spread there, evolving into new species due to their isolation.



Island ecosystems are famous for organisms that far outsize their mainland relatives, like the giant tortoises on the Galapagos Islands and the Komodo dragons in Indonesia. However in The Bahamas species tend to be smaller, contradicting that giganticism trend.



Experts suspect that harsh weather could be the cause, as islands in the Bahamas archipelago are affected by Atlantic hurricanes and tropical storms. Heavy rain and windfall pose a threat to wildlife. It is likely that butterflies and moths with smaller wings are equipped to survive the intense winds.&nbsp;



The research team believes that their work to identify these three new species will likely lead to more discoveries going forward.



The research was partially funded by the National Geographic Society. The <a href="https://centerforsystematicentomology.org/insectamundi/0937_Miller_etal_2022-reduced.pdf">study</a> is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.flvc.org/mundi">Insecta Mundi</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hawk moths in the Bahamas are the smallest ever found

Hawk moths, with a wingspan of over four inches, are...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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