High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a thumbprint have stepped out of anonymity and into the scientific spotlight. Their world is a maze of wet cliffs, dripping bromeliads, and wind‑scoured ridges where moss carpets the rocks.



“They’re <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">small</a> and unassuming, but these frogs are powerful reminders of how much we still don’t know about the Andes,” said Germán Chávez of the Center for Ornithology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://corbidi.org/">CORBIDI</a>). 



Chávez and his colleagues trekked those ridges between 2021 and 2024, often in freezing rain, to reach calling sites above 9,000 feet.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountains-support-unique-frog-species">Mountains support unique frog species</h2>



The <a href="https://blog.pensoft.net/2025/06/27/hidden-gems-in-the-mist-three-new-frog-species-uncovered-in-northern-peru/cordillera-de-huancabamba-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cordillera de Huancabamba</a> forms a natural break in the Andes, splitting watersheds and isolating species. 



Ecologists classify the region as a <a href="https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/tropicalandes_techsummary.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspot</a>, one of only thirty‑five on Earth where extraordinary endemism collides with severe habitat loss.



"The Cordillera de Huancabamba is not just a remote range - it's a living archive of biodiversity and cultural legacy," said Wilmar Aznaran. "And we've barely scratched the surface."



Isolation breeds novelty, and novelty fills the genus Pristimantis. With 619 described species, Pristimantis is now the most diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whistling-forest-frogs-recently-discovered-may-be-wiped-out-before-we-learn-about-them/">amphibian</a> genus on the planet.



The new frogs, Pristimantis chinguelas, P. nunezcortezi, and P. yonke, occupy different niches along the same ridge. One clings to cliff faces, one prowls leaf litter beside clear streams, and the smallest tucks itself deep inside tank bromeliads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-new-species">Confirming the new species</h2>



Night surveys began after dusk, when temperatures hovered near 50 °F and fog erased headlamp beams. Team members listened for faint “peep” notes that barely rose above dripping leaves. 



Finding a caller did not end the chase. Each frog had to be photographed, swabbed for DNA, measured, and released without harming delicate skin.



Back in Lima, the researchers compared mitochondrial 16S sequences. Genetic distances exceeded the three‑percent threshold herpetologists often use to flag separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">species</a>, clinching the case for formal description.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-amphibians-are-poorly-studied">Many amphibians are poorly studied </h2>



All three newcomers enter the IUCN books as <a href="https://www.thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-bulletin/issue-number-169-autumn-2024/4079-03-how-many-data-deficient-amphibians-are-threatened-iucn-red-list-assessments-for-amphibian-species-previously-classed-as-data-deficient" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Data Deficient</a>, meaning scientists lack enough information to judge extinction risk. 



The label sounds neutral, yet recent reassessments show that roughly half of amphibians that start as Data Deficient later prove threatened.



Formal names unlock funding and legal tools that nameless creatures rarely receive. Conservation plans, environmental‑impact statements, and protected‑area budgets almost always hinge on a taxon’s standing in recognized databases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-climate-shifts">Indicators of climate shifts</h2>



The Cordillera de Huancabamba isn't just a biological goldmine, it’s wrapped in layers of folklore. In nearby villages, frogs are often seen as signs of rain or omens tied to agriculture and spiritual beliefs.



This cultural lens makes local communities key allies for conservation. When researchers name <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/">species</a> after regional icons or traditions, like P. yonke, they honor local identity and encourage stewardship.



Unlike most frogs, species in the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/64811-Pristimantis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pristimantis genus</a> bypass the tadpole stage entirely. They hatch from eggs as fully formed froglets, ready to climb, hop, and call without ever entering water.



This reproductive shortcut allows them to thrive in places where standing water is rare or seasonal. It also makes them sensitive indicators of climate shifts and microhabitat changes in mountain ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frog-species-in-fire-prone-habitats">Frog species in fire-prone habitats</h2>



Each frog occupies an area smaller than four square miles, hemmed in by crop fields and fire scars. Peru recorded about 10,400 wildfires in 2024, more than double its previous record, burning grasslands and cloud‑forest edges alike.



P. chinguelas calls from a road‑cut cliff where charred bamboo still smells of smoke. P. nunezcortezi shares a single stream corridor that now borders new potato plots.



P. yonke lives higher, inside bromeliads at roughly 9,800 feet, in what locals call the <a href="https://lacgeo.com/northern-andean-paramo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">páramo</a>, a chilly grassland‑wetland mosaic perched above the treeline. 



Páramo vegetation stores water like a sponge, so every lost bromeliad weakens both the frogs and the human communities farther down‑slope.



“Exploring this area is more than fieldwork - it’s an immersion into wilderness, culture, and resilience,” said Karen Victoriano‑Cigüeñas.&nbsp;



"Many of these mountain&nbsp;ridges&nbsp;are isolated, with no roads and extreme terrain," noted Ivan Wong. "The weather shifts within minutes, and the steep cliffs make every step a challenge. It's no wonder so few scientists have worked here before. But that's exactly why there's still so much to find."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-new-frog-species">Protecting the new frog species </h2>



No one has recorded the breeding calls of P. nunezcortezi or P. yonke, so females remain unverified. Diet, predators, and lifespan also remain mysteries for all three species.



Future expeditions will test whether the frogs persist on neighboring ridges or whether each ridge hosts its own micro‑endemic. 



Acoustic monitors and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.2353" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eDNA traps</a> could reveal silent populations hiding in moss tunnels or bromeliad tanks beyond the reach of hikers.



For now, the frogs depend on local goodwill. Community fire patrols, low‑impact grazing, and small protected micro‑reserves can buy time while researchers gather the missing data.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://evolsyst.pensoft.net/article/148522/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Systematics</a>.



Image Credit: Germán Chávez et. al



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Three new frog species found in Peru face an uncertain future

High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a thumbprint have stepped out of anonymity and into the scientific spotlight. Their world is a maze of wet cliffs, dripping bromeliads, and wind‑scoured ridges where moss carpets the rocks. “They’re small and unassuming, but these frogs are powerful reminders of how much we still don’t know about the Andes,” said Germán Chávez of the Center for Ornithology and Biodiversity (CORBIDI). Chávez and his colleagues trekked those ridges between 2021 and 2024, often in freezing rain, to reach...

To most, rabbits are just rabbits. To those who think for a moment, there are obviously wild rabbits and the domesticated variety found in pet and farming supply stores. In reality, rabbits and hares collectively make up family Leporidae which contains roughly 62 species.

<a href="https://www.wideopenspaces.com/hop-getting-know-rabbits-hares-north-america/">Wide Open Spaces</a> reports that there are 15 species of rabbits and hares in North America alone. There are jackrabbits and cottontails, of course. There is also the snowshoe hare that changes its coat to suit the season. Then, there is the smallest rabbit in North America, the pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis). 

Pygmy rabbits as a species can be found throughout sagebrush habitats (sagebrush makes up most of their diet) in the Great Basin, found in parts of California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. 

Washington’s pygmy rabbits are separated geographically from the rest of the species, and so are special in their own right. Fossil evidence suggests that the Washington pygmy rabbits have been separate from the other pygmies for thousands of years but were once much more widespread across the state, according to the <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00275">Washington Department of Fish and Game</a>. 

Because of their unique geography, the pygmy rabbits of Washington state are referred to as Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits. Recent research shows that the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit have been genetically isolated from other pygmy rabbits for at least 10,000 years, but their isolation made them vulnerable as well as unique. 

By 1990, Washington State listed their pygmy rabbits as threatened, and then in 1993 they were reclassified as endangered. The <a href="https://www.fws.gov/wafwo/articles.cfm?id=149489590">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> reports that by 2001 the entire pygmy rabbit population of Washington State was thought to consist of a single rabbit colony of less than 50 individuals. By 2004, the Washington pygmy rabbits were extinct in the wild. Fortunately, the rabbits still remained alive as a species in captivity, awaiting a comeback. 

<a href="https://blog.nature.org/science/magazine/pygmy-bunnies-rabbits-brink-washington-endangered-species-mammals-sage-restoration/">Nature Conservancy Magazine</a> reports that in 2001, all of the pygmy rabbits that could be found in Washington were captured, a mere 16 individual rabbits. Unfortunately, initial captive breeding didn’t go well for the little rabbits, so after long consideration, closely related rabbits were introduced into the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit gene pool. Idaho pygmy rabbits were included in the breeding program, while biologists still carefully maintained 75% of genetics from the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits. 

The new rabbits increased birth rates and the program was successful enough that 20 rabbits were released on land owned by Washington state in 2007. All 20 of the initially reintroduced rabbits were killed by predators. Since that time, the breeding has been converted to a semi-wild breeding program with rabbits kept outside in a predator fenced enclosure, supplied with water and sometimes rabbit food (allowing them to also eat natural vegetation). Between 2011 and 2016, almost 1,800 rabbits have been released into the wild. 

The future for the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits is far from certain though. <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/51.10/endangered-species-after-nearly-going-extinct-washingtons-pygmy-rabbits-need-room-to-grow">High Country News</a> reports that in 2016, reproduction dropped in the captive rabbits by 75% and disease increased. These downfalls have lead to the methods of captive rabbit breeding being tweaked and rabbit numbers have continued to climb but this in itself leads to a conundrum.         

Unfortunately for the rabbits being bred in captivity, there isn’t a lot of home left for them to come back to. Washington’s shrub-steppe a mix of sagebrush and grasslands is a shattered fragment of what it once was. Agriculture, overgrazing, development and invasive species have destroyed more than half of the shrub-steppe Washington once had. The <a href="https://www.sagegrouseinitiative.com/sagebrush-community/the-habitat/">Sage Grouse Initiative</a> reports that nationwide, only 56% of sagebrush habitat remains in the US. A scientific <a href="http://www.okanogan1.com/ecology/steppeweb/Shrub-steppe-status%20report-KRCG-2013.pdf">paper</a> revised in 2013 found that, of the original 24,437 square miles of sage-steppe habitat in Washington state, only 46.3% remains, 98% of it being destroyed by cropland agriculture. 

There are other major threats to the fragile rabbits as well. <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/51.10/endangered-species-after-nearly-going-extinct-washingtons-pygmy-rabbits-need-room-to-grow">High Country News</a> reports that in 2017, a 30,000 acre fire in Washington wiped out most of the rabbits in the area. With such small populations, freak occurrences like fires can hurt the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits more than it otherwise would. The frequency and intensity of fires in the area are also driven partially by large amounts of flammable invasive cheatgrass, changing the natural fire dynamics of Washington’s sage-steppe. Hotter, drier summers also increases the likelihood of fires.

Unfortunately, the reintroduction sites of the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits are separated from each other by a tangle of houses, roads and fields, preventing the individual reintroduced populations from connecting. The <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/">Nature Conservancy</a> and <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">US Department of Agriculture</a> pay farmers to take land out of production to be used by wildlife, a measure that may help the rabbits. Despite the hardships the rabbits continue to face, their population grow slowly and precariously. 

Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits are important for the land they live in. The rabbits create burrows which in turn help the soil maintain its health. Ideally, an abundance of rabbits would also supply food for an abundance of wildlife like coyotes and raptors. Burrowing owls may use old rabbit burrows as their own homes. In a completely intact sage-steppe ecosystem, the pygmy rabbits would be joined by animals such as wolves and bison, playing a small role in an ancient drama, completing the picture of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-world-american-serengeti/">American Serengeti</a>. 

For many though, this is part of a fanciful dream, not the reality of future ‘progress’ of agriculture and real estate development. This dichotomy of ideas is a schism between minds. There is little reason the rabbits will make a person’s life better in any tangible way. Instead, the reason to protect pygmy rabbits or any species is a reason of morality and passion based on experience. To watch an animal in the wild closely is to glimpse a whole world of experiences, reflexes, even thoughts un-knowable by the human mind. Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits are part of the great unknown mystery of the world we call wild and that in itself is enough reason to protect them.         

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer    

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Randy Bjorklund

Washington’s pygmy rabbits face challenges in their continued recovery

To most, rabbits are just rabbits. To those who think...

An <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-islands-invasive-species/">invasive parasite</a> on the Galápagos Islands has found a host in the famed finches that once captivated Charles Darwin, and as a result, the finches’ beaks are changing shape. 

An international team of bird ecology experts from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> in South Australia and the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> discovered that male finch mating calls are getting lower because of the damage to their beaks caused by the parasite Philornis downsi. 

These calls are less appealing to female finches and finches are having a harder time mating and, more specifically, mating with birds of their species. 

“In our newest research, we show that Darwin’s finch males whose nares have been deformed by the parasite had greater vocal deviation - which females didn’t like during mate choice - and had songs with lower maximum frequency,” said Sonia Kleindorfer, a lead author of the study. 

The Philornis downsi larvae burrow into and feast on the beaks of the finches which can cause permanent structural damage and make the nostrils of the finch bigger, the researchers say. 

Medium tree finches are critically endangered, but the infestation has altered the finches’ mating calls in such a way that the researchers found that their calls were indistinguishable from other finch songs. 

“Given that small tree finch and medium tree finch are hybridised on Floreana Island, we suspect that this blurred species-signalling function of song may be partly to blame for the observed reverse speciation that is currently occurring,” said Katharina Peters, a co-author of the study. 

The researchers detailed these findings in a study published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. The results show how harmful an invasive parasite can be in a protected ecosystem and biodiversity hotspot like the Galápagos Islands.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Dr Katharina Peters, Flinders University

An invasive parasite is lowering Galapagos finch mating calls

An invasive parasite on the Galápagos Islands has found a...

Less flashy and well known than their counterparts in the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/index.htm">National Park Service</a>, <a href="https://www.fws.gov/refuges/">National Wildlife Refuges</a> play an important role in conservation. 

Parks are designed for human visitors. Roads are built to allow tourists to access camp spots, hiking trails and areas where they may see wildlife or other natural wonders. National Wildlife Refuges, managed by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a>, have many of the same features as well as accommodations for hunters and fishers. But a key difference is that some wildlife refuges also contain large amounts of land that are inaccessible to the public, land meant to be used by wildlife and wildlife managers alone.

<a href="https://www.fws.gov/refuge/Aransas/">Aransas National Wildlife Refuge</a> on the gulf coast of Texas is a perfect example of the theory behind wildlife refuges. Many National Parks have technically no prohibition against going off trail in many areas and most of the land is accessible unless specifically set aside to protect wildlife. Refuges are in a way the opposite – little bits of them are accessible to the general public, the rest being set aside for the wildlife that the refuge was created for. Parks are for people, refuges are for wildlife. 

The longest trail in Aransas is only 1.3 miles long and is also rather flat except for raised observation decks allowing a view over the surrounding flat marshlands. All together there are only 6 of what could be called trails at Aransas National Wildlife Refuge and a 16 mile auto loop road but they give a small glimpse into a beautiful landscape. There is also an ocean fishing pier and a pier into Jones Lake, where ‘Georgie’ the alligator lives and a separate alligator viewing area. 

Jones lake is a large expanse of calm, brown water decorated by the living jewels of darting mosquito fish and adorned with floating Lily pads. Many other fresh water pools at Aransas are just glimpses of water ways lined with cattails and sedges, veiled by thick plant life. Bullfrogs croak loudly from these half-disclosed sloughs, birds sing or titter from deep within. 

Occasionally, the crash of a large animal will bring a visitor’s senses to full alert. I was startled this way on my last visit to Jones Lake. I was walking along the wooden planks of the pier when a splashing, crashing noise of a large animal moving quickly through marsh hit my ears. My mind immediately screamed ‘alligator’ but instead I had startled a deer. Wildlife in Aransas seems to jump from every side as a clumsy human visitor passes by. 

Mustang Lake, another even larger lake, sits near the coast, separated by only a thin slice of land from open ocean. The lake stretches out along a coastal marsh beneath viewing platforms accessible by ramp, where the whole of the land stretches out below like a map. Aransas is part of a patchwork of different habitats, oak savannah, coastal prairie, fresh and brackish wetlands all combining to provide sustenance to an array of biodiversity.    

Frogs leap quickly for water, herons and egrets struggle on large wings into the sky, deer stand on all the roads ready to run. The wildlife viewing at Aransas is spectacular. Wild turkeys strut with their tails fanned in the early morning light, bobcats and javelina are said to be regular if shy visitors. Bicycling the road I came upon a coral snake with the bright markings of a deadly bite painted on its delicate body. The summer months are a time of absence for the most famous residents of Aransas though.

In the cooler months, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/whooping-cranes-marry-sweethearts/">whooping cranes</a> make Aransas National Wildlife Refuge their wintering grounds. Aransas is host to the last wild migratory population of the cranes. The last released official survey for the winter of 2017-18 found 505 whooping cranes in the Aransas area, marking the sixth year in a row that the crane population has grown. Winter is also when most of the tourists come to Aransas to see the endangered crane rather than the alligators that mate and lay eggs in the summer months. Aransas itself was established to protect migratory birds, although it was a happy accident that the refuge turned out to be a strong hold for the whooping crane. In total, 400 species of birds including the whooping crane make use of Aransas. 

Before being made into a refuge, Aransas had a colorful history. Somewhere along the coast of Aransas, there is said to be buried pirate treasure and occasionally mammoth bones are unearthed or washed up by the gulf tides. Crushed sea shells show perfect evidence of a moveable sea level.   

Several units make up Aransas National Wildlife Refuge besides the main unit with its short trails and road. The <a href="https://tpwd.texas.gov/fishboat/boat/paddlingtrails/coastal/port_oconnor/">Matagorda Island</a> is a small barrier island that is home to coyotes, alligators, cranes, Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtles and more wildlife. The island has access only by water, with a 25 mile long paddling trail through a marsh being its only tenuous connection to the mainland. 

Matagorda is also one of the few places accessible for camping to the general public, a round trip to the island and back under human power being extremely tedious for a single day. Matagorda and a spider web of other paddling trails near it are managed by <a href="https://tpwd.texas.gov/">Texas Parks &amp; Wildlife</a> despite being part of the National Wildlife Refuge. 

Other units of the refuge are completely inaccessible to the public. Developed areas of parks are often seen as ‘sacrificial zones’. The Grand Canyon village is a good example. The place is a glut of bus clogged roads and camera wielding tourists set to a backdrop of grocery stores, a post office, restaurants and hotels. The inner canyon is the real jewel of Grand Canyon National Park, a place for boaters and backpackers alone. Aransas is like that in a way, yet the secret heart of the place isn’t for humans at all. The jewel of Aransas is saved for alligators, cranes, fish, frogs and the buzz of a million insects.     

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/William Cushman

National wildlife refuges offer land just for wildlife, away from the public

Less flashy and well known than their counterparts in the...

For the first time, researchers have sequenced the genome of the Siberian-hamster, revealing the underlying mechanisms that drive the seasonal breeders to wind down for winter and fatten up during the spring. 

Seasonal breeders like the Siberian hamster can survive cold and harsh winters where food is low by conserving energy, growing a coat of thick hair, lowering their body temperature, and going through a dramatic weight loss during the fall. 

As the days get shorter, the hamster becomes infertile and loses half its body weight by limiting food intake. When the days get longer, the hamster quickly fattens up and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hormones-teenage-behavior/">starts breeding. </a>

These cyclical changes make the Siberian hamster a model organism for studying biological processes dictated by seasonal changes. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a> found that daylight length alone was enough to prompt the hamster to limit food intake or get ready for breeding. 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

“We hope this will be a tool for discovery and more research on a really interesting biological puzzle, which is how organisms navigate the energetic landscape of nature over the course of a year,” said Brian Prendergast, a co-author of the research. 

The study was the result of collaborative back and forth between Prendergast, and co-authors Riyue Bao and Tyler Stevenson to examine gene expression, hormone activity, and the hypothalamus in the brain.

The researchers were looking for differences in gene expression during winter and summer. 

“Our collaboration is quite dynamic, like a two-way street,” said Bao. “I would pass the data to him [Stevenson] and ask if a certain pathway made sense. Then he might recognize a certain RNA molecule or candidate gene and ask for more information.”

The researchers were able to narrow their focus to a gene called pomc. 

 “It was the steps that control pomc expression that had been the mystery,” said Stevenson. “The studies we designed served to fill the gaps, and it was simply a matter of connecting the dots.”

It starts with a hormone in the thyroid called T4. As the days get longer, hamsters produce an enzyme that removes the iodine molecule from T4 to turn it into a hormone called T3. T3 controls gene expression of pomc. 

T3 production is what makes the hamsters fertile, and the increased pomc activity causes weight gain. In the fall, T3 production slows, fertility drops, and the hamster loses weight when the pomc gene is switched off. 

“All animals show a level of seasonal biology, humans included. What our findings show, in hamsters, is that thyroid hormones acting in the brain where pomc is expressed provides the long-term regulation of energy balance,” Stevenson said. “What is completely fascinating is that this process evolved in some animals, like hamsters and voles, and not in others, like sheep or humans.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Tyler Stevenson

Hamsters lose weight and become infertile when the days get shorter

For the first time, researchers have sequenced the genome of...

According to a new study published by the <a href="http://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a>, some songbird species benefit from the spread of facilities and equipment used for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/protect-chaco-canyon-fracking-drilling/">fracking</a>, while other species are adversely affected. 

As the shale gas industry continues to expand, researchers have been documenting the negative consequences that fracking infrastructure may have on native wildlife communities. The current study, however,  is one of the first to analyze the variability among species in their responses to fracking.

The research was focused on the relationship between 27 bird species and their distance from shale gas construction in northern West Virginia from 2008 to 2017. 

The birds were organized into three groups based on their habitats. Forest interior birds, such as the Ovenbird, are found in large areas of mature forests, while early successional birds prefer young forest and shrubland habitats. Human-adapted birds, like the Brown-headed Cowbird, tend to thrive in environments that have been altered by human activities. 

Landscape changes associated with gas infrastructure were tracked over a ten-year period, during which time the footprint of shale gas increased from 42 acres in 2008 to over 432 acres in 2017. Meanwhile, birds were monitored at 142 survey stations. 

The study revealed that forest interior birds decreased by up to 35 percent near gas development, as they avoided both drilling sites and road and pipeline corridors. By contrast, early successional species experienced a boost in population sizes and began to settle along new pipelines and access roads. The Brown-headed Cowbird also showed an increase in numbers across the study site, and was particularly drawn to areas disturbed by fracking.

The study findings suggest that shale gas energy development creates new habitats for generalist and highly adaptive species, yet shrinks the available habitat for birds that depend on mature forests. 

"We hope to find a way to balance our energy needs with maintaining healthy forest ecosystems, which we also depend on for clean air, clean water, carbon storage, and countless other ecological services," said study author Dr. Laura S. Farwell. 

"Like the proverbial canary in the coal mine, these birds are early indicators of ecosystem degradation. We hope our research will help inform planning decisions about where to avoid or minimize gas development in order to protect valuable forest resources, both for humans and for other species."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/condor">The Condor: Ornithological Applications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Paul Reeves Photography

Fracking infrastructure is helpful to some songbirds, but harmful to others

According to a new study published by the Oxford University...

When researcher Lainy Day from the <a href="https://olemiss.edu/">University of Mississippi</a> first tested the ability of amphibians and lizards to store a mental map in their brains roughly 20 years ago, it appeared that none were capable of forming complex spatial memories. 

At the time, Sabrina Burmeister of the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/">University of North Carolina</a> thought that Day should’ve tested the memories of poison dart frogs, as these <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-risk-extinction/">amphibians</a> can recall the locations of pools of water in the forest canopies where they hatch their tadpoles. 

Now, Burmeister and graduate student Yuxiang Liu have published a study in the <a href="https://jeb.biologists.org/">Journal of Experimental Biology</a> that details their findings in determining whether poison dart frogs (Dendrobates auratus) have spatial awareness. 

The standard for testing spatial awareness of rodents is the use of a Morris water maze, which is a platform submerged in a pool of water and surrounded by objects the animal can use to orient themselves in order to find the platform. 

“We knew that the frogs hate to swim – they are terrestrial after all,” says Burmeister. 

Liu placed a platform 2 cm beneath the water’s surface so that the frogs would be able to sit on the platform while still submerged, then immersed a second platform 0.8 cm below the surface on top in the southeast quadrant. Frogs that were able to locate the smaller platform were rewarded by Liu making the water slightly warmer.

Objects were placed around the walls of the pond to attract the frogs’ attention, including a red flashing light, an artificial yellow flower, a gently spinning blue fan, and green artificial leaves. Each object was located at one of the four points of the compass in order to orient the frogs. 

Over two weeks, Liu repeatedly released the frogs at random locations on the large platform so that they could explore until they were able to reliably locate the shallow platform. Burmeister notes that the amphibians were quick to learn. The researchers then switched the locations of the landmarks, rotating their positions by 180 degrees, and removed the shallow platform. 

When the frogs were released, they now headed for the northwest quadrant, directly opposite of the southeast quadrant where the platform had been previously. This result seems to show that the frogs were using the landmarks to determine where the platform should be.

The researchers concluded that these frogs were using a mental map of the platform’s location relative to the landmarks around the pool. It appears that not all frogs lack the ability to develop a cognitive map, and that mental maps can develop even in the brains of amphibians.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Dirk Ercken

Poison dart frogs are able to develop a mental map

When researcher Lainy Day from the University of Mississippi first...

The colorful tropical birds that are instantly recognizable due to their bright bills and plumage may not have always lived in their lush jungle habitats. 

A new study shows that many tropical birds likely migrated from temperate zones millions of years ago. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">Oxford University</a> found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-climate-changed/">millions of years of climate change</a> could have driven birds from their northern habitats to tropical areas.  

This redistribution of many major bird groups was only possible due to the slow pace of past climate change, which allowed birds enough time to adapt to new environments. 

The researchers worry that current climate change may be moving at too fast a rate to allow for existing species to adapt. 

In a new study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the researchers used climate and ecological modeling to show how past climate shifts impacted ten bird groups found only in the tropics today. 

“Palaeontologists have documented long-term links between climate and the geographic distributions of major bird groups, but the computer models needed to quantify this link had not been applied to this question until now,” said Dr. Daniel Field, the co-lead author of the paper.

[caption id="attachment_1873773" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Knysna-Turaco.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1873773" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Knysna-Turaco.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="975" /></a> Knysna Turaco, Image Credit: Daniel J. Field[/caption]

The researchers focused on bird groups in Africa, South America, and Australasia, areas that were once part of the supercontinent Gondwana.

Data on temperature, rainfall, and current habitat range were used to create an “ecological niche model,” which helped map suitable habitats for each bird group.

The ecological niche model was then used to find optimal habitats for the bird groups at different points in the Earth’s history. 

 Despite being limited to these areas, researchers have discovered ancient fossils belonging to early relatives of the different bird groups on northern continents. 

“We modelled the habitable area for each group of birds and found that their estimated habitable ranges in the past were very different from their geographic distributions today, in all cases shifting towards the equator over geological time,” said Dr. Erin Saupe,  the co-lead author of the study. 

One group of birds called turacos live in sub-Saharan Africa today, but fossils of a close turaco relative have been found in Wyoming. 

“Many of these groups don’t contain a large number of living species, but each lineage represents millions of years of unique evolutionary history,” said Saupe. “In the past, climate change happened slowly enough that groups were able to track suitable habitats as these moved around the globe, but now that climate change is occurring at a much faster rate, it could lead to entire branches of the tree of life going extinct in the near future.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Main Image Credit: Daniel J. Field

Past climate change drove many birds to tropical regions

The colorful tropical birds that are instantly recognizable due to...

Trichoplax is one of the simplest marine organisms in the world. It lacks a mouth, organs, and is made up of only six cells. But despite being so incredibly simple, scientists from the <a href="https://www.mpi-bremen.de/en/Home.html">Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology</a>, the <a href="https://www.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawaii</a>, and <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> have found that Trichoplax actually lives in a complex symbiosis with a very unusual form of bacteria. 

Since the first discovery of bacteria in Trichoplax about 50 years ago, no one has really looked into the relationship between the organism and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-ethiopian-hot-springs-mars/">bacteria</a> in depth. But now, the team of international researchers have assembled the bacteria’s genome and used high-resolution microscopy to see exactly where the bacteria are located.

"Despite being so simple, Trichoplax harbors two very different and highly unusual bacterial symbionts in its cells," said Harold Gruber-Vodicka from the Max Planck Institute. "Both symbionts are very picky — or cell-specific, as we call it. Each symbiont lives in only one type of host cell."

The team identified one symbiont, called Grellia, which lives within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of Trichoplax. It is the first symbiont known to permanently reside within the organism's ER, which helps with the production of protein and membrane.

"We reconstructed a detailed three-dimensional model of the ER to show that Grellia lives inside of it, supported by the electron microscopy facility of the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics in Dresden," the Institute’s Niko Leisch explained. "Other parasitic bacteria imitate the structure of the ER to trick the hosts into thinking they are not harmful. However, our imaging data clearly showed that Grellia lives inside its host's ER." 

Grellia, though closely related to parasites, does not harm the Trichoplax, Leisch said. "Although it has genes that would allow it to steal energy from its host, it does not use them.”

The second symbiant to be identified is Ruthmannia, which belongs to a group of bacteria called the Margulisbacteria. It lives within the cells of the Trichoplax and helps the organism digest its algal food.

"Before our study, Margulisbacteria were part of the so-called microbial dark matter — the vast majority of microbial organisms that biologists find through sequencing, but are unable to culture," said Harald Gruber-Vodicka. "We have never actually seen them, even though their genetic traces were found in aquatic samples all over the globe." 

Gruber-Vodicka and Leisch were able to take the first images of a Margulisbacteria. 

“Ruthmannia appears to only eat the fats and other lipids of the algae, and leaves the rest to its host,” Gruber-Vodicka continued. “In return, we think Ruthmannia may provide Trichoplaxwith vitamins and amino acids." 

"In this study, we focused on the symbiotic partners of a single Trichoplax species," said Nicole Dubilier, Director at the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology. "However, at least 20 more species have been described, and our first results indicate that each host species has its own, very specific set of symbionts. We are excited about taking a closer look at this remarkable diversity and how it evolved. These tiny animals not only look like potato chips, they also pack a crunch when it comes to what's inside them."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Michael Hadfield / University of Hawaii

One of the simplest organisms lives in complex symbiosis with bacteria

Trichoplax is one of the simplest marine organisms in the...

Andean bears, also known as spectacled bears, are almost mythical animals among South American wildlife enthusiasts. For starters - they’re South America’s only bear, and you’re incredibly lucky if you see one.

According to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22066/123792952">IUCN Red List</a>, there is estimated to be between 2,500 and 10,000 of Andean bears left in the wild and the population is decreasing. The <a href="http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/wildlife/profiles/mammals/spectacled_bear/specbear_population_distribution/">World Wildlife Fund</a> reports that in 1999, there were approximately 4 to 5,000 individual bears in Columbia, representing 25% of the original population. 

Data is sparse on the whole wild population of Andean bears, though. The bears themselves live in rugged climates of cloud forests that are thick with vegetation, cold at night, rainy and hard to penetrate. I once heard a story from a biologist who saw an Andean bear in Ecuador where he was working. The biologist was so excited that he followed the bear, scaling down a cliff overlooking a stream. The biologist realized he couldn’t scramble back up the cliff and had only one choice – leap into the stream and hope it was deep enough for him to survive. 

You can spend years in the subalpine habitats of the Andes and never see a bear. This is partially because the bears are shy and secretive, but also because Andean Bears have been exploited and hunted by humans, making them more rare than ever in their homes. The bears are agile climbers, though. Like juvenile black bears, adult Andean bears will climb trees, one of the attributes that can make them hard to find. Andean bears are also largely nocturnal, most active in times when people are not. When people do find the bears, it doesn’t always turn out well. 

Sometimes, Andean bears are captured to be made into <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scotland-bans-animals-circuses/">circus performers</a>. To keep humans safe, the bear’s teeth are sometimes broken out, their claws ripped off to make them ‘harmless’. Cholita, a famous Andean bear, also lost all of her fur from trauma before being rescued in Peru and taken to a shelter in the US, according to <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/03/27/395810942/after-abuse-in-a-peruvian-circus-a-bear-awaits-a-new-home">NPR</a>. It’s unclear how much harm collecting bears for the circus does for the species, but poaching has certainly been detrimental. In Peru, the government banned hunting of the Andean bear in 1970, and international law is supposed to stop any trade in the animal or its body parts. 

Despite this, bears are still killed and sold for bizarre reasons.  <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/05/andean-paddington-bears-poached-in-peru/">National Geographic</a> reports that Peru is one of the places selling weird elixirs with questionable properties. Shamans make these elixirs as folk remedies, using local plant ingredients as well as wildlife parts and pieces. The Andean bear’s penis bone is the main ingredient in one of these elixirs that supposedly cures sexual impotency. These elixirs are popular in Peru despite lack of scientific evidence that they do anything and their illegal nature. Other folk remedies offer you the strength of the Andean bear or claim to heal a number of other maladies. Unfortunately, the trend of dealing in Andean bear parts for hokey ‘medicine’ follows a trend that has devastated other wild animals in other places. 

According to National Geographic, traditional Chinese medicine that often uses animal parts for ‘remedies’ is now estimated to have an industry value of $60 billion annually and has spread to 180 countries world wide. Tigers, rhinos, pangolins and other endangered species have all been targeted for traditional Chinese medicine and have suffered for it. The Andean bear seems to be suffering the same fate for superstitious medicine within its own home range. 

To see what the future could hold in store for the beleaguered bear, one need just look to other cases of trafficked animals. Over a million pangolin were poached between 2000 and 2013. Rhinos and tigers have taken serious hits as well from poaching. Beyond the traditional approach to protecting these animals through law, there has also been progress in discouraging animal part use within the traditional Chinese medicine community. There is still a long way to go, but perhaps something can be learned from these conservation efforts to help with those of the Andean bear as well. 

One method that has been used unsuccessfully to slow the harm from traditional Chinese medicine is to farm bears and tigers. The problem with this approach is that the farms often capture animals from the wild and are not sustainable. Other wild animals such as crocodiles have been farmed successfully to increase wild populations. Part of the problem in allowing some traffic in animals is that it reduces them to simply an economic value and allows a continued incentive for killing the animal. So far, it’s unclear what will protect the Andean bear. 

<a href="https://www.wcs.org/our-work/species/andean-bear">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> works on Andean bear conservation in Columbia by partnering with the parks service there. Their work has focused on monitoring the decline in bear population and training rangers. On the other hand, <a href="https://wildnet.org/wildlife-programs/spectacled-bear/">Wildlife Conservation Network</a> promotes the work of Spectacled Bear Conservation (SBC) in building community pride for wildlife and habitats; the goal being to promote non-destructive human behavior towards Andean bears and other wild animals. The organization also studies the biology of the bear to best understand how to protect the bear by observing the bears behaviors and needs. 

Unfortunately, the trade in wildlife is a nasty business fueled by financial inequity. When poor people living in the forest find ways to make money quickly, they often jump at the chance, without considering the consequences. I’ve seen this tragedy play out in west Africa as well, where you can buy roasted monkey or even live apes. Monitor lizards are piled live into mesh bags and sit for hours or days in cramped conditions. These markets continue often due to a lack of care by the police or perhaps even corruption. Police walk by people openly selling illegal animal parts in these types of markets without a second glance. Unfortunately, animals like the Andean bear often suffer from human ignorance and greed.                             

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH

Andean bears are threatened by superstitious trade of their body parts

Andean bears, also known as spectacled bears, are almost mythical...

Escaped parrots are making their homes in California, Texas and Florida – along with much colder states like New York, Illinois and Washington. 

But unlike their untamed ancestors or the South American cousins who still live in wild habitats, these birds are more at home in cities.

"It's pretty clear that, even though in their native range these species live in the wild, of course, in the United States, virtually every one of these naturalized populations is living in human-modified habitats," Dr. Stephen Pruett-Jones told <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/05/tropical-pet-parrots-settle-united-states/?cmpid=org=ngp::mc=crm-email::src=ngp::cmp=Editorial::add=Animals_20190606::rid=18462481">National Geographic</a>. "Here, in the wild in the United States, they're urban and parkland and city dwellers."

Pruett-Jones, a bird expert and ecologist at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a>, teamed up with <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> doctoral student Jennifer Uehling and Jason Tallant, a data manager at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>, to determine how many species of escaped parrots are living in the United States.

They found that 56 species have been spotted in the wild, of the nearly 200 species that have been imported to the U.S. as pets. Those sightings have taken place in 43 states, with breeding populations representing 25 species established in 23 of those states, the team told National Geographic.

The team analyzed data from two databases: the <a href="https://www.audubon.org/">Audubon Society’s</a> annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/audubon-society-christmas-bird-count/">Christmas Bird Count</a> and Cornell’s <a href="https://ebird.org/home">eBird</a>. They found that the three species seen most often in the wild are the monk parakeet, the nanday parakeet and the red-crowned Amazon. The red-crowned Amazon is actually thriving in California, while it is endangered in its native Mexico.

In some cases, the escaped parrots are even spreading to areas with vastly different climates than the ones they evolved in – like the monk parakeet, which has established itself in Brooklyn and Chicago. 

"We think they're basically pre-adapted to survive in cold climates because they build their own nests and they can vary their diets so dramatically across the year," Pruett-Jones said. "They roost in their nest every single night of the year, so the nest is really more like a home to the monk parakeet. And their diet changes completely during the winter to seed in backyard bird feeders."

Pruett-Jones and another student are now studying some of the cold-weather populations to see if they’re show adaptations like denser or thicker feathers.

The team’s research has been published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10336-019-01658-7">Journal of Ornithology</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Escaped parrots make new homes in 23 U.S. states

Escaped parrots are making their homes in California, Texas and...

Box caterpillars are wreaking havoc in English hedgerows. The box caterpillar, Cydalima perspectalis, is making quick work of England’s hedgerows as the pest has made the top of the Royal Horticultural Society’s “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-temps-rise-stink-bugs/">most wanted list</a>.” 

Native to East Asia, the caterpillar was first spotted in Europe in 2007 and was discovered in the UK in 2011. Now there are reports of box caterpillars all across Wales, Scotland, Ireland and Northern Ireland as well as in Britain. 

In its larval stage, the box caterpillar is a menace to box plants which adorn many stately home gardens and are often used for topiary displays and hedgerows. Box caterpillars are wreaking havoc in English hedgerows 

Cydalima perspetalis can strip a box plant bare, and unfortunately, the invasive species are running free. While feeding on the leaves of box plants, the caterpillar covers itself and its feeding area in a blanket of webbing. 

There are limited options for controlling and eradicating the pest, and homeowners are instructed to simply remove them from plants by hand. 

Box caterpillars have destroyed large areas of wild box plants and many UK homeowners are rightfully concerned about the potential damage the pests could inflict on their iconic hedges.  If the caterpillars spread to wild trees in the UK, box plants could be at risk of being completely wiped out. 

“We have 4.5 million members, who are allowed to ask us questions,” Stephanie Bird, an entomologist of the <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/">Royal Horticultural Society</a>, told <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/invader-has-gardens-on-the-hedge-of-oblivion-35kr3chrn">The Times</a>. “Based on the questions we work out the number one inquiry. Historically slugs and snails are always top. This year it is set to be the box caterpillar.”

In their native regions, box caterpillar populations are kept in check thanks to hornets who feed on the bugs. 

<a href="https://www.ebts.org/">European Boxwood and Topiary Association</a> are continually monitoring the plants, and the Royal Horticultural Society is working to find effective methods to safely eliminate and control invasions. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Floki

Box caterpillars are wreaking havoc in English hedgerows

Box caterpillars are wreaking havoc in English hedgerows. The box...

New evidence shows sloth family tree needs to be rewritten. New molecular and mitochondrial evidence has caused researchers to rethink the sloth family tree. Years of general scientific consensus on how living and extinct sloths evolved and are related may be inaccurate, according to new research.

Two new studies, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a> and <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>, were conducted by two separate research groups that used different methodology but arrived at the same conclusion which helps confirm the innovative findings. 

“All of us were initially surprised by our results because they thoroughly contradicted what seemed to be the accepted view based on anatomy,” said Frédéric Delsuc, a corresponding author for one of the research groups.New evidence shows sloth family tree needs to be rewritten 

Unlike past sloth studies which linked ancient megafauna to the humble sloths alive today using physical traits, the new studies provide molecular evidence proving how different sloths group are related and how the sloth family tree diverged and branched out. 

The research groups collected molecular data from living two-toed and three-toed sloths and extinct sloths like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-tooth-diet-giant-ground-sloth/">giant ground sloth</a>.

One research team focused on mitochondrial DNA, which can be extracted from tissues preserved in fossils.

The second research group looked at collagen. Using collagen, a protein, to help classify and identify species is a new field, but bone collagen provides researchers with more accurate and reliable data as it degrades more slowly than DNA and can be found in abundance in fossils. 

“Structural proteins like collagen potentially last much, much longer after death than the relatively fragile DNA molecule,” said Samantha Presslee, the lead author on the Nature Ecology and Evolution. “This means that scientists can extract and interpret protein evidence from a wide range of extinct species well beyond the current reach of ancient DNA.”

The collagen research group was able to recover proteins from a fossil that was between 120,000 and 400,000 years old. 

“Having the results of both sources of molecular information in front of us, we knew that we were standing on solid ground, and that it was time to revisit sloth evolution and classification,” said Hendrik Poinar, a corresponding author on the mitochondrial paper.

The analysis revealed that even though three and two-toed sloths live similar lifestyles, they evolved separately from one another. 

The researchers also found that some sloth groups were more closely related than realized. The three-toed sloth, for example, has its own evolutionary branch, but the evidence showed that they share many similarities with ancient sloths like the ground sloth. 

After dating the molecular samples, the researchers found that West Indian Sloths diverged from their megatheroid ancestors 30 million years ago. 

“The combined molecular results are surprising on many levels,” said Graham Slater, who was involved in the collagen research. “Not only do they rewrite sloth classification, they suggest much of what we thought we knew about how sloths evolved may be wrong. We’ve been used to thinking that today’s sloths evolved independently for life in the trees from a ground-dwelling ancestor, but our results suggest that the basal, or ancestral, sloth may have been at home in both.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: AMNH/D. Finnin

New evidence shows sloth family tree needs to be rewritten

New evidence shows sloth family tree needs to be rewritten....

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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