Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

Portrait,Of,Fiji,Banded,Iguana,(brachylophus,Bulabula),Is,Species,Of

The evolutionary success of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explain-longevity-in-mammals/">mammals</a> is commonly associated with the unidirectional development of complex teeth. New research led by the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> has found that plant-eating reptiles such as lizards share this success, but through bidirectional tooth evolution.



As opposed to the unidirectional evolution of complex teeth in mammals, the study concluded that several lizard groups evolved teeth with multiple cusps that facilitated diets based around the consumption of plants, resulting in a higher rate of species development. This tooth evolution was ultimately more flexible than that of mammals, providing new insights into the nuances of teeth and dietary adaptations.



“The teeth of squamates have received limited attention, even though they twice outnumber mammals in species numbers, and span many habitats and geographic ranges," said study co-author Professor Nicolas Di-Poï.



By performing comparative analysis on the dietary and tooth-shape data of over 500 different living and fossil species, the research team discovered that squamates, the ancestor to all snakes and lizards, initially had simple peg-like teeth that facilitated feeding on insects.



Complex teeth bearing multiple cusps (such as those found in early mammals) later developed from these peg-like teeth, evolving in a bidirectional fashion across multiple different lizard lineages. This allowed many lizard groups to evolve from surviving purely on insects, allowing them to form plant-rich diets, forming a feedback loop in some cases which resulted in the evolution of even more complex teeth.



However, many lizard lineages also lost their complex teeth through the process of re-evolving the morphology of the ancestral simple tooth. “This came as a complete surprise, as complex teeth appear as a critical innovation for both squamates and mammals," said study co-author Fabien Lafuma.



The researchers concluded that this bidirectional evolution towards plant consumption presented an evolutionary advantage, as both of these traits favored an increase in species development.&nbsp;



Ultimately, the study suggests that land-dwelling vertebrates experience a similar selective pressure to develop more cusps and thus increase their consumption of plants. The bidirectional nature of teeth evolution in squamates remains unique to mammals however, with numerous lineages reducing complexity over time.



The team concluded that the difference could stem from variations in tooth development, with minor molecular changes having the potential to result in widely different outcomes across evolutionary time scales. “This work gives us a more nuanced understanding of how the same critical adaptation evolved in different vertebrate groups," said Lafuma.



The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A complicated story of tooth evolution among reptiles

The evolutionary success of mammals is commonly associated with the...

Computer simulations suggest that interactions between communities of plankton (the myriad microorganisms inhabiting the oceans and supplying most of the Earth’s oxygen) will be affected by climate change in different ways, depending on their location.&nbsp;



At the poles, plankton communities will be severely damaged due to rises in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/">temperature</a>. Meanwhile, in the tropics they will suffer from increased salinity, and in temperate zones plankton groups will be transformed by a reduced flow of nutrients.



Between 2009 and 2013, the <a href="https://oceans.taraexpeditions.org/en/">Tara</a> research schooner sailed around the world and collected samples of plankton from every ocean, resulting in the largest inventory of marine plankton. The discoveries of this expedition were published in 2015 in a special issue of the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/toc/science/348/6237?_ga=2.115029831.1335720469.1634281480-2046344334.1629960599">Science</a>.



“That publication provided a snapshot of all the microorganisms in the oceans - the species, and the abundance of each one. It was one of the largest genetic sequencing projects executed to date,” said&nbsp;Hugo Sarmento, a professor in the Hydrobiology Department of the <a href="https://www.ufscar.br/foreign-visitor/about-ufscar">Federal University of São Carlos</a> (UFSCar).&nbsp;



“However, when we analyzed the data, we realized that these organisms depend on each other to survive and form complex microbial assemblages. They interact in many more ways than we imagined, and climate change will have a significant impact on them.”



In the latest study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abg1921">Science Advances</a>, Professor Sarmento and colleagues used statistical tools to analyze the data from the Tara expedition, and reconstructed the networks of interaction among the microorganisms.&nbsp;



Based on this information, in conjunction with environmental factors including temperature, availability of nutrients, and salinity, the scientists projected the potential effects of climate change on these communities.



“We ran the simulations for several stressors,” said Professor Sarmento. “In the temperate zone, nutrient regime changes appeared to be most important, whereas in the tropics the main stressors for plankton networks were temperature, albeit less so than at the poles, and salinity.”



“Given that the largest increases will occur precisely in polar regions, we can foresee major changes in the functioning of these communities, with important consequences for the equilibrium of the system."



Such changes may result in lower oxygen production, and will probably affect the oceans’ capacity to capture and store atmospheric carbon. Moreover, the plankton biomass, which is the foundation for the marine food chain, will also be severely affected, endangering a large variety of ecosystems.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change will profoundly affect plankton communities

Computer simulations suggest that interactions between communities of plankton (the...

A new study from <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/">James Cook University</a> has found that most pet owners are not prepared to save their pets in the case of a natural disaster. According to the researchers, developing disaster response plans for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pets-are-playing-a-lifesaving-role-this-year-during-the-pandemic/">pets</a> can actually save human lives as well.&nbsp;



Dr. Yetta Gurtner from JCU's Centre for Disaster Studies supervised the study. She said that it's well known that human-animal relationships can inhibit effective emergency responses and evacuations, and cause premature returns to dangerous areas.&nbsp;



"The desire to safeguard animals in an emergency situation can ultimately result in human fatalities, and people who risk their safety for the welfare of animals remain a significant emergency management issue," said Dr Gurtner.



The researchers surveyed 242 pet owners in Townsville, a coastal city in northeastern Queensland that is threatened with many types of natural disasters. The results showed that the majority of pet owners were uncertain and underprepared for an emergency.



According to Dr. Gurtner, about half of the respondents indicated that they did not have a household disaster kit or an evacuation plan. Among those who did, only 39 percent had designated plans to evacuate their pets.



"Importantly, 91 percent indicated they would not be willing to leave pets behind," said Dr Gurtner. She noted that previous studies reported that only 70 percent of people who were advised to leave their home during a disaster had complied, and many were unwilling to leave pets behind. There were some cases where a family member stayed behind with pets while the rest of the household evacuated.&nbsp;



Dr. Gurtner said the twin phenomena of under-preparedness for disaster and affection for pets may present an opportunity for emergency planners.



"Other researchers have suggested the 'pets as a protective factor' principle in which companion animal guardianship can actually motivate owners to be proactive in disaster risk management planning."



"They suggest that focusing on individual disaster preparedness 'for the sake of your pet' will deliver better engagement for planning for pet evacuation and self-reliance that will, in turn, yield higher human survival rates."



Dr. Gurtner explained that states and territories have many different policies regarding the accommodation of pets in emergency shelters.



"Given the varied contexts and capacities, people who own animals should seek advice from local authorities for up-to-date information specific to local circumstances."



"In the Townsville survey, 71 percent indicated they were uncertain whether local government shelters allowed pets and almost 4 per cent believed, falsely, that companion animals other than recognised assistance animals were allowed in Queensland storm shelters."



In conclusion, Dr. Gurtner said that if pet owners do not want to leave their pets behind in the case of a natural disaster, they should ensure their plans include appropriate arrangements for their pets. For more information on how to keep your pets safe, check out the <a href="https://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/what-should-i-consider-if-i-need-to-evacuate-my-animal-in-a-natural-disaster">RSPCA guide</a> to protecting pets in emergencies.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Most pet owners are not prepared for a natural disaster

A new study from James Cook University has found that...

Although lizards can regrow amputated tails, the replacement structures are imperfect cartilage tubes lacking the dorsoventral patterning of the original tails. A research team led by the <a href="https://homeadmin.usc.edu/www/">University of Southern California</a> (USC) has recently managed to significantly improve the regeneration of lizard tails through stem-cell therapy.



To achieve this, the scientists have initially investigated how lizard tails form during adult regeneration in comparison to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryonic-sharks-will-struggle-to-survive-in-a-warmer-ocean/">embryonic</a> development. In both cases, neural stem cells (NSCs) play a crucial role. However, adult NSCs produce a molecular system blocking skeletal and nerve formation and encouraging cartilage growth, thus “ventralizing” both sides of the tail. Even if this ventralizing signal is absent, adult NSCs are still incapable of generating nerve tissue for the upper or dorsal side of the tail.



Embryonic NSCs, on the other hand, produce the ventralizing signal only in the cartilage region which becomes the lower or ventral side of the tail, allowing the dorsal side to develop skeletal and nerve tissue. Yet, even&nbsp;if embryonic NSCs are implanted into adult tail stumps, they still respond to the ventralizing signal and cannot develop into dorsal structures.



“Lizards have been around for more than 250 million years, and in all that time no lizard has ever regrown a tail with dorsoventral patterning, until now,” said study lead author Thomas Lozito, an assistant professor of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine at the <a href="https://keck.usc.edu/">Keck School of Medicine</a> at USC. “My lab has created the first regenerated lizard tails with patterned skeletons.”



Professor Lozito and his team used gene-editing tools to make embryonic NSCs unresponsive to the ventralizing signal and they implanted them into adult tail stumps. This process led to the regeneration of perfect tails with dorsoventral patterning.



“This study has provided us with essential practice on how to improve an organism’s regenerative potential,” explained Lozito. “Perfecting the imperfect regenerated lizard tail provides us with a blueprint for improving healing in wounds that don’t naturally regenerate, such as severed human limbs and spinal cords. In this way, we hope our lizard research will lead to medical breakthroughs for treating hard-to-heal injuries.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-26321-9">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lizards regenerate perfect tails through stem-cell therapy

Although lizards can regrow amputated tails, the replacement structures are...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-021-01626-x">Translational Psychiatry</a> has found that many domestic dogs exhibit behaviors similar to those of humans suffering from attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-exercises-improve-focus-in-children-with-adhd/">hyperactivity</a>, impulsivity, and inattention.



“Dogs share many similarities with humans, including physiological traits and the same environment. In addition, ADHD-like behavior naturally occurs in dogs. This makes dogs an interesting model for investigating ADHD in humans,” said study lead author&nbsp;Sini Sulkama, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a>.



Sulkama and colleagues conducted an extensive behavioral survey on data collected from over 11,000 dogs in order to identify environmental factors underlying canine ADHD-like behavior and possible links to other behavioral traits.&nbsp;



They found that hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention were most common in young male dogs, a correlation to age and gender that has been observed in humans too. Furthermore, dogs who spent more time alone at home daily were more prone to exhibit such symptoms.



“As social animals, dogs can get frustrated and stressed when they are alone, which can be released as hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. It may be that dogs who spend longer periods in solitude also get less exercise and attention from their owners,” explained Sulkama.



A surprising discovery was that ADHD symptoms were found more often in dogs who were not their owners’ first dogs. Although the causality of this phenomenon is unclear, Sulkama thinks that people may pick as their first dog a less active individual and chose more active and challenging dogs after gaining more experience.



The researchers also found differences between dog breeds, with pet or show dogs such as Poodles, Chihuahua, or Long-Haired Collies having a calmer disposition than breeds bred for work such as German Shepherds or Border Collies.



Moreover, the scientists confirmed previously observed links between ADHD and other behavioral problems such as obsessive-compulsive behavior (OCD), aggressiveness, or fearfulness. In dogs, OCD often occurs in conjunction with ADHD, in behaviors such as tail chasing, or continuous licking of surfaces or themselves.&nbsp;



“The findings suggest that the same brain regions and neurobiological pathways regulate activity, impulsivity and concentration in both humans and dogs. This strengthens the promise that dogs show as a model species in the study of ADHD. In other words, the results can both make it easier to identify and treat canine impulsivity and inattention as well as promote ADHD research,” concluded Sulkama.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs exhibit behaviors similar to human ADHD

A new study published in the journal Translational Psychiatry has...

Gobies are a family of relatively small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-have-better-color-perception-than-humans/">fish</a> that can change color as protective camouflage. A new study from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> has revealed a strange feature of the color changing ability of gobies. The research showed that gobies change their colors more effectively when they are alone rather than with a group.&nbsp;



It costs energy for gobies to change color, and the fish are more vulnerable to predators when they are alone as opposed to when they are in a group. Therefore, it is not surprising that an individual goby would be more likely to invest energy into changing color when threatened.&nbsp;



“Grouping behavior can reduce stress in fish, partly because they are in less danger of attack by predators. This 'safety in numbers' effect may allow them to change colour more slowly without added risk," said PhD candidate and lead researcher Stella Encel.



"Since stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline are central to the neurological mechanisms of color change in fish, it’s possible that stress levels also directly affect their ability to camouflage.”



This makes sense, considering that people are often comforted by the presence of others. Research shows that this is also the case for other animals as well, such as rats.



For the investigation, the researchers collected goby fish in Australia and took them to a laboratory to be studied. The fish were placed against black or white backgrounds, individually or in pairs, and their color changing response was recorded. A measure of color showed that the color change was finished after about three minutes, and the fish who were alone most closely resembled the color of their background. “Very few studies have examined the role of social context in influencing color change in camouflaging animals, and these have often been done without the benefit of modern colour analysis techniques," said Encel, "So, not only does our study build knowledge of goby behaviour; it could inform research on the thousands of other camouflaging animals.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gobies produce better camouflage when they are alone

Gobies are a family of relatively small fish that can...

Corals are the foundation of tropical reef systems worldwide, where they help form habitat suitable for countless other associated species. In the past 30 years, however, corals have suffered degradation due to pollution, overfishing and global warming. The Caribbean has lost 80-90 percent of its coral cover, a 2015 bleaching event killed nearly half of the remaining corals along the Great Barrier Reef, and the Indo-Pacific coral reefs are under threat.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Against this backdrop, two researchers from the <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/">Georgia Institute of Technology</a> set out to investigate whether newly established coral species grow better in the presence of other coral species, or whether competition between different species restricts growth rates. Cody Clements and Mark Hay traveled to Mo'orea, French Polynesia, in the tropical Pacific Ocean, where they planted coral gardens differing in coral species diversity to evaluate the relative importance of mutualistic versus competitive interactions between the corals as they grew.&nbsp;&nbsp;



This research has relevance in terms of understanding how to promote reef recovery during the early stages following large-scale coral loss, such as occurs more and more frequently due to the warming of the seas. “The frequency of these&nbsp;<a href="https://cos.gatech.edu/news/kim-cobb-testifies-house-committee-natural-resources">big bleaching and heating events</a>&nbsp;that are killing off corals has increased fairly dramatically over the last 20 to 30 years. There are hot spots here and there where coral reefs are still good, but they’re small and isolated in general,” said Hay, Regents Professor and Teasley Chair in the School of Biological Sciences.&nbsp;



The researchers conducted field experiments in which they established corals on raised, 40 cm x 40 cm platforms, or gardens, in shallow ocean waters. They manipulated coral diversity and density to see whether these factors affected coral survival and productivity.



The team used an ingenious system involving Coca-Cola bottles, suggested by Clements, a Teasley Postdoctoral Fellow in the&nbsp;<a href="https://biosciences.gatech.edu/">School of Biological Sciences</a>. The platform surfaces “have Coca-Cola bottlecaps embedded in the top of them,” explained Professor Hay. “We can then cut off the necks of Coke bottles, glue corals into the upside-down necks of these things, and then screw them in and out of these plots.&nbsp;This allows us to not only arrange what species we want where, but every couple of months we can unscrew and weigh them so we can get accurate growth rates.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Professor Hay noted that many previous, similar experiments involved bringing corals into a lab to “pit species against each other.” But he points out, “We do all of our experiments in the real world. We’re not as interested in whether it&nbsp;can&nbsp;happen, but whether it&nbsp;does&nbsp;happen.”



The researchers found that corals benefitted from increased biodiversity, but only up to a point. “Corals planted in gardens with an intermediate number of species – three to six species in most cases – performed better than gardens with low, or one, species, or high, as in nine, species," said Clements. "However, we still do not fully understand the processes that contributed to these observations.”



This finding implies that damaged coral reefs may be re-established more effectively if several different species of corals are grown in proximity to one another. However, it also implies that, if species are lost from a coral reef there may come a point where too few species co-exist and the positive effects of multi-species assemblages are lost.



“We’ve done the manipulations, and the corals should be competing with each other, but in fact they do better together than they do on their own,” said Professor Hay. “We are still investigating the mechanisms causing this surprising result, but our experiments consistently demonstrate that the positive interactions are overwhelming the negative interactions in the reef settings where we conduct these experiments. That means when you take species out of the system, you’re taking out some of those positive interactions, and if you take out critical ones, it may make a big difference.”



“Corals are the foundation species of these ecosystems – providing habitat and food for numerous other reef species,” said Clements. “Negative effects on corals often have cascading impacts on other species that call coral reefs home. If biodiversity is important for coral performance and resilience, then a ‘biodiversity meltdown’ could exacerbate the decline of reef ecosystems that we’re observing worldwide.”



Clements said their research demands more investigation into questions such as &nbsp; why corals perform better in mixed species communities than single-species communities, and why the biodiversity effect diminishes at the highest level of coral diversity. “We need a better mechanistic understanding of how diversity influences these processes to predict how biodiversity loss will impact corals, as well as how we may be able to harness biodiversity’s positive influence to protect corals,” said Clements.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Corals get a boost from other coral species in underwater gardens

Corals are the foundation of tropical reef systems worldwide, where...

A research team led by the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a> has just received a $10 million grant from the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> to continue their study of how methane emissions by cattle could be reduced. During the course of the investigations, which was initiated in 2019, the scientists found that replacing cattle’s usual grain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-the-mysterious-jellyfish-diet-revealed/">diet</a> with seaweed could decrease by 20 percent the amount of methane released in the atmosphere.



Methane is one of the most potent greenhouse gases, trapping 30 times more heat than carbon dioxide and thus contributing significantly to global warming. Cows are notorious for releasing large amounts of methane into the atmosphere (approximately 25 percent of the total methane emissions) by passing gas or burping.&nbsp;



“Despite the best efforts to try to find ways to reduce that carbon ‘hoofprint,’ there’s lots more that can be improved in terms of changing cow’s diets. We think that seaweed can be part of that solution,” said project lead Nichole Price, a senior research scientist and director of the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/services/seafood-solutions/">Center for Seafood Solutions</a> at Bigelow Laboratory.



The Bigelow Laboratory has spent the last two years developing tools to evaluate how changing the cattle’s diet to seaweed could potentially help reducing methane emissions. The scientists tested how a variety of nutrient-rich Maine seaweeds could help not only reduce cows’ methane emissions, but also improve their health and even the quality of the soil where they pasture.



“This is some of the most exciting research I’ve been a part of," Price said. "It has the potential to curb global methane emissions, and our approach can also directly support the region’s dairy and seaweed farmers."



According to Price, creating new seaweed products could bolster Maine’s seaweed aquaculture industry, help recycling crucial nutrients, remediate a variety of ocean conditions, and empower the dairy industry to improve the health of cattle and of the planet in general.



The scientists screened several types of seaweeds for important compounds that could make them good candidates for a feed additive.



"Different types of seaweeds have different impacts on the complex microbial environment inside a cow’s rumen," explained Sabrina Greenwood, an associate professor of Animal Nutrition at the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/">University of Vermont</a>.&nbsp;



"The approach taken by this project provides an incredible opportunity to really push ahead with identification and refinement of natural nutritional supplements that could be great for both the cow and the environment."



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Feeding cattle seaweed could reduce methane emissions

A research team led by the Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca/">University of Victoria</a>, the physical disturbances caused by sea otter populations while they forage the seafloor for food has a significant role in increasing the genetic diversity of the surrounding eelgrass.&nbsp;



While it is well-known that predators have important effects on a variety of ecosystems, previous research has largely focused on observed changes in community structures driven by trophic interactions between the predators and the organisms that they feed upon. The non-trophic consequences of predation, such as the ways in which indirect disturbances caused by predators can affect the evolution and genetic diversity of plant communities have not yet been comprehensively studied.



According to a research team led by Erin Foster, a doctoral student in Conservation Science at the University of Victoria, foraging sea otters are routinely digging for small crabs and clams in eelgrass meadows, a behavior through which they are indirectly promoting conditions which facilitate the reproduction of these plants, increasing thus the eelgrass community’s genetic diversity.



By comparing genetic analyses from meadows where sea otters had been absent for more than a century to meadows in which the otters have been reintroduced within the past ten years and meadows where they have been present for decades, the researchers discovered that eelgrass genetic diversity was 30 percent higher in places where otters have been present for two or three decades. According to Foster and her colleagues, the longer the sea otters were present in a region, the more genetically diverse that area’s eelgrass communities were.



“The findings of Foster&nbsp;et al.&nbsp;come at a prescient time,” said Joe Roman, a conservation biologist from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/">University of Vermont</a>. “The need to protect and monitor genetic diversity has often been overlooked in global communities such as the Convention on Biological Diversity. Research on the effects of disturbance and species interactions on genetic diversity could help inform the restoration efforts of trophic rewilding.”



By revealing less understood evolutionary processes through which predators promote genetic diversity and ecological resilience, this study sheds more light on the complex and diverse relationships established between highly different members of specific ecosystems.&nbsp;



This study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abf2343">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Digging sea otters promote eelgrass genetic diversity

According to a new study led by the University of...

Islands have long been seen as hotspots of evolution where newly arriving species adapt and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">diversify</a>, isolated from mainland competitors. Initially, rates of evolution on islands are high, while organisms radiate to fill the available niches. This pattern has been seen on countless islands around the world.



However, while island fauna is often unique and highly specialized due to its adaptation to specific conditions prevalent on islands, it is viewed as somewhat disadvantaged when attempting to recolonize mainland habitats.



“The traditional thinking is that plant and animal groups that evolve on islands can’t invade the mainland because the mainland has more species, and thus a more competitive biotic milieu due to higher rates of competition, predation, parasitism, etc.,” said Professor <a href="https://biology.wustl.edu/people/jonathan-losos">Jonathan B. Losos</a>, director of the Living Earth Collaborative at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a>. “So, the idea is that species on islands aren’t ‘tough’ enough to cut it on the mainland.”



Professor Losos and colleagues used a time-calibrated phylogeny and measurements of relevant ecological and morphological diversity in neotropical Anolis lizards (anoles) to test this theory. Anoles originated in South America, but then colonized several different Caribbean islands, where they underwent adaptive radiation. Thereafter, some species returned from these islands to the Central American mainland, where they continued to diversify.



Some 2.8 million years ago the Isthmus of Panama formed, thereby reconnecting the two mainland groups of anoles, those that had secondarily recolonized Central America, and those descended from the ancestral South American species. The authors used their data to find out&nbsp;what happened when mainland and island evolutionary radiations collided.



The island&nbsp;Anolis&nbsp;species and, to a lesser extent, the ancestral South American anoles, underwent more rapid rates of initial evolution, as empty ecological niches were filled. In contrast, the&nbsp;Anolis&nbsp;species that recolonized the Central American mainland from the islands diversified ecologically without developing significant morphological differences between species.



The findings demonstrate that contrary to popular belief, the recolonizing Central American&nbsp;Anolis&nbsp;species outcompeted the ancestral South American&nbsp;Anolis&nbsp;species. When the species from the mainland radiation (Central America) that came originally from island ancestors, met with the incumbent mainland radiation from South America, the ensuing interactions favored the island-derived species.



According to Professor Losos, the findings show that islands are hotspots of evolution, even for mainland recolonization, rather than being evolutionary dead ends.&nbsp;



“In recent years, many studies have documented contradictory examples of island species successfully invading the mainland,” said Professor Losos. “Our study goes further by showing that island species not only can invade, but diversify greatly.”



The study is published this week in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Islands are not evolutionary dead ends for animals

Islands have long been seen as hotspots of evolution where...

Professor Tom Braden’s neuroscience lab at the University of Sussex recently examined how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zebrafish-spinal-cord-injuries/">zebrafish</a> detect different colors. The results suggest that fish have better color perception than humans.&nbsp;



“Zebrafish, unlike humans, have four types of cone-photoreceptors, specialised neurons in the retina which respond to light," said Professor Braden. "These four types are often called red, green, blue and UV. The assumption is that each should do what it says on the tin - red should respond to red light, green to green light, and so on. However, we found that this isn’t the case.”



Using new in-vivo color detection methods, the researchers found that "red" cones also respond to brightness, while "green" cones respond to color information.&nbsp;



“In humans, some of these are distributed all over the eyes and brain in ways that are still far from understood. In contrast, zebrafish solve this basic problem themselves at the earliest possible site, in the synapse of the photoreceptors themselves," explained Professor Braden.



Zebrafish probably have a more evolutionarily conserved or “primitive” method of detecting colors, more similar to their ancestors than our own. Mammals hiding during the Mesozoic -age of the dinosaurs- were thought to be mainly nocturnal. During this nocturnal period, mammals largely lost their color vision.&nbsp;



Today, most mammals can see two colors but are red-green color blind. The primate group, which includes humans, evolved three color vision - possibly to identify ripe fruit in a forest environment. Regaining our color vision was more complicated than the original method though. This process was carried out in the brain as much as the eye.



“Our study essentially shows that vertebrates like zebrafish, and presumably most non mammalian vertebrates like other fish, birds, reptiles and amphibians, can actually solve this fundamental ‘colour puzzle’ right at the first synapse of vision," explained Professor Baden. "In comparison, humans are stuck with this overly complicated ‘knock-off’ strategy because of early mammalian ancestry!”



Interestingly, the research shows that insects have a color vision almost exactly the same as fish that evolved independently.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish have better color perception than humans

Professor Tom Braden’s neuroscience lab at the University of Sussex...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320721003931?via%3Dihub">Biological Conservation</a> has found that illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade threatens numerous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discovered-three-new-species-of-freshwater-goby-fish/">species</a>. It can significantly affect humans too, both through the potential of pathogen spillovers that can lead to pandemics and the social and economic impact that the implication of dangerous criminal networks in wildlife trade engenders.&nbsp;



Wildlife trade is on the rise in many areas of the world. An increasingly large number of wild animals are used for various purposes, including the provision of food, medicine, fashion, ornaments, or furniture. They play different social or economic roles for local communities and are either consumed locally or passed along complex multinational trade chains.&nbsp;



“When people think about wildlife trade, they may think about ivory smuggling or the commerce in wild pets. But wildlife trade is more present in our daily lives than people imagine. For example, the timber that was used to make the table where your family has dinner may be a product of the wildlife trade,” said&nbsp;study lead author Caroline Fukushima, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.luomus.fi/en">Finnish Museum of Natural History</a>.



Illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade significantly affects the ecosystem services on which many species, including humans, depend. It can be a major driver of extinction for a variety of animal species, it can facilitate outbreaks of zoonotic diseases, it can fuel corruption and the emergence and proliferation of criminal networks, and it could even affect climate regulation, pollination of crops, and other ecosystem services.



“Invasive alien species, zoonotic diseases, connection with corruption and crime networks, negative repercussions on the local and global economy, and promotion of social, economic, and environmental injustice, are some of the many negative consequences of wildlife trade that is not well managed and regulated,” explained study co-author Pedro Cardoso, another researcher at the Finnish Museum of Natural History.



Recently, an international group of conservation biologists, activists, and policy enforcers, have built on the manifesto "World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity," issued by the <a href="https://scientistswarning.forestry.oregonstate.edu/">Alliance of World Scientists</a>, in order to review the dangers of illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade and offer directions for mitigating its negative consequences.



Strategies to curb illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade should take into account the cultural roots and drivers of wildlife consumption, and provide accurate measurements of the scope, scale, and impact of wildlife trade on biodiversity. Most importantly, more cooperation between different individuals, organizations, and disciplines is urgently needed.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildlife trade poses many dangers to humans and animals

A new study published in the journal Biological Conservation has...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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