A team of scientists has recently uncovered a unique genetic adaptation in horses that may explain their remarkable athleticism. The adaptation, previously seen only in viruses, provides horses with a way to override a premature genetic stop signal. 



The discovery, led by <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins Medicine</a>, in collaboration with <a href="https://castiglionelab.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vanderbilt University’s Castiglione Lab</a>, focuses on a key genetic pathway known as NRF2/KEAP1 and a rare evolutionary mechanism that gives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-domestic-horses-have-ancestors-in-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a> an athletic advantage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-horse-genetics">Secrets of horse genetics</h2>



The NRF2/KEAP1 pathway is found in all vertebrates and plays a critical role in protecting cells from oxidative stress. It also helps regulate metabolism and energy production. 



NRF2 is a protein that shields cells from reactive oxygen species - unstable molecules that damage DNA and accumulate during activities like exercise. KEAP1 acts as a sensor that regulates how much NRF2 is available to help cells respond to stress.



“We’ve studied NRF2 and KEAP1 for a long time, because this duo is very relevant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retinal</a> diseases such as macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy,” said senior author Elia Duh, a professor of ophthalmology at Johns Hopkins Medicine’s <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/wilmer" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wilmer Eye Institute</a>. 



“NRF2 is important for coping with oxidative stress, as well as for mitochondrial metabolism, respiration, and energy production.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extremely-rare-adaptation-in-horses">Extremely rare adaptation in horses</h2>



Using genetic sequencing, the researchers found a peculiar mutation in the KEAP1 gene in horses, donkeys, and zebras. The mutation introduced a premature stop codon - a segment of DNA that acts like a "stop" sign, usually ending protein production too early. 



When such a stop codon appears early in a gene, the resulting protein is often too short to function properly. In humans, these premature stop codons are linked to around 11% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-could-safely-treat-hundreds-of-genetic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inherited diseases</a>, including conditions like cystic fibrosis and muscular dystrophy.



Surprisingly, horses have evolved a workaround. Instead of halting KEAP1 protein production, their cells recode the stop signal, allowing the gene to continue translating into a full-length, functional protein. This process, known as stop codon read through, is extremely rare in animals and has only been documented in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-that-love-to-kill-bacteria-could-help-fight-deadly-infections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> before this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-energy-better-performance">Better energy, better performance</h2>



Further molecular analysis of horse cells showed that this genetic recoding results in a more efficient KEAP1 protein, one that is highly responsive to reactive oxygen species. 



This in turn boosts the activity of NRF2, the protective protein that helps cells generate energy and fend off oxidative damage. The end result: a cellular system optimized for the extreme demands of equine endurance.



The enhanced NRF2/KEAP1 pathway in horses appears to help them meet their intense energy requirements during exercise while also minimizing the cellular damage typically caused by such exertion. 



According to the research team, this could explain how horses have evolved such exceptional speed and stamina.



“Not only does our work confirm this genetic evolutionary adaptation, it brings into focus how important this pathway is for chronic disease, age-related diseases, and exercise physiology,” Duh said. “This might give insight into the particular NRF2/KEAP1 interactions we can take advantage of therapeutically.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-human-health">Improving human health </h2>



The findings on horse genetics do more than offer insight into equine biology - they may open doors to new medical treatments. The same genetic mechanism that allows horses to bypass a premature stop codon could potentially be applied in humans to treat a variety of inherited diseases caused by similar mutations.



By understanding how horses naturally override a genetic stop signal, researchers may be able to design drugs or gene therapies that mimic the process.



“The strategy used by horses to bypass a stop codon could guide ongoing efforts to treat the many inherited diseases resulting from premature stop codons,” Duh explained.



Beyond rare genetic disorders, the study also highlights the broader relevance of the NRF2/KEAP1 pathway in age-related and chronic diseases. 



Because NRF2 plays a central role in cellular stress response and energy metabolism, targeting this pathway might offer new avenues for treating conditions like macular degeneration, cardiovascular disease, or even the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protein-changes-discovered-protect-humans-mammals-from-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-horse-genetics-and-human-medicine">Horse genetics and human medicine </h2>



This discovery of stop codon read through in horses is a striking example of how evolution can find ingenious solutions to biological challenges. Until now, such a mechanism was thought to be confined to viruses, which use it to produce multiple proteins from the same genetic sequence. 



The fact that horses have developed a similar ability suggests this strategy may be more broadly applicable - and more medically significant - than previously imagined.



As the researchers continue to explore the full implications of this evolutionary adaptation, their work is helping bridge the gap between animal biology and human medicine, offering new insights into both performance and pathology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr8589" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Horse genetics could unlock breakthroughs in human medicine

A team of scientists has recently uncovered a unique genetic adaptation in horses that may explain their remarkable athleticism. The adaptation, previously seen only in viruses, provides horses with a way to override a premature genetic stop signal. The discovery, led by Johns Hopkins Medicine, in collaboration with Vanderbilt University’s Castiglione Lab, focuses on a key genetic pathway known as NRF2/KEAP1 and a rare evolutionary mechanism that gives horses an athletic advantage. Secrets of horse genetics The NRF2/KEAP1 pathway is found in all vertebrates and plays a...

Analysis of an animal’s mouth shape and function can reveal a lot about their diet. Scientists have known this since Charles Darwin first postulated the theory of evolution using the different beak shapes of finch species on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-galapagos-islands-are-struggling-from-the-growth-of-ecotourism/">Galapagos Islands</a>. 

A new study from <a href="https://www.brown.edu">Brown University</a> has once again confirmed this idea, but this time in ducks and geese instead of finches. Researcher Aaron Olsen, a postdoctoral researcher at Brown, explains, “This is the most comprehensive look to date at the relationship between diet and beak shape.”

Waterfowl in particular have very unique beaks, as they tend to be more curved and have a large diversity of shapes. In his study, Olsen wanted to figure out what accounts for this diversity. He imagined that diet likely played a significant part, but he wanted to achieve a deeper analysis than scientists that simply compare dietary categories with beak caliper measurements.

Olsen measured the three dimensional beak shape of 136 species of waterfowl - including two extinct species, one of which dated back tens of millions of years. Along with these measurements, he gathered detailed data from a vast research literature on the diet of each bird species.

“What this analysis asks is, ‘What are the patterns of correlation between these two datasets?’,” Olsen says. “What's nice about that is you are going in a little bit naively about the relationship between the two.”

Ultimately, the mathematical result showed a strong correlation between beak shape and dietary preferences. The correlation was so strong, that Olsen believes diet likely dominates any other influencer for beak shape that other researchers have demonstrated - such as preening or shedding body heat. However, Olsen does believe these factors also play a role in defining beak shape.

In analyzing this data, Olsen has hypothesized that early ancestors of modern ducks, geese, and other waterfowl were actually more duck-like. He believes that geese-like beaks are a newer phenomena, though they evolved several times in several different locations.

Despite the strong correlation his data shows, Olsen is open to inviting further research that may prove otherwise. “I would love to see someone publish a paper and argue the opposite,” he said. And isn’t that what good science is all about?

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.brown.edu">Brown University</a>

Image Credit: Aaron Olsen

Duck, duck, goose study reveals beak shape determined by diet

Analysis of an animal’s mouth shape and function can reveal...

Coral bleaching is one of the major consequences of climate change, and is affecting some of our most diverse ecosystems – coral reefs – all around the world. Bleaching occurs when water temperatures rise, causing corals to expel algae from their tissue in response to stress from negative environmental pressures. Without this algae, the corals starve.

Researchers have recently discovered that nearshore corals at the Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve (HBNP) on O’ahu, Hawaii are at risk of coral bleaching as seawater temperatures around the world continue to rise. Between 2014 and 2015, they found that 47% of reef flat corals at HBNP bleached overall and 9.8% of corals died in these locations.

The findings of the research team, which was led by the late Dr. Paul Jokiel of the <a href="http://www.himb.hawaii.edu/">Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology</a>, found that temperature is the most influential factor in coral bleaching events at HBNP. 

These warmer ocean temperatures that are devastating reefs worldwide are related to significant increase in global carbon emissions over the past several decades. As the researchers explain, regardless of past and current efforts to prevent bleaching from occurring, carbon will continue to be absorbed by the ocean and thus water temperatures will continue to rise.

Jokeil’s Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program (CRAMP) has been collecting data from the HBPN since 1999. Analysis reveals that there was a significant decrease in shallow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hawaii-ban-sunscreens-reefs/">coral</a> cover as far back as 2002.

The geography of the bay in the Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve is such that it separates the shallow nearshore from the deeper seaward regions, as it stretches from one end of the bay to the other. The barrier it provides, along with its two channels, have significant impacts on how cool water is carried from the open ocean to the shore, as well as how the water exits the bay.

The patterns of this water flow were a major part of the study, as the researchers attempted to understand why bleaching was more significant in certain areas of the bay. They determined that bleaching was most devastating in the areas where water would pool and warm for long periods of time. Areas that had more of a circulation pattern experienced less bleaching.

If living coral tissue continues to decline, the reef will erode and will no longer be able to provide shelter and food to the diverse sea life that calls the reef home. 

Dr. Ku'ulei Rodgers explains, “Global climate change poses a direct threat to the biological sustainability of the protected reefs of Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve and a clear economic and cultural threat to the state of Hawaii.”

If global warming continues and causes coral bleaching to increase, we will lose some of our most diverse and spectacular ecosystems.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>

Coral bleaching wreaking havoc at popular Hawaiian destination

Coral bleaching is one of the major consequences of climate...

Under President Trump’s newly proposed budget, wild horses captured throughout the U.S. West would be sold without guarantee that the animals won't be resold for slaughter.

The proposal, designed to save $10 million, would gut nearly a half-century of protection for an icon of the American West and could send thousands of free-roaming mustangs to foreign slaughterhouses for processing as food.

“This is simply a way to placate a very well-funded and vocal livestock lobby," Laura Leigh, president of the nonprofit protection group Wild Horse Education, said about the plan.

Livestock interests don't want the region's estimated 59,000 mustangs competing for precious forage across more than 40,000 square miles of rangeland in 10 states managed by the <a href="https://www.usa.gov/federal-agencies/bureau-of-land-management">U.S. Bureau of Land Management</a> (BLM), according to critics of the proposal.

For years, the National Cattlemen's Beef Association and other interests have been urging the BLM to allow sales of wild horses for slaughter to free up room in overcrowded government corrals for the capture of more animals.

Doug Busselman, executive vice president of the Nevada Farm Bureau, blamed the stalemate on the "emotional and anti-management interests who have built their business models on preventing rational and responsible actions while enhancing their fundraising through misinformation."

Presidents George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama also grappled with the spiraling costs of managing the nearly 60,000 horses on the range and 45,000 others in U.S. holding pens and contracted private pastures.

Over the past eight years, the BLM's wild-horse budget has more than doubled - from $36.2 million in 2008 to $80.4 million in 2017.

Trump's proposal anticipates the $10 million savings would come through reducing the cost of containing and feeding the animals. The savings also would include cutbacks involving roundups and contraception programs.

Suzanne Roy, executive director of the American Wild Horse Campaign, said the plan could put the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-wild-horses-genome/">horses</a> on the brink of extinction.

"America can't be great if these national symbols of freedom are destroyed," she said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_TRUMP_BUDGET_WILD_HORSES?SITE=AP&amp;SECTION=HOME&amp;TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&amp;CTIME=2017-05-25-13-49-02">AP</a>

Trump budget plan would end protection for wild horses

Under President Trump’s newly proposed budget, wild horses captured throughout...

Endangered species around the world are constantly at peril from the illegal hunting of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-missing-poached/">poachers</a>. Scientists have spearheaded numerous national and international efforts to prevent poaching from occurring, but some efforts by scientists may actually be hurting this cause.

In an article written by David Lindenmayer and Ben Scheele, the authors argue against scientific studies that post location data of endangered species. With the increasing accessibility of the internet and widely published journals, these analytic studies may actually be fueling poaching, further threatening the species that researchers are trying to study and protect.

In order to avoid unwittingly contributing to the demise of an endangered species, the authors say that researchers who publish on rare species must “unlearn” parts of the established publishing culture. The publication of rare and endangered species’ location data must become a thing of the past.

Although the authors admit that these restrictions may come with a cost, they believe that the inherent benefit of protecting these species will be more than worth it. Sensitive location data being openly available to anyone with an internet connection is not the proper way to protect species that are already being hunted to extinction for monetary gain.

Similar tradeoffs have been made in other scientific fields. Both paleontology and archeology established restrictions long ago on the publication of paleontological and archeological site locations. They have also promoted government regulations that limit the collection and trade of fossils and artifacts.

In their essay, Lindenmayer and Scheele outline new publication strategies that will allow endangered species to be better protected. In order to achieve the main goal in this research – protecting endangered and rare species – some minor sacrifices will have to be made.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>

Posting endangered species location data puts them more at risk

Endangered species around the world are constantly at peril from...

Scientists have long thought that mountain and savannah populations of East African honey bees are each distinct sub-species. The honey bees that live in the mountain forests of East Africa are much larger, darker, and less aggressive than savannah bees. They can also fly at lower temperatures and are able to conserve honey when flowers aren’t blooming.

However, a recent study of these different bee populations revealed information about their genomes that has surprised scientists. This comprehensive genome sequencing study of high-altitude honey bees in Kenya revealed new insights into their evolutionary history and the genetic basis of adaptation within these populations.

Researchers sequenced the genomes of 39 bees from two highland and two lowland populations in Kenya. Surprisingly, they found that the genomes of all the populations were actually quite similar, but two distinct regions on chromosomes 7 and 9 revealed consistent differences between high-altitude and low-altitude bees.

The segment on chromosome 7 is the location of receptor genes for octopamine, a neurotransmitter that is important for learning and foraging. Past studies have determined that octopamine plays a role as a signaling molecule in other insects that live in low temperatures and low oxygen conditions.

Researchers believe that having two different lineages diverge from this genetic distinction indicates that these variations have an ancient origin and may have existed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/varroa-mites-honey-bees/">bee</a> populations before they spread to their mountain and savannah habitats. The research team also found that the bee populations constantly interbred – due to the high degree of similarity in their genomes.

Martin Hasselman of the <a href="https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/en/english">University of Hohenheim</a>, Germany, explains, “…This phenomenon has never been documented in honey bees before. Our results should therefore spur further research into the role of supergenes in environmental adaptation. We are planning now to measure the distribution of these divergent segments in other geographic locations and to elucidate the functional link of these genes with behavior."

More information on this study can be found in the journal PLOS Genetics.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.plos.org/">PLOS</a>

East African honey bees capable of high-altitude foraging

Scientists have long thought that mountain and savannah populations of...

When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-retain-language/">babies</a> first begin to babble and make sounds, vocal feedback from adults helps speed up the learning process. Babies progress more quickly to sounds that resemble words with reinforcement from adults. Researchers from the University of Princeton set out to determine if the same vocal development strategy may apply to baby monkeys. 

Asif Ghazanfar is a co-author of the study and a professor of Psychology at the <a href="https://pni.princeton.edu/">Princeton Neuroscience Institute</a>.

"We wanted to find out whether the idea that monkeys don't do any learning during their vocal development is actually true," said Ghazanfar. "So we picked a species that we know really relies on vocalizations as its primary social signals. What we found in marmoset vocal development very closely parallels pre-linguistic vocal development in humans."

Ghazanfar and his colleagues selected pairs of fraternal twin marmosets. The monkeys were separated from the adults for 40 minutes a day, beginning the day after they were born. During the first 10 minutes of each session, scientists recorded the sounds the baby marmosets made while sitting alone. Next, the researchers gave the babies contingent feedback by playing audio recordings of the parent's calls for the remaining 30 minutes.

One of the twins received consistent vocal feedback, while the other received significantly less feedback. After two months of experimentation, the researchers discovered that marmosets who had gotten more feedback improved their vocal skills more quickly than those with fewer responses. The study, published today in Current Biology, provides evidence that nonhuman primates have a vocal learning process similar to that of humans. 

Despite the fact that the marmosets’ language is not nearly as complex as human language, the stages of vocal development are comparable. Further evaluation of marmoset communication may reveal more information about the evolution of speech. The research team plans to expand upon this study by observing the neural activities of the marmosets as they develop their vocal calls.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="https://pni.princeton.edu/">Princeton Neuroscience Institute</a>

Human babies and monkey babies learn how to vocalize the same way

When babies first begin to babble and make sounds, vocal...

Zebra mussels have been a problematic invasive species in North America for over three decades. Since they were introduced to the continent in 1986, this species has invaded countless rivers – including the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sudden-shifts-in-the-course-of-a-river-on-a-delta-may-be-predicted/">Mississippi</a>, Hudson, Ohio, and St. Lawrence. As they’ve flourished in these large rivers, zebra mussels have continued to spread far and wide.

The presence of these mussels wreaks havoc on native ecosystems by disrupting the natural cycle of nutrients and outcompeting native bivalve species. They also eat algae normally consumed by native fish populations, and are not safe for human consumption because they absorb pollutants and toxins while filtering. With the massive costs it requires to remove the invasive species, it is estimated that zebra mussels cause $1 billion in damages and control costs every year.

Understanding how these mussels spread could be key to figuring out a more cost-effective way to curb their growth. In a paper published in the <a href="https://www.siam.org/journals/siap.php">SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics</a>, researchers present a continuous-discrete hybrid population model that covers the invasive dynamics of zebra mussels in North American rivers.

“We wanted to develop and apply a mathematical model to understand the interaction between population growth and dispersal, environmental conditions, and river flow in determining upstream invasion success of zebra mussels," says Qihua Huang. Fellow researcher Mark Lewis explains, “Rivers are key natural resources, and once zebra mussels invade the consequences can be disastrous. Not only are the rivers themselves affected, they can spread the zebra mussels to new downstream locations.”

The survival of zebra mussels in North American rivers is dependent on water temperature, flow rates, salinity, turbidity, and pH levels. However, the most significant factor is unidirectional water flow, which moves river sediment, whisks mussel larvae downstream, and prevents them from attaching to the river bottom. “The dynamics of unidirectional water flow found in rivers can play an important role in determining invasion success,” explains Huang.

Due to the unusual dynamics of zebra mussel populations, the authors determined that classical models were useless. So they set out to develop they own unique spatially-explicit population model specifically for invasive zebra mussel populations. 

“We determined conditions for persistence of zebra mussels in rivers as a function of temperature and flow rate,” says Huang. “The population persists in a river only when the flow velocity is low and the water temperature is moderate. We found that the population cannot persist in a river if it is unable to spread upstream.”

The researchers believe that this new model could also be applied to other environmental factors that determine the success of these invasive populations. Furthermore, additional invasive species could be monitored with this model, allowing scientists around the world to better understand the dynamics of invasive populations.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.siam.org/">Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics</a>

Toxic zebra mussels invading rivers and hurting ecosystems

Zebra mussels have been a problematic invasive species in North...

Animals communicate information to one another through sounds, smells, vocalizations, and body language. Some methods of animal communication make sense, while others seem downright bizarre. The following is a run-down of animals that communicate in unexpected ways.

Honey bees

Using an elaborate dance in the shape of a figure eight pattern, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/varroa-mites-honey-bees/">honey bees</a> reveal the best places to find food to the other worker bees. The performance incorporates abdomen shaking and loud buzzing. This honey bee dance language was first decoded by Austrian scientist Karl Von Frisch. The angle of the dance and the length of time the bees “waggle” directly correlates with the distance and location of where the bees forage.

There are two variations of the honey bee’s waggle dance. One variation, the round dance, informs the other bees that a food supply is within 165 feet of the hive. The sickle dance lets them know the trip will be a little bit longer, with the location of the food anywhere between 165 and 500 feet. Honeybees also use other movements, odor cues, and food exchanges to communicate important information to each other. 

Blue-capped cordon bleu songbirds

While the honey bees dance for food, the blue-capped cordon-bleu songbirds dance for love. Originally, scientists believed these finches were simply bobbing their heads and singing to their potential mates. When video footage of the songbird’s performance was slowed down, researchers discovered that these birds were actually tap dancing at speeds so fast the human eye could not see. 

Both males and females attempt to find a mate using these courtship performances. These birds are monogamous, and very picky about choosing their mates. Perhaps this is why they put so much energy into their mating calls, executing up to 200 moves in five seconds.

Gorillas 

Gorillas have such a complex communication system that researchers have identified over 20 sounds that gorillas make and what they mean. Their communication skills range from laughing to growling. Some species of male gorillas in the wild actually hum a tune when they are happy or when it is time for a meal. 

When you think of a gorilla showing signs of aggression, the first thing that comes to mind is loud screaming and chest beating. These emotional creatures also stick out their tongues when they are irritated or angry. It may seem like they are joking and playing, but it turns out this is not the case.

Tarsiers

This tiny primate was once thought to be extremely quiet - until a team of researchers discovered they communicate with calls at such high frequencies that the sounds are inaudible to humans. In fact, the tarsier has one of the highest ultrasonic frequencies recorded for any mammal, and is the only primate that vocalizes with pure ultrasound. 

The high-frequency calls are used to warn each other when humans or predators are nearby. Standing only three to six inches tall and weighing only a few ounces, these tiny animals need all the defense they can get. Large eyes give them great night vision, and they have big ears that can move in the direction of any noise. 

African elephants

At the opposite end of the spectrum, African elephants use low-frequency calls to communicate. Also inaudible for humans, these sounds seem more like rumbling vibrations. The rumbles indicate how the elephant is feeling, and range from nervous to calm to pleasant.

These vibrations help elephants in long distance communication. The rumbles serve many purposes, including helping the animals to locate loved ones and signaling their reproductive status to potential male mates. The rumbling also helps elephants to detect where other elephants are, and plan their grazing route accordingly.

Humpback whales

Whales grunt and rumble in order to attract mates and communicate with their offspring. The males produce long, complex melodies that remain somewhat of a mystery. Even after decades of studying the whale songs, there are many aspects that are not understood by scientists. Perhaps the most amazing fact about whale songs is that identical songs are sung in regions that are hundreds and thousands of miles apart.

Adding to the mystery is the discovery that the whale songs contain rhyming sounds. Scientists suspect this is to help the humpback whales remember the songs. The tunes are believed to be mating calls that communicate youth, vitality, and strength to potential mates. The whales are also known to sing when they have lost a loved one or when they are lonely.

Rhinos

Rhinos have many human-like means of communicating including vocalizations,  body language, and facial expressions. Because rhinos do not see very well, they rely heavily on their senses of smell and hearing to communicate. Screaming indicates fear, while panting indicates a need to join forces due to impending danger.

Rhinos also have a very bizarre method of communication that is far from familiar to humans - through their feces. The rhinos have a communal dung pile called a midden. Each rhino shuffles through the dung and leaves their contribution behind as well. Different chemical signals exist in the feces, and the rhinos are able to get information about each other’s status such as age and general health by sniffing the poop. This process has been jokingly compared to updating one's Facebook status. 

--

Original Feature by <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sources: <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21443-the-only-primate-to-communicate-in-pure-ultrasound/">New Scientist</a>, <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/01/rhinoceroses-poop-middens-communication/">National Geographic</a>, <a href="http://www.hiveandhoneyapiary.com/TheWaggleDanceTalk.html">Hive &amp; Honey Apiary</a>, <a href="http://www.gorillas-world.com/gorilla-communication/">Gorillas World</a>, <a href="http://www.elephanttag.org/professional/professional_discoveries.html">Elephant Tag</a>, <a href="http://www.motherearthnews.com/nature-and-environment/rhymes-in-whale-songs-zmaz89sozshe">Mother Earth News</a>, <a href="http://www.rhinosinfo.com/rhino-communication.html">Rhinos Info</a>

Earth.com Exclusive: Wild ways that animals communicate

Animals communicate information to one another through sounds, smells, vocalizations,...

The Hermit Thrush songbird produces different sounds based on geography, with differences that can be traced back to the bird’s evolutionary past, a new study found.

The sounds vary across the large portion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horned-dinosaurs-eastern-north-america/">North America</a> where it spends the summer, according to the study by researchers from Nova Scotia's <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a>. The team studied 100 recordings captured between 1951 and 2015.

"Though Hermit Thrushes have a beautiful, well-known song, relatively little is known about their singing behavior," says one the authors, Sean Roach.

The analysis revealed significant differences in song structure across the three major populations--Northern, Western Mountain, and Western Lowland--as well as within them. 

The introductory notes that preface the bird’s songs showed the most striking differences. The Western Lowland Thrush produces higher, more variable introductory notes than their relatives elsewhere, the study said.

Some of the variation likely dates back to isolation of different Hermit Thrushes populations by ice sheets during the Pleistocene era. Differences between the two western groups may relate to body size, with larger birds producing lower-frequency songs.

One group of birds in the Canadian Rockies sang songs that stood out from other members of their subspecies, which Roach and coauthor Leslie Phillmore believe is an adaptation to how sound carries in their open, shrubby habitat.

"The whistle note's relative consistency across large geographical distances may be due to its role in long-distance communication of species or subspecies identity, while the remainder of the song could be under fewer constraints and its variability may carry more information about individual singers," said Heather Williams of <a href="https://www.williams.edu/">Williams College</a>, an expert on song diversity who was not involved in the study.

The research was published in the journal <a href="http://www.americanornithology.org/content/auk-ornithological-advances">The Auk: Ornithological Advances</a>

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.americanornithology.org/">American Ornithological Society</a>

The Hermit Thrush songbird’s tune varies with geography

The Hermit Thrush songbird produces different sounds based on geography,...

Female vampire bats forge relationships outside their nuclear families as safety nets in case family members are lost, a new study says.

Female bats are very close to their mothers and daughters, grooming each other and sharing regurgitated meals of blood, according to the study by the <a href="http://www.stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>.

But the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-boars-vampire-bats-rabies-oh/">bats</a> also engage in "social bet hedging” by forming friendships with less closely related bats in case they lose a family member, said Gerry Carter, post-doctoral fellow at institute.

Females who have expanded their social network outside the immediate family are better able to survive the loss of a relative than bats who only invest in close kin, the study said.

“We discovered that on the rare occasion that they lose a major food donor, they do much better,” Carter said. “Their social network of food donors is wider and more robust." 

For the research, Carter's team monitored social interactions in a captive colony of about 30 common vampire bats. The researchers worked out how the bats were related based on their genes. Carter then removed individual females from the group for a 24-hour fasting period. Just before returning them to the group, he removed one of the bat's key food donors, usually its mother or daughter. Then he examined how each bat coped with this change to its social network.

Common vampire bats are native to the American tropics and subtropics, where they often feed on the blood of cattle, especially where forests have been replaced by pasture.

"It's not uncommon that a bat goes out to forage and fails to get food, and it's not uncommon that her closest relative will have switched to a different roost that night," Carter said. "We're recreating a situation that vampire bats might face fairly often."

Other species, such as baboons, might also use social bet hedging, the study said.

There is also evidence that humans are happier with “quality over quantity” in their relationships, yet those living in unpredictable social environments tend to value more friendships over a few stronger ones. 

"It would be particularly interesting to test the extent to which human collaborative or friendship networks are shaped by decisions to invest in relationship quantity or quality," the authors added.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source:  <a href="http://www.stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>

Image Credit: Uwe Schmidt

Vampire bats make friends to cope with loss of family

Female vampire bats forge relationships outside their nuclear families as...

Whales have existed for 30 million years, but they evolved relatively recently into the giants we recognize today, a new study said.

It was two to three million years ago when ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere altered the way the whale’s food supply was distributed in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-million-years-recover/">oceans</a> that they became so enormous, according the the study by the Smithsonian's <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/">National Museum of Natural History</a>. 

Before ice sheets began to cover the Northern Hemisphere, food resources would have been fairly evenly distributed throughout the oceans, said Nicholas Pyenson, the museum's curator of fossil marine mammals.

When glaciation began, runoff from the new ice caps would have washed nutrients into coastal waters at certain times of the year, seasonally boosting food supplies, Pyenson said.

Baleen whales, which filter small prey like krill out of seawater, were well equipped to take advantage of these dense patches of food, he said.

Filter-feeding is particularly efficient when whales have access to very dense aggregations of prey and the foraging strategy becomes even more efficient as body size increases, the study said. 

Large whales can migrate thousands of miles to take advantage of seasonally abundant food supplies. The baleen whales' filter-feeding systems, which evolved about 30 million years ago, appear to have set the stage for major size increases once rich sources of prey became concentrated in particular locations and times of year, the study said.

The researchers studied the Smithsonian’s skull collections for both living and extinct baleen whales, which provided the raw data needed to examine the evolutionary relationships between whales of different sizes.  

Their data clearly showed that the large whales that exist today were not present for most of whales' history. 

"We live in a time of giants," said one of the researchers, Jeremy Goldbogen at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>. "Baleen whales have never been this big, ever."

The findings could help scientists better understand how whales survive in today’s oceans, Pyenson said.

“Today's oceans and climate are changing at geological scales in the course of human lifetimes.” he said. “With these rapid changes, does the ocean have the capacity to sustain several billion people and the world's largest whales? The clues to answer this question lie in our ability to learn from Earth's deep past -- the crucible of our present world -- embedded in the fossil record."

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/">National Museum of Natural History</a>

Image Credit: Copyright Silverback Films/BBC

Whales only recently became so large in size

Whales have existed for 30 million years, but they evolved...

<a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> researchers have tapped into a “hidden code” that allowed them to alter the way worms regenerate after an injury.

The team was able to cause flatworms to regenerate with two heads instead of one by overriding the default body shape called for by a genome.

Flatworms that are known for their regenerative capacity. When cut into pieces, each fragment of flatworm regenerates what it is missing to complete its anatomy. Normally, regeneration produces an exact copy of the original worm.

But the Tufts researchers altered the bioelectric circuits of the worms by using octanol to temporarily interrupt electrical synapses that enable cells to communicate with each other. 

A fourth of the amputated trunk fragments regenerated into two-headed flatworms, while 72 percent regenerated into normal-appearing, one-headed worms, and 3 percent of the fragments did not develop properly.

When the flatworms with normal body shape were amputated repeatedly over several months in normal spring water, they produced the same ratio of two-headed worms to one-headed worms.

The pattern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-slow-memory-loss/">memory</a> of the flatworms had been altered, although this only became apparent when the worms regenerated. The research illustrated that the shape to which the worms regenerate is encoded in a bioelectric pattern that instructs one of two possible outcomes after damage.

"With this work, we now know that bioelectric properties can permanently override the default body shape called for by a genome, that regenerative target morphology can be edited to diverge from the current anatomy, and that bioelectric networks can be a control point for investigating cryptic, previously-unobservable phenotypes," said the paper's corresponding author, Dr. Michael Levin, a Tufts biology professor.

The research is significant because advances in regenerative medicine require an understanding of the mechanisms by which some organisms repair damage to their bodies, said Levin.

 "Bioelectricity has a powerful instructive role as a mediator in the reprogramming of anatomical structure, with many implications for understanding the evolution of form and the path to regenerative therapies," Levin added.

[caption id="attachment_450759" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/141023.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-450759" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/141023-300x90.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="90" /></a> Image Credit: Fallon Durant, Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University[/caption]

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a>

Researchers discover hidden code behind how worms regenerate

Tufts University researchers have tapped into a “hidden code” that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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