Portrait,Of,A,Wild,Octopus,Under,Water.

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. 



Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. 



Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions.



Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food or medicine to someone trapped below. 



This vision has motivated scientists to study octopus arms in detail - both in the laboratory and in their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">environment</a>.



Until recently, most studies were limited to tanks, where behaviors may not reflect the complexity of life in the wild. That gap is now being addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-octopus-intelligence">Understanding octopus intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">Octopuses</a> are some of the most intelligent invertebrates on Earth. Unlike most animals without backbones, they can solve puzzles, open jars, and even escape from aquariums by remembering routes back to the ocean. 



Their brains are incredibly complex, with about 500 million neurons - similar to a dog. What makes them even more fascinating is that two-thirds of those neurons are in their arms. 



This means each arm can sense, move, and even make decisions on its own while still communicating with the central brain. It’s like having eight mini-brains working together with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-are-tricked-by-the-rubber-hand-illusion-like-humans-suggesting-self-awareness/">one big brain</a>.



Their intelligence also shows up in how they hunt and survive. Octopuses use tools, like carrying coconut shells to hide inside when threatened, and they can change color and texture in an instant to camouflage perfectly against rocks or coral. 



They’ve been observed watching other animals and learning from them, which is rare in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-octopus-arms-inspire-robotics">Flexible octopus arms inspire robotics</h2>



A new study from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole and Florida Atlantic University has provided the most comprehensive analysis of octopus arm movements in natural habitats. 



Researchers recorded 25 wild octopuses in six locations, ranging from the Caribbean to Spain. The footage captured thousands of arm movements across a variety of behaviors, including foraging, locomotion, and even defense.



“I’ve been trying for a long time to work out the natural behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-octopus-footage-could-revolutionize-flexible-robot-design-eyeris/">cephalopods</a> in their natural habitat,” said MBL Senior Scientist Roger Hanlon, who led the project. 



“Studying and recording octopus behavior from wild octopuses in the field gave us the opportunity to analyze a larger behavioral repertoire and further understand how they use their arms to achieve such complex behaviors,” added Chelsea Bennice, research fellow at <a href="https://www.fau.eu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guided-by-touch-not-sight">Guided by touch, not sight</h2>



Octopuses rely heavily on touch, guided by sensory organs in their arm suckers. “The octopus is a very tactile animal - it’s more tactile than visual,” said Hanlon. 



Each of their nearly 100 suckers per arm contains chemosensory-tactile receptors, combining functions similar to the human nose, lips, and tongue.



Finding octopuses to observe was not simple. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> skills make them almost invisible in coral reefs or sandy seabeds. Divers often relied on clues like discarded shells and food debris near their dens.



Once located, octopuses emerged briefly from hiding, offering precious opportunities to record their natural actions.



These moments revealed unique hunting strategies, arm movements, and subtle interactions with their environment otherwise impossible to witness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-arm-mechanics-of-octopuses">Complex arm mechanics of octopuses</h2>



The researchers identified 12 distinct arm actions across 15 behaviors, built from four fundamental deformations: shortening, elongating, bending, and torsion. They discovered a pattern of specialization within each arm. 



For instance, elongation and shortening were most common near the base, while bending occurred more at the tips. 



This functional partitioning allows octopuses to combine motions across arms for tasks like crawling, probing reef crevices, or launching sudden prey attacks.



“These are the actions that make up the whole complex of octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">behaviors</a>,” said study co-author Kendra Buresch. 



In the wild, researchers observed octopuses using different combinations of arm actions - sometimes relying on a single arm for tasks like grabbing food, and other times coordinating multiple arms for behaviors such as crawling or launching a parachute attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-that-guides-technology">Behavior that guides technology</h2>



The findings go beyond understanding animal behavior. With nearly 7,000 observed arm deformations, the study highlights an extraordinary degree of control and flexibility. 



This knowledge may inform robotics research, where engineers seek to design soft, adaptable arms capable of both precise and exploratory tasks.



“Understanding these natural behaviors not only deepens our knowledge of octopus biology but also opens exciting new avenues in fields like neuroscience, animal behavior, and even soft robotics inspired by these remarkable creatures,” Bennice said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-in-flexibility-and-change">Lessons in flexibility and change</h2>



From the ocean floor to robotics labs, octopuses continue to inspire, offering lessons in both biology and technology. 



Their flexible arms not only influence the design of machines that could navigate disaster zones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/">deep-sea environments</a>, but also remind us how problem-solving in nature often leads to solutions with real-world applications.



Beyond robotics, their adaptability symbolizes the broader principle that survival depends on innovation and change, a message equally relevant to ecosystems, human health, and future technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-10674-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Octopus arms are probably the most complex and flexible structures in nature

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions. Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food...

For all of its beautiful natural areas, Illinois isn’t a prime place for seeing large wildlife. White-tailed deer are abundant, for sure. And coyotes have adapted surprisingly well to <a href="https://urbancoyoteresearch.com/">urban areas</a> and farmland alike. But black bears, mountain lions, and gray wolves have been <a href="https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/news/Pages/Americanblackbears,mountainlionsandgraywolvestobeprotectedinIllinois.aspx">extinct at a state level since the 1800s</a>. The area’s apex predators, with the exception of coyotes, tend to be on the small side: foxes, hawks, the odd bobcat. In the past several decades, though, a sizable addition to this cohort has been slowly gaining ground.

The North American river otter (Lontra canadensis), a member of the mustelid or weasel family that can reach up to 30 pounds and 53 inches in length, has become increasingly common in Illinois ponds and rivers. Once widespread—<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IH4iv6MrrW4C&amp;pg=PA35&amp;dq=otters+illinois&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiz9vbBsr7cAhVDC6wKHaf2BLsQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&amp;q=otters%20illinois&amp;f=false">an 1832 report</a> remarks on their ubiquity—otters were nearly extirpated from the state by the late 1800s. 

Perhaps two relict populations remained, one in southern Illinois, and another on the Mississippi River in the northwest. Poor water quality, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-loss-migrating-birds/">habitat loss</a>, and trapping all contributed to the species’ decline on the state level. By 1929, the otter trapping season was curtailed. These lolloping semi-aquatic teddy bears were declared a threatened species in 1977 and endangered in 1989. By that time, the number of otters in Illinois was thought to be fewer than 100.

In an effort to reverse the deteriorating fortunes of the otter, beginning in 1994, the <a href="https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/">Illinois Department of Natural Resources</a> began implementing a plan to reintroduce the species to the state. (Other states, including Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee, enacted similar programs in the 1980s and 1990s as well.) Over a three year period, 346 otters trapped in Louisiana were released in waterways in southeastern and central Illinois. The state’s rivers and lakes were in fact primed for an otter resurgence. 

Due to restoration efforts and increased attention to conservation motivated by legislation like the 1972 Clean Water Act, conditions had improved in many bodies of water, creating better habitat for their primary prey, fish. Beavers had rebounded as well, an important factor in creating otter habitat. Otters sometimes use abandoned beaver dens as their own and even occasionally prey on them. Perhaps more importantly, the ecological effects of beaver dams, which slow down running water and create ponds and wetlands, are appealing to otters.

The program was a resounding success. Despite fatalities in some of the introduced otters due to trapping, automobile accidents, and encounters with dogs, the species began to reproduce and spread. In 1999, they were moved from the state endangered list and onto the threatened list. By 2004, they had been delisted. By 2009, population levels were thought to have risen to 11,000 and by 2014, they were thought to have reached 30,000. The population rebounded to such an extent that a trapping season was allowed in 2012 for the first time in close to a century. 

Otters are now found in every county in Illinois —including Cook County, which encompasses Chicago and its surrounding suburbs.

In November 2015, a male otter was captured in the southwestern part of Cook County by biologists with the Forest Preserve District of Cook County. It is worth noting that the sites where otters were reintroduced in the 1990s are 150 miles south of Chicago. Otters are known for having extensive ranges—especially males, which may have territories that extend along over 50 miles of river and may roam over 90 miles in search of hospitable waters. 

The trapped otter was taken to Brookfield Zoo, where a transmitter was implanted, allowing biologists to track its movements. Several other otters were trapped and equipped with transmitters in 2016. That year, <a href="https://www.dnainfo.com/chicago/20160914/lincoln-park/is-there-ultra-rare-river-otter-swimming-chicago-river/">an otter sighting was reported in downtown Chicago</a>, which is bisected by the Chicago River. Though it was not verified, biologists noted that it wasn’t outside the realm of possibility. The Chicago River, once a filthy runnel, has seen massive improvements in recent years. Some 60 species of fish are now present, providing ample prey for the piscivorous mammals. 

A number of studies have demonstrated that otters may even be eating invasive Asian carp—actually several species of carp referred to colloquially by that name. Otters prefer surface-dwelling fish and Asian carp fit the bill. A <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/60579426.pdf">2015 study from Southern Illinois University</a> noted that silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), one of the species referred to as Asian carp, was present in some fecal samples. This is an encouraging sign. While otter numbers aren’t so high that they are likely to stem the invasion of the carp, any predator of this determined fish is a good thing. 

And it’s good for the otters too...because the silver carp feeds on plankton, it is less likely to accumulate toxins than other species at higher trophic levels. It is thought that accumulated toxins from other predatory fish may have contributed to the otters’ decline. The urban otters of Cook County have been observed feeding on other unusual items as well. Long thought to avoid carrion, they have been seen eating roadkill. Though they do love their fish, they also eat birds and turtles as well as invertebrates such as insects, crayfish, and clams. 

Much of this activity happens during the early daylight and evening hours—so don’t get your hopes up if you’re out for an afternoon boat ride in Chicago. As large and charismatic as they are, otters are secretive and difficult to detect. One of the main signs of their presence is the appearance of public “latrines”—areas where they deposit feces, urine, and scent secretions. These are thought to be territory markers. So, unless you get your kicks from searching for otter toilets—no judgement—you’re not terribly likely to see signs of their presence. Even so, the knowledge that they’re there is a heartening sign of ecological resilience.

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By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Otters in Chicago? The story behind their Illinois comeback

For all of its beautiful natural areas, Illinois isn’t a...

Two Pleistocene nematodes (roundworms) found frozen in the ice recently woke up from an over 30-40,000 year-long nap, thanks to scientists that coaxed the prehistoric worms backed to life. 

The worms were found frozen in Yakutia, the coldest region in Russia according to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5995189/Worms-laid-dormant-42-000-years-sprung-life-Siberian-permafrost-melts.html">Daily Mail</a>, which reported on the remarkable story. 

The results of the roundworm experiment have potential implications for the future of cryonics and astrobiology. Cryonics aims to be able to freeze people for long periods of time keeping their bodies and cognitive faculties intact which could be useful for future space travel. 

We have a long way to go before science makes cryonics a viable reality, and while today you can choose to have your dead body <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/nov/18/the-cryonics-dilemma-will-deep-frozen-bodies-be-fit-for-new-life">cryopreserved</a>, successful reanimation may never be possible. 

This study though does show that multicellular organisms can survive in extreme environments for thousands of years. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.istc.int/en/institute/8700">Institute of Physico-Chemical and Biological Problems of Soil Science</a> in Moscow worked with geoscientists from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> in New Jersey to analyze 300 frozen worms to see if any could feasibly be brought back to life. 

Only two of the 300 worms examined were chosen for continued experimentations. 

One of the nematodes, dated around 41,700 years old, was found in permafrost near the Alazeya river in Yakutia. 

The worms were discovered near the site of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-ice-age-siberia/">Pleistocene Park</a>, a jurassic park like project meant to guard against climate change.

The second worm was discovered in a prehistoric squirrel burrow in Duvanny Yar outcrop in the lower reaches of the Kolyma River in 2002 and dates back 32,000 years. 

After the two worms were selected for defrosting, the researchers in Moscow reported signs of life including moving and eating, according to the <a href="https://siberiantimes.com/science/casestudy/news/worms-frozen-in-permafrost-for-up-to-42000-years-come-back-to-life/">Siberian Times</a>. 

“It is obvious that this ability suggests that the Pleistocene nematodes have some adaptive mechanisms that may be of scientific and practical importance for the related fields of science, such as cryomedicine, cryobiology, and astrobiology,” the researchers wrote in a report of their research efforts, which was published in journal Doklady Biological Sciences.

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: The Siberian Times

Worms frozen for thousands of years brought back to life

Two Pleistocene nematodes (roundworms) found frozen in the ice recently...

A new study from the <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has revealed that artificial lighting at night has an unexpected influence on plants and animals. Night-time lighting from sources such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/led-lights-last-longer-but-some-shades-are-harmful-to-wildlife/">streetlights</a> was found to promote complex changes in the feeding behavior of exposed insects.

Previous studies have shown that artificial lighting impacts a wide variety of species, including moths and bats, but it has been unclear how food webs were affected.

The investigation was focused on communities of plants, aphids, and parasitoid wasps in the UK. The research team established that the impacts of the artificial nighttime lights varied depending on the brightness of the light.

At lower levels of light, such as the amount of light generated by a nearby town, the parasitoid wasps had a hunting advantage and killed twice as many aphids. With brighter levels of light, however, the wasps became distracted and flew away from the aphids.

The researchers explained that this phenomenon could have a widespread impact on the way that different kinds of species interact, especially considering that many places all over the world have artificial night lighting including 88 percent of Europe.

“We might have expected that any effect of artificial light would increase with the brightness of the light - but that isn't what happened,” said study co-author Dr. Dirk Sanders. “Under low light these wasps became far more efficient hunters, leading to a reduction in the number of aphids, but brighter lighting made them more and more distracted.”


“This shows that even low lighting - the most common level of light pollution - can have a major impact. It also demonstrates the complex ways lighting affects ecosystems.”


Study lead author Professor Kevin Gaston said, “The potential for similar effects to occur in many different ecosystems is huge.”


The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Dirk Sanders

Artificial night lighting impacts a wide range of species

A new study from the University of Exeter has revealed...

The internet has transformed our everyday lives in ways we are still beginning to understand. Gone are the days of navigating a map for directions and mailing letters to far away friends to keep in contact. The internet has made our lives easier, faster and more convenient. Unfortunately, the internet has also helped fuel the illicit wildlife market.

A recent<a href="http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/157301/27922673/1528275723837/SEAsia-Otter-report.pdf?token=p2R0%2F28DPnHigqT%2FyiDH6Wbg%2BTg%3D"> study</a> by the wildlife monitoring group <a href="http://www.traffic.org/">TRAFFIC</a> and the <a href="http://www.otterspecialistgroup.org/iucn.html">International Union for Conservation of Nature Otter Specialist Group</a> found that the online pet trade for otters is creating a pressing threat to otter populations.

The study monitored online advertisements for otters one hour a week in Indonesia between January and April 2018. The researchers found 560 advertisements selling up to 1,189 animals in Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia. The main species affected by online sales in this study was the small-clawed otter which is currently listed as “vulnerable” and protected on Appendix II of <a href="https://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.

The study concludes, “Overall, the pet trade emerged as the most pressing threat to the survival of otters, particularly in Indonesia and Thailand.”

Otters are far from the only species affected by the online wildlife market. Studies have found live animals such as tortoises sold for the pet trade and wildlife parts such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pangolins-smuggled-ivory-trade/">ivory</a> for sale.

Although it is difficult to assess the exact size of the secretive market, the<a href="https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2014/May/wildlife-crime-worth-8-10-billion-annually.html"> United Nation Office on Drugs and Crime</a> estimated that the wildlife market brings in $8-$10 billion a year, ranking it as one of the most lucrative markets along with guns, drugs and human trafficking.

As the internet becomes more commonplace, wildlife traffickers are increasingly utilizing it as a tool. The internet streamlines sales and allows traffickers to sell animals throughout the world while remaining anonymous. Traffickers can post advertisements for animals, contact potential buyers and accept payments all through their computers which has opened the market up to smaller-scale traffickers.

Traffickers generally consider the internet a low-risk platform for selling wildlife. Buyers and sellers use a variety of methods to keep their market hidden such as using sites that cannot be found through search engines, closed social media groups, direct messaging apps and code words for wild animals.

The elusive nature of online sales makes enforcement efforts difficult, especially in areas where enforcement of the wildlife market is already low.<a href="https://www.cites.org/"> The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora</a> has taken actions to address the growing online market but some countries’ laws against wildlife trafficking predate the internet and need to be updated.

<a href="https://www.ifaw.org/united-states">The International Fund for Animal Welfare</a> (IFAW) has investigated the online wildlife trade since 2004 and works with governments and law enforcement agencies to provide them with information and training to combat the online trade.

IFAW recently joined forces with the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/">World Wildlife Fund</a>, TRAFFIC and 21 technology, e-commerce and social media companies (including Google, eBay, Facebook and Instagram) to shut down the online trade. The group, the Global Coalition to End Wildlife Trafficking Online, has a goal of reducing wildlife trafficking across platforms by 80% by 2020.

These powerful tech giants can have a huge impact on the wildlife market as they are often the hosts of the wildlife trade. According to<a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/03/wildlife-watch-tech-companies-online-wildlife-crime-coalition/"> National Geographic</a>, the tech companies will create algorithms to detect keywords and flag the posts before they are even posted. Since wildlife traffickers often use code words to avoid detection, companies will need to manually review posts as well.

This coalition is a big move for tech companies who have previously received criticisms for not doing enough to prevent online wildlife trafficking. Wide-scale efforts from both governments and the tech industry are needed to quash the online market before it is too late for the many species affected by the online wildlife trade.

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By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The internet is helping fuel global wildlife trafficking

The internet has transformed our everyday lives in ways we...

After 2017’s devastating hurricane season, the cities, islands, and coastal communities hit hardest were left to pick up the pieces and forge a long road to recovering basic essential services like providing clean water, clearing roadways to hospitals, evacuating trapped residents, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/energy-colonialism-hurricane-maria/">restoring power</a>.  

It’s estimated that damage from the 2017 hurricane season cost around $282 billion, one of the costliest seasons on records 

For biologists at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard</a>, though, hurricane Irma afforded a fortuitous research opportunity into natural selection events and how lizards in the remote cays of Turks and Caicos weathered the storm. 

The one of a kind study on the physical characteristics that can make the difference between life and death in the middle of a hurricane was published in the journal Nature. 

“Hurricanes are in the news, and it seems that they're becoming more destructive,” said Jonathan Losos, a member of the research team. “Something like this has never been documented before because it's so difficult. The timing had to be just right.”

The study did not start out as an examination of natural selection events but that’s what it morphed into after it became apparent that data collected on lizard populations for an invasive species eradication project could be used for before and after Irma comparisons on lizard species. 

The researchers were granted rare access to their original research areas on remote islands in Turks and Caicos after hurricane Irma. 

“Heading back to Pine Cay, we weren't sure what we'd find, but when we got to the field and saw a few lizards running around, we were eager to get catching and start measuring,” said Colin Donihue, the lead author of the study. “We walked exactly the same transects we had the last time. There were definitely fewer lizards. We had to work harder to catch our sample size.”

For two days, Donihue and Losos and their team collected 100 lizards on two separate islands, recording data on forelimb, hindlimb, and core body strength measurements. 

The researchers also took pictures of the lizards’ toe pads in hopes that it would show why some lizards survived over others. The new data was compared to the data collected before the hurricane had hit. 

“The prediction was that if we saw any changes, they would be changes in the features that help lizards hold on -- they would be related to clinging ability,” said Donihue. “For example, the sticky toe pads on their fingers and toes, maybe they would be larger.”

It was the lizards that had larger toe pads on both forelimbs and hindlimbs with shorter bones between their hips and knees that survived. Surviving lizards also had smaller bodies. 

The researchers were then curious if these traits gave the lizards an advantage during the hurricane and the results seem to indicate that this is the case. 

“With regard to evolution, the question is whether hurricanes cause selective mortality: do individuals with certain traits survive better than individuals with different traits?” Losos asked. “The alternative possibility -- that devastation is so massive that mortality is indiscriminate, not favoring some individuals over others -- is certainly possible. Still, hurricane-induced natural selection seems like the best explanation for these findings.” 

There are still missing pieces to the study and further research is needed to understand how lizards behave during a hurricane and the self-preservation methods they employ. 

Lizards are built to cling, but not all lizards are built equally as the study show, and some lizards with larger toe pads may be better suited to weather hurricane force winds compared to their long-legged, long-bodied counterparts. 

The study also calls attention to the importance of better understanding how hurricanes affect entire ecosystems and species populations. 

“We know that hurricanes are getting more frequent, and we know that they're getting more strong,” said Donihue. “So, setting up a network of sites that are actually set up to investigate the question of how hurricanes are changing the evolutionary trajectory of species I think could be really useful.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Colin Donihue

Large toe pads give some lizards a leg up during a hurricane

After 2017’s devastating hurricane season, the cities, islands, and coastal...

In an article written for <a href="http://theconversation.com/au">The Conversation</a>, Dr. Jesse Grady explains that assigning a “real” age to a dog or a cat is not as simple as it is made out to be. Dr. Grady says that it is important for veterinarians like himself to understand the age of their patients so that they can make the best healthcare recommendations.

“There’s an old myth that one regular year is like seven years for dogs and cats. There’s a bit of logic behind it. People observed that with optimal healthcare, an average-sized, medium dog would on average live one-seventh as long as its human owner - and so the seven ‘dog years’ for every ‘human year’ equation was born,” writes Dr. Grady.

He describes this rule as an “oversimplification” because not all dogs are average-sized. Furthermore, animals age differently from humans and from each other, and the aging process is partially based on breed characteristics and size. For example, bigger animals tend to have shorter life spans compared to smaller animals. Nutrition and weight are also major contributors to the life expectancy of a pet.

Dr. Grady says that veterinarians are now able to provide far better medical care to animals than even a decade ago, and that a better methodology is used to measure the ages of pets. Vets divide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-comfort-owners-upset/">dogs</a> into six categories, or life stages: puppy, junior, adult, mature, senior, and geriatric.

“Life stages are a more practical way to think about age than assigning a single number; even human health recommendations are based on developmental stage rather than exactly how old you are in years,” writes Dr. Grady.

Cats are also divided into six stages of life, which are more consistent compared to dogs because cats have much less variability in size. Veterinarians use these life stages to determine what screenings or tests the animals need.

“Just like a normal human toddler doesn’t need a colonoscopy, a normal puppy doesn’t need its thyroid levels checked,” explains Dr. Grady. “An adult woman likely needs a regular mammogram, just like an adult cat needs annual intestinal parasite screenings.”

Dr. Grady points out that an animal's overall health status can influence its age for better or worse, just the same as people.

“So next time you take your pet to the veterinarian, talk about your animal’s life stage and find out what health recommendations come with it. Watching out for health abnormalities and maintaining a healthy weight could help your cat live long past the literal ‘prime’ of its life.”

Jesse Grady is a clinical instructor of Veterinary Medicine at <a href="https://www.msstate.edu/">Mississippi State University</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Life stages are a better age indicator than dog years, vet says

In an article written for The Conversation, Dr. Jesse Grady...

Land use plays a major role in animal population declines, and many studies examine how agriculture and economic growth will impact species and their primary habitats. 

However, new research shows that alternative habitats are equally important in understanding population decline and the adaptability of a species. 

Birds are a prime example of this, as many bird species use urban or agricultural land as an alternative to their primary habitat. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign</a> replicated an early 1900s ornithological survey to better illustrate the vital importance that alternate habitats can have in dictating a species’ ability to survive and thrive. 

The fate of some bird species may then lie not in the decline of their primary habitats, but in agricultural or urban space that is made increasingly more inhospitable for birds through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-extremely-toxic-birds/">pesticides </a>or infrastructure. 

“This study demonstrates that these 'primary habitats,' as termed by the authors, do not necessarily drive population changes,” said Amanda Rodewald, an expert on birds' response to land use who was not involved in the study. “Rather, the extent to which a species uses novel or alternative habitats such as urban areas might better explain patterns.”

The results were published in the journal The Condor: Ornithological Applications. 

Two ornithologists crisscrossed the state of Illinois between 1906 and 1909 surveying bird populations and creating a record of native bird species to Illinois inhabiting grassland, forest, urban and agricultural habitats. 

The Condor study wanted to replicate that original survey and researchers recorded and monitored Illinois bird populations between 2006 and 2008. 

Next, the data collected on the survey was used to create a mathematical model of bird occupancy to show how things had changed since the early 1900s. 

The results showed that birds changed their use of alternative habitats more than their primary ones. 40 species included in the study expanded their populations and occupancy by taking advantage of urban habitats. 

26 of the species surveyed suffered population declines because they decreased their use of agricultural habitats. 

Urban habitats have become increasingly bird-friendly and many people enjoy putting bird feeders in their yard to attract and watch birds.

Agriculture, on the other hand, has grown increasingly hostile to birds and other animals because of how much pesticides and herbicides are used to treat the crops. 

“Understanding which species can or can't take advantage of these alternative habitats will allow us to better predict which species need conservation efforts,” said Michael Ward, a lead author of the study. “Urban habitats are the habitats in which many species have been increasing, and the general public, by providing small bits of habitat in their backyards, have the opportunity to help a range of species.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: M.K. Rubey

Alternative habitats shown to be important to bird populations

Land use plays a major role in animal population declines,...

When it comes to getting along with dogs, cats are in charge. The idea that cats and dogs are hard-wired not to get along is so common that it created the popular phrase “fighting like cats and dogs.” 

While it might seem that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-comfort-owners-upset/">dogs</a>, who are larger in size and capable of doing more damage to their feline counterparts, hold all the power in a household, it turns out cats are actually in charge.

Researchers from the<a href="http://www.lincoln.ac.uk/"> University of Lincoln</a> found that cats, not the owner, are responsible for keeping the peace, in a new study published in the Journal of Veterinary Behaviour. 

Many pet owners who have both cats and dogs will attest to their cats lashing out, hissing, or attacking a dog rather than vice versa. 

Researchers surveyed 750 pet owners about the relationships between their dogs and cats. According to the study, fewer than 1 in 5 owners have witnessed their dog threatening their cat. 

“On the face of it, these results suggest that the cat is the kingpin in a household with dogs. They are the princess and the dog is lower down in the hierarchy,” said Sophie Hall, the study’s co-author. “It may be that cats' threatening acts are more obvious to owners, as they hiss or strike out with their paws at a dog. But it may also be the case that cats are less domesticated in their behaviors than dogs, so are less used to getting along with other four and two-legged members of the family and have had less training to do so.”

One in ten of the owners reported that their cats actually injured their dogs but less than one percent said that their dog had hurt the cat in any way. 

It’s possible for cats and dogs to get along, of course, but cats are less social than dogs and are not evolutionarily geared toward companionship and domestication in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-humans-close/">same way dogs are</a>. This difference in domestication history can make cat and dog relationships tricky, to say the least. 

Ultimately though, whether or not the two animals do get along depends entirely on the cat, according to the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

When it comes to getting along with dogs, cats are in charge

When it comes to getting along with dogs, cats are...

Species loss in the tropics has become so dire that a new study in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature/">Nature</a> has warned a global biodiversity collapse is imminent unless we take urgent and significant action. In this paper, an international team of researchers warns that failure to act quickly and decisively will greatly increase the risk of an irreversible species loss in the most diverse areas of our planet.

This study is the first high-level report on the state of the world’s four most diverse tropical ecosystems. These ecosystems are coral reefs, lakes and rivers, savannas, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amber-fossil-frogs-tropical-forests/">tropical forests</a>. Although the tropics cover just 40 percent of the planet, the authors determined that this ecosystem is home to over three-quarters of all the planet’s species, including almost all shallow-water corals and more than 90 percent of the world’s bird species. It’s estimated that millions of other species that inhabit the tropics have yet to be discovered by science.

“At the current rate of species description – about 20,000 new species per year - it can be estimated that at least 300 years will be necessary to catalogue biodiversity,” says Dr. Benoit Guénard, assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">University of Hong Kong</a> and an author on the study.

In these tropical ecosystems, many species face the “double jeopardy” of being threatened by both local human pressures – like logging or overfishing – as well as pressures from climate change – such as droughts or heat waves.

And while many other species are being threatened, the declining health of the tropical ecosystems threatens our species as well. “Although they cover just 0.1% of the ocean surface, coral reefs provide fish resources and coastal protection for up to 200 million people,” says Jos Barlow, a professor from <a href="http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a> and lead author of the study. “And between them, humid tropical forests and savannas store 40% of the carbon in the terrestrial biosphere and support rainfall in some of the world’s most important agricultural regions.”

These findings may seem disturbing – and they are – but the authors also describe actions we can take in order to help save these important ecosystems. They call for a step-change in efforts to support sustainable development and effective conservation interventions to preserve and help restore these tropical habitats.

“The fate of the tropics will be largely determined by what happens elsewhere in the planet,” says Barlow. “While most of us are familiar with the impact of climate change on the polar regions, it is also having devastating consequences across the tropics – and without urgent action could undermine local conservation interventions.”

While it is clear that climate change and human impact has caused significant damage to these ecosystems, all is not lost. There must be a sense of urgency to our future actions in reversing the damage we have done. 

Barlow laments, “Fifty years ago biologists expected to be the first to find a species, now they hope not to be the last.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Alexander Lees/Manchester Metropolitan University

A tropical biodiversity collapse is imminent, scientists warn

Species loss in the tropics has become so dire that...

Ocean acidification causing fish to lose their sense of smell. A new study from the <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has found that ocean acidification causes fish to lose their sense of smell. The research suggests that elevated levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rice-lose-nutritional-value-co2/">carbon dioxide</a> will leave fish much more vulnerable to predators and other threats.

Fish rely on their sense of smell to perform the most essential functions, such as recognizing each other and avoiding predators. Fish also use their olfactory system to find food, safe habitats, and suitable spawning grounds. A reduction in their ability to smell could be extremely detrimental to their survival.

When carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean, it reacts with seawater and produces acid. Since the Industrial Revolution, the amount of CO2 taken in by the ocean has risen by 43 percent, and oceanic CO2 is predicted to be 2.5 times higher than current levels by the end of the century.


“Our study is the first to examine the impact of rising carbon dioxide in the ocean on the olfactory system of fish,” said lead author Dr. Cosima Porteus. “First we compared the behavior of juvenile sea bass at CO2 levels typical of today's ocean conditions, and those predicted for the end of the century.”

Dr. Porteus explained that sea bass in acidic waters did not swim as often and were less likely to respond when they encountered the smell of a predator. She said that these fish were more likely to “freeze,” which is an indication of anxiety.

The experts also tested the ability of the sea bass to detect different smells by recording activity in the nervous system while their noses were exposed to water with different levels of CO2 and acidity.

“The sense of smell of sea bass was reduced by up to half in sea water that was acidified with a level of CO2 predicted for the end of the century,” said Dr. Porteus. 

“Their ability to detect and respond to some odors associated with food and threatening situations was more strongly affected than for other odors. We think this is explained by acidified water affecting how odorant molecules bind to olfactory receptors in the fish's nose, reducing how well they can distinguish these important stimuli.”

Study co-author Professor Rod Wilson is a professor of Integrative Animal Physiology at the University of Exeter.

“Our intriguing results show that CO2 impacts the nose of the fish directly. This will be in addition to the impact of CO2 on their central nervous system function suggested by others previously, which proposed an impaired processing of information in the brain itself,” said Professor Wilson.

“It is not yet known how rapidly fish will be able to overcome these problems as CO2 rises in the future. However, having to cope with two different problems caused by CO2, rather than just one, may reduce their ability to adapt or how long this will take.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Dr. Cosima Porteus

Ocean acidification causing fish to lose their sense of smell

Ocean acidification causing fish to lose their sense of smell....

An expansive ten-year study on grasshoppers has filled in some huge gaps in the insect’s family tree, evolutionary history, and genetic relationships. 

Grasshoppers are some of the most abundant groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-bugs-future/">insects</a> on Earth and can be found all over the world in varying environments. Most grasshoppers belong to the family Acrididae which is thought to contain some 6,700 species with several subfamilies.

Because of the rich biodiversity of grasshoppers, taxonomists have been faced with many challenges in properly classifying individual species and tracing genetic relationships back to the insects’ evolutionary roots. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a> and the <a href="http://www.museo.fcnym.unlp.edu.ar/">Museo de La Plata</a> in Argentina examined 142 grasshopper species from 22 countries and extracted DNA samples to better understand how grasshoppers around the world are related. 

The results, published in the journal Insect Systematics and Diversity, show that contrary to previous theories, the birthplace of Acrididae was South America and not <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-humans-africa/">Africa</a>. 

For their research, the team compared the grasshoppers’ nucleotide sequences.

“We used the differences in nucleotides among different species to infer the relationships,” said Hojun Song, the lead author on the study. “For example, closely related species will share similar stretches of nucleotides because they share a common ancestor, but distantly related species will have more different nucleotides between them.”

After analyzing and comparing the DNA sequences, the researchers were able to better categorize grasshopper phylogeny and the results shed insight on the complex intricacies of grasshopper evolution. 

Acrididae did descend from one common ancestor, but pinpointing this ancestor is impossible because many of the Acrididae subfamilies are “paraphyletic”, meaning their ancestry can’t be traced to a single origin. 

Grasshopper taxonomy is no easy feat, not only because of the sheer diversity of the species, but also because of their similar body forms. This has lead to mass “dumping grounds” where grasshoppers with similar shapes were clumped together despite not being of the same species or families. 

The researchers are hopeful that their results will give taxonomists a better way to classify grasshoppers. 

“There are some subfamilies, such as Catantopinae and Hemiacridinae, that have been considered taxonomic dumping ground for many decades,” Song said. “This means that a lot of unrelated groups have accumulated in these artificial groupings. Showing the paraphyletic nature of these groups is the first step to reclassify taxonomy, and we foresee that there would be some major shifts in grasshopper classification in the near future.”

Even though the study involved one of the most detailed genetic analysis ever conducted on Acrididae, the species included in the study represent just a small fraction of the entire family of species and the researchers hope to continue improving grasshopper taxonomy with future research. 

“We plan to increase the taxon sampling in the future and use more phylogenetic markers to build a more comprehensive phylogeny,” said Song. “At the same time, we plan to reclassify major groups within the family so that the classification would reflect monophyletic groups.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Insect Systematics and Diversity/Ruben Foquet, Ricardo Mariño-Pérez, Hojun Song, Maria Marta Cigliano, Paolo Fontana, and Juan Manuel Cardona

Grasshopper family tree analysis reveals South American origins

An expansive ten-year study on grasshoppers has filled in some...

One of President Donald Trump’s biggest campaign promises was to tighten border security and build a wall along the United States and Mexico border. But many experts have weighed in on the costly ramifications of such an endeavor from an economic standpoint, with estimates that it will cost upwards of 21.6 billion dollars to build, according to a U.S. Department of Homeland Security document reported by <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-immigration-wall-exclusive/exclusive-trump-border-wall-to-cost-21-6-billion-take-3-5-years-to-build-internal-report-idUSKBN15O2ZN">Reuters</a>. 

However, with all the media attention the wall has garnered, little has been paid to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/us-mexico-border-wall-threaten-100-endangered-species/">environmental impacts</a> of a continuous border wall. 

A new paper published in the journal BioScience describes the threats that the wall would pose to biodiversity and the harm it could do to the many species that call area along the border home. 

The paper was co-authored by 16 experts from the U.S and Mexico and has been so far endorsed by more than 2,500 members of the scientific community from 43 countries. 

According to the report, a border wall would fragment the geographic ranges of many species like the Mexican gray wolf, Sonoran pronghorn, and Peninsular bighorn sheep. 

“Some of the affected animals are charismatic as well as threatened," said William Ripple, a co-author from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. “A continuous wall would disconnect any jaguars and ocelots in the U.S. from their major range in Mexico. And it's not just solid walls that are the issue; certain types of fencing can be a complete barrier to individual wildlife species. All of that should be considered.”

There is also the possibility that wall construction won’t adhere to environmental laws and prevent access to important resources for animals. 

“Many species, such as bighorn sheep, are composed of populations of relatively few individuals per unit area and have large home ranges - hundreds of square miles in the bighorn's case,” said Rodolfo Dirzo, a <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford</a> biologist and co-author of the paper. “Barriers will impede the bighorn sheep's migrations and movements to track habitats that shift due to a changing climate.”

The border is home to a rich and vibrant ecosystem with bisecting habitats and regions. Any changes in the name of security could threaten the biodiversity of the area and the 62 critically endangered species that live there.  

The researchers urge a call to action urging Congress to order that security measures do not disregard federal environmental laws. 

“The border extends about 3,200 kilometers and bisects many important habitat types from desert to forest to scrublands to mountain ranges,” said Ripple. “These are important wildlife habitats, high in biological diversity, that span both sides of the border. I hope national leaders will listen to our conservation message.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Matt Clark, Defenders of Wildlife

Border wall would jeopardize endangered species, biodiversity

One of President Donald Trump’s biggest campaign promises was to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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