View,Of,The,Device,Of,An,Oil,Drilling,Rig

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-the-evolution-of-the-earths-surface/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's surface</a> into Earth's deep subsurface. 



This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's <a href="https://has.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences</a>, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. 



"We looked at how the rates of fluid production with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a> compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface," McIntosh explained.



In a paper published in the journal Earth's Future, they shed light on the significant impact of human activities on the circulation of fluids in this subterranean zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Deciphering the hidden world in motion beneath our feet</h2>



The study, led by Grant Ferguson, also from the UArizona, compared the rates of fluid production from oil and gas extraction to the natural background circulation of water. 



The findings reveal that human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-internal-jet-stream-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid fluxes</a> surpass the natural flow, and they are projected to increase further with proposed strategies for combating climate change.



These strategies include geologic carbon sequestration, geothermal energy production, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fools-gold-may-be-a-valuable-source-of-lithium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithium extraction</a> from underground mineral-rich brine. 



"Responsible management of the subsurface is central to any hope for a green transition, sustainable future and keeping warming below a few degrees," emphasizes Peter Reiners, a professor in the <a href="https://www.geo.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UArizona Department of Geosciences</a> and a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-subsurface-fluid-fluxes">Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



These fluxes transport water, gases, and other substances through the subsurface, influencing everything from groundwater resources to geothermal energy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Types of subsurface fluid fluxes</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Groundwater flow</h4>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groundwater flow</a> represents the movement of water through porous and fractured rock formations. This flow occurs due to pressure gradients and the force of gravity, allowing water to move from areas of high hydraulic head to areas of low hydraulic head. Groundwater flow plays a vital role in the hydrologic cycle, recharging aquifers and sustaining surface water bodies.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Hydrocarbon migration</h4>



Subsurface fluid fluxes also include the migration of hydrocarbons, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-orphaned-oil-and-gas-wells-litter-the-world-and-must-be-cleaned-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a>. These fluids originate from organic-rich source rocks and migrate through permeable rock layers until they encounter traps or seals. Understanding hydrocarbon migration is essential for oil and gas exploration and production.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Geothermal fluid circulation</h4>



In regions with high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-water-could-be-a-great-source-of-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geothermal gradients</a>, subsurface fluids can circulate through fractures and permeable rock formations, absorbing heat from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's interior</a>. This heated fluid can then rise to the surface, creating hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles. Geothermal fluid circulation is a key factor in the development of geothermal energy resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Importance of Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



Subsurface fluid fluxes have far-reaching impacts on various aspects of our planet. They influence the availability and quality of groundwater resources, which are essential for human consumption, agriculture, and industrial activities. 



Additionally, these fluxes play a crucial role in the formation and distribution of mineral resources, such as ore deposits and petroleum accumulations.



Moreover, subsurface fluid fluxes contribute to the transport and cycling of chemical elements and compounds within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's crust</a>. 



This process has implications for geochemical cycles, rock-water interactions, and the evolution of subsurface environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Human intervention in Earth's fluid dynamics</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-chief-fossil-fuel-era-must-end-for-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a> production, saline water from the deep subsurface is extracted alongside the targeted resources. This ancient water, often millions of years old, acquires its salinity from the evaporation of ancient seawater or reactions with rocks and minerals. 



To maintain reservoir pressures and enhance oil recovery, near-surface water is added to the extracted saline water, and the blended mixture is reinjected into the subsurface, creating a continuous cycle of fluid production and reinjection.



Similar processes occur in lithium extraction, geothermal energy production, and geologic carbon sequestration, where leftover saline water is reinjected into the underground. 



"We show that the fluid injection rates or recharge rates from those oil and gas activities is greater than what naturally occurs," states McIntosh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Rewriting Earth's history through subsurface geology</h2>



Using existing data from various sources, the research team found that current fluid movement rates induced by human activities surpass those that occurred before human intervention. 



As carbon capture, sequestration, and lithium extraction intensify, the researchers also predicted how these activities might be recorded in Earth's geological record.



Moreover, human activities have the potential to alter not only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-geysers-the-worlds-largest-geothermal-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep subsurface fluids</a> but also the microbes that inhabit those depths. 



Fluid movements can modify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-the-extreme-microbial-activity-discovered-in-old-faithful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial environments</a> through changes in water chemistry or by introducing new microbial communities from Earth's surface to the underground. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-fracking-surged/">Hydraulic fracturing</a>, for example, can trigger sudden blooms of microbial activity in previously dormant deep rock formations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Earth's subsurface is still mostly a mystery</h2>



Despite the significance of these findings, many unknowns remain about Earth's deep subsurface and the extent of human impact on this hidden realm. 



"We need to use the deep subsurface as part of the solution for the climate crisis," emphasizes McIntosh. "Yet, we know more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface of Mars</a> than we do about water, rocks and life deep beneath our feet."



Continued research and exploration of this enigmatic zone are crucial for understanding the full scope of human influence on our planet and developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable strategies</a> for addressing the climate crisis. 



While we strive to mitigate the visible effects of human activities on Earth's surface, we must not overlook the hidden impact that extends deep into the subsurface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-what-lies-beneath">Protecting what lies beneath</h2>



As we continue to explore and utilize Earth's deep subsurface in our efforts to combat climate change, we must remain mindful of the hidden impact our actions have on this enigmatic realm. 



By studying the fluid dynamics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a>, and geological record beneath our feet, we can develop a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between human activities and the subterranean world. 



This knowledge will be crucial in guiding our strategies for a sustainable future, ensuring that our solutions do not create unforeseen consequences in the depths below. 



As we navigate the challenges of the climate crisis, we must approach the subsurface with a spirit of curiosity, responsibility, and respect, recognizing that the key to our success may lie in the mysteries that await us in Earth's hidden depths.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF004496" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Human activities also greatly harm Earth’s subsurface, not just the landmass

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the planet's surface into Earth's deep subsurface. This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. "We...

A collaborative team of scientists from Austria and Switzerland made a chance discovery of the alpine rose leaf miner - a moth that specializes on eating a notoriously inedible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-breed-plants-with-genes-from-only-one-parent/">plant</a>.  



Because the beautifully red-flowered alpine rose is known to be poisonous and avoided by butterflies and moths, it was pure coincidence that the scientists stopped to rest near the plant. The researchers were surprised to see the plant covered in caterpillars hungrily munching on it.&nbsp;



"The accidental sighting of the first caterpillar in an alpine rose leaf was an absolute adrenaline rush, it was immediately clear that this must be an extraordinary species," said Peter Huemer, who heads the Natural Sciences Department of Tyrolean State Museums.



After carefully examining both the morphology of the moths (after the caterpillars had pupated) and their DNA, the scientists concluded that it was in fact the swamp porst leaf-miner butterfly Lyonetia ledi - a widespread species.&nbsp;



As the name suggests, the caterpillars of the leaf-miners dig inside of leaves and eat from the inside until they’re ready to pupate.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the swamp porst leaf-miner was thought to live exclusively on swamp porst and gagel bush, two plants found in different habitats. The nearest known population of swamp porst leaf-miners is over 400 kilometers away.&nbsp;



The scientists hypothesize that the alpine rose once lived in the same environment as swamp porst and gagel bush during glaciation. As climate changed, the caterpillars may have switched their host plants and the two diverged, leading to different populations in different habitats.



So far the alpine rose leaf-miner has been discovered only in the lower Engadine region, at about 1,800 meters elevation above sea level. The scientists suspect that the alpine rose leaf-miner might be found in other similar environments in the alps that support alpine rose as well.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://alpineentomology.pensoft.net/">Alpine Entomology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Caterpillars spotted for the first time on alpine rose leaves

A collaborative team of scientists from Austria and Switzerland made...

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is moving forward on restoring protections to Southeast Alaska’s Tongass National Forest. Many critically important protections, such as the Roadless Rule, were stripped by the Trump administration.&nbsp;



The Roadless Rule has protected nine million acres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-endangered-bats-across-indiana-forests/">forests</a>, watersheds, and habitats in the Tongass for nearly two decades. This is a wilderness area that is larger than Yellowstone, Glacier, and Grand Canyon National Parks combined.



Reinstating the Roadless Rule is part of Biden’s Southeast Alaska Sustainability Strategy, presented earlier this year by the USDA. Restoring safeguards to southeast Alaska was one of the top ten goals of the <a href="https://www.trcp.org/">Theodore Roosevelt Conservation Partnership</a> (TRCP) for the Biden administration.&nbsp;



“Hunters and anglers are some of the most outspoken supporters of the Tongass National Forest because they understand the importance of these lands to Southeast Alaska’s economy, culture, and world-renowned fish and wildlife," said Whit Fosburgh, president and CEO of TRCP.



"Last year’s rollback of conservation safeguards for these public lands flew in the face of overwhelming public opposition, and we appreciate the USDA’s willingness to reverse that decision while also prioritizing more sustainable forest management practices that will result in healthier habitats, improved recreational opportunities, and more resilient communities.”



The USDA invested into local economies simultaneously with restoring old safeguards, and many in local communities welcomed these changes with open arms. The plan was seen as a balance of the local economy with protection for the wildlife that makes Alaska unique and beautiful and brings tourism. Jen Leahy, Alaska field representative for TRCP emphasized the importance of supporting this new change.



“Right now, hunters and anglers have an opportunity to ensure that public lands in Southeast Alaska are managed according to a durable, balanced, and community-focused framework," said Leahy.



"It is critical that members of the sporting community - as well as every American who understands the value of the Tongass - speak up in support of restoring conservation safeguards to Southeast Alaska’s remaining undeveloped fish and wildlife habitat.”



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hunters and anglers approve of new plan for the Tongass

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is moving forward...

3d,Rendered,Image,With,Original,Design:,High,Speed,Train,Driving

New research led by the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> has found that using carbon tax revenue to fund free green electricity and public transportation could significantly reduce households’ greenhouse gas emissions. Providing green services for free can help decrease home energy emissions by 13.4 percent and motor fuel emissions by 23.8 percent.



Current carbon taxes on home energy and motor fuel place a substantial financial strain on low-income households, even if such households contribute less to climate change than higher income ones. By comparing two ways of using revenue from carbon taxes to reduce emissions, scientists found that providing free green services can be more effective in mitigating the financial burden of the taxes on disadvantaged people than redistributing the tax revenue among the population.



“Stringent climate policies, including carbon taxes on home energy and motor fuels, are likely to be part of government strategies to achieve climate targets, but they put higher burdens on low-income households than on rich households.&nbsp;Governments&nbsp;urgently need to make climate policies fairer by finding ways that can compensate disadvantaged people,” explained study lead author Dr. Milena Buchs, an associate professor of Sustainability, Economics, and Low Carbon Transitions at the University of Leeds.



“Providing people with green living options, like free green electricity and free public transport, is promising because it’s re-distributive, saves emissions, and reduces fuel and transport poverty.”&nbsp;



Dr. Buchs and her colleagues examined household expenditure data on home energy and motor fuel from 275,614 households across 27 European countries, together with estimates of annual greenhouse gas emissions per household. Using this data, they assessed the impact of introducing two different compensation strategies.



They have found that introducing universal green vouchers with expanded renewable energy generation and public transport would be a much more effective strategy than giving cash back through tax rebates, and would reduce home energy emissions by 13.4 percent and motor fuel emissions by 23.8 percent.



“These findings demonstrate that policies that aim to compensate for unfair distributional impacts of carbon taxes need to be combined with additional environmental interventions.&nbsp;The provision of green goods and services needs to be expanded, and fuel and transport poverty&nbsp;minimized, so that social and environmental objectives can both be met,” Dr. Buchs concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1748-9326">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Free green services can reduce harmful emissions

New research led by the University of Leeds has found...

The analysis of preserved pollen and plant remains has enabled scientists from Tel Aviv University and Tel-Hai College to make the first detailed reconstruction of climate changes in Israel after the end of the last <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manatees-may-have-been-permanent-texas-residents-during-the-last-ice-age/">ice age</a> (20,000-10,000 years ago). They suggest that significant climate changes during this period were influential in the transition from nomadic, hunter-gather society to settled, agrarian society that took place in the region at that time. 



The research was conducted by Dr. Dafna Langgut of the Department of Archaeology and The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History at Tel Aviv University; Professor Gonen Sharon, Head of the MA Program in Galilee Studies at Tel-Hai College; and Dr. Rachid&nbsp;Cheddadi, expert in evolution and paleoecology of University of Montpellier, Institute of Evolutionary Sciences (ISEM) Montpellier, France.&nbsp;



The groundbreaking study was based on a well-dated, high-resolution pollen record recovered from the waterlogged archeological site known as Jordan River Dureijat (“Jordan River Stairs”), that is on the banks of Paleolake Hula. The continuous sequence at this site enabled the scientists to build a pollen-based&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/paleoclimate">paleoclimate</a>&nbsp;model for the region. In addition, the pollen data allowed the researchers to identify the plants that grew 10,000 – 20,000 years ago and provided the first information on the history of the region's flora and its response to past climate changes.&nbsp;



Both a major climatic change and a human societal change occurred in the region during the time period for which the pollen record was recovered. Professor Sharon, supervisor of the Madregot Hayarden excavation, explained the changes in human society.



“In the study of prehistory, this period is called the Epipaleolithic&nbsp;period. At its outset, people were organized in small groups of hunter-gatherers who roamed the area. Then, about 15,000 years ago, we are witness to a significant change in lifestyle: the appearance of settled life in villages, and additional dramatic processes that reach their apex during the Neolithic period that followed," said Professor Sharon.



"This is the time when the most dramatic change of human history occurred – the transition to the agricultural way of life that shaped the world as we know it today.”



Dr. Langgut, an archeobotanist specializing in identification of plant remains, elaborated on the dramatic climatic changes that occurred in the region.&nbsp;



“Although at the peak of the last ice age, about 20,000 years ago, the Mediterranean Levant was not covered with an ice sheet as in other parts of the world, the climatic conditions that existed nevertheless differed from those of today. Their exact characteristics were unclear until this study," explained Dr. Langgut.



"The climatic model that we built is based on reconstruction of the fluctuation of the spread of plant species indicating that the main climatic change in our area is expressed by a drop in temperature (up to five degrees Celsius less than today), whereas the precipitation amounts were close to those of today (only about 50 mm less than today’s annual average).”



However, round about 15,000 years ago, in the Epipaleolithic period, a significant improvement in climate conditions can be seen from the data. This time corresponds with a global warm and moist <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/interstadial">interstadial</a>&nbsp;period, as indicated by an increased prevalence of heat-tolerant tree species, such as olive, common oak, and Pistacia.



In addition, it is at this time, around 15,000 years ago, that the first evidence of the Nartufian culture appears in archaeological records of this region. The authors suggest that the temperate climate of the time could well have assisted in the development of this culture, in which permanent settlement, stone structures, and food storage facilities, appear for the first time anywhere in the world.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Towards the end of the Epipaleolithic period, about 11,000–12,000 years ago, there was again a return to a cold, dry climate like that characteristic of the ice age. This period is known globally as the Younger Dryas period and, although it is well recognized and documented in other parts of the world, it was unclear whether there was any expression of this period in the Levantine region.



“The findings that arise from the climate model presented in the article show that the period (Younger Dryas in the Levantine region) was characterized by climatic instability, intense fluctuations, and a considerable drop in temperatures. Nevertheless, while reconstructing the precipitation, a surprising phenomenon was discovered: the average quantities of rainfall reconstructed were only slightly less than those of today; however, the precipitation was distributed over the entire year, including summer rains.”



The occurrence of rain throughout the year would have led to ideal conditions for annual and leafy plant species to thrive, thus providing year-round food for gatherers. The diversity of plant species would have given a range of options for domestication and the gatherers of the time would certainly have become knowledgeable about and familiar with a wide range of edible plants.&nbsp;



The researchers are of the opinion that these findings contribute to a new understanding of the environmental changes that took place on the eve of the transition to agriculture and the domestication of animals.



“This study contributes not only to understanding the environmental background for momentous processes in human history, such as the first permanent settlement and the transition to agriculture, but also provides information on the history of the region's flora and its response to past climatic changes," said Dr. Langgut. "There is no doubt that this knowledge can assist in preserving species variety and in meeting current and future climate challenges.”



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/quaternary-science-reviews">Quaternary Science Reviews</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Consequences of climate changes after the last ice age

The analysis of preserved pollen and plant remains has enabled...

Covid-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lockdowns-disrupted-work-leisure-balance-especially-for-moms/">lockdowns</a> gave researchers a unique tool. By altering daily routines, including driving patterns, lockdowns allowed scientists to look at the impact of vehicle emissions.&nbsp;



Based on the analysis of satellite images of urban California, experts have now discovered that vehicle emissions are the main source of ammonia pollution. It was previously believed that agriculture was the biggest source of ammonia emissions.&nbsp;



Airborne ammonia (NH3) can cause human health problems. On global and national levels, it seems that most ammonia is produced by agriculture from sources such as livestock manure. Internal combustion motor vehicles also contribute to ammonia emissions because their catalytic converters reduce nitrous oxide and create ammonia.&nbsp;



In cities, it’s been hard to tease out which is the bigger contributor to ammonia pollution and it has generally been assumed that agriculture contributed the most. However, some studies have suggested otherwise.



Daven K. Henze led a team of researchers to investigate whether the question could be answered using satellite imagery, especially since such a method could be utilized anywhere in the world.&nbsp;



The scientists looked at the Los Angeles area, where previous research suggested that vehicle ammonia emissions were being overlooked.&nbsp;



The experts measured both ammonia and nitrous oxide levels. Because nitrous oxide is created only by vehicle emissions and not agriculture, it’s a good indicator of increased or decreased motor traffic. The ratio of the two chemicals indicated how much of the ammonia was created by vehicles as opposed to agriculture. Meteorological effects were also taken into account in the calculations.



The results were stark. The scientists found that 60 to 84% of ammonia in the atmosphere was from vehicles, a number that aligns with predictions from modeling. This calculation is very different from the 13-22% estimation used by government agencies. The problem is that this source of ammonia pollution is not taken into account and is not well regulated.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">ACS</a> journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/estlcu">Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vehicle emissions are the biggest source of urban ammonia pollution

Covid-19 lockdowns gave researchers a unique tool. By altering daily...

Ocean wilderness is rapidly disappearing due to widespread fishing practices all over the world. A new, large study of the global state of marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">coral reef</a> wilderness has found that remote ocean wilderness regions sustain fish populations much better than many of the world’s best marine reserves. 



The mean biomass of fish stocks in coral reefs located far away from people and urban markets was over one-third higher than the values found in the largest, oldest, and best-managed marine reserves located closer to the shore.



“This study confirmed that wilderness areas protect fish far better than even the most sustainable fisheries and reserves,” said study lead author Dr. Tim McClanahan, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>.&nbsp;



“It scares us to think what is being lost when wilderness is reduced. The findings are a call to designate the last remaining marine wilderness as areas needing special status and protection – global ocean strongholds. To ensure that all coral reef fish species are protected from fishing and possible extinction, we need to focus on wilderness alongside 30 percent closures in nearshore areas.”



A recent global initiative, <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/30x30-nrdcs-commitment-protect-nature-and-life-earth">30X30</a>, aims to protect at least 30 percent of the land and sea by 2030. However, until now only about two percent of coral reefs are fully protected in marine reserves. The current study suggests that, besides protecting marine ecosystem in organized reserves, areas of marine wilderness should also be protected, particularly since they are home to larger, space-requiring species such as sharks, groupers, jacks, or snappers.&nbsp;



“Observing and surveying fishes for many years has made it clear to me that many, and particularly big fishes, require lots of space to survive and thrive,” said study co-author Alan Friedlander, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/">National Geographic Society</a> and the <a href="https://www.himb.hawaii.edu/">Hawai’i Institute of Marine Biology</a>.



“This collaboration and analyses with my colleagues have made it clear how this need for open marine wilderness is so pervasive. This robust and extensive dataset has allowed us to confirm what many of us have observed for year, that remote marine wilderness areas are like time machines that allow us to observe the ocean of the past in order to protect the future.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/faf.12625">Fish and Fisheries</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ocean wilderness areas are living time machines

Ocean wilderness is rapidly disappearing due to widespread fishing practices...

Much has been written about the social cost of carbon dioxide. This is a calculation of the present value of the future damages that would arise from continued or increased CO2 emissions. The social cost is determined by the probable impacts of climate change on factors such as agriculture, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/less-than-1-chance-that-earths-energy-imbalance-has-occurred-naturally/">energy</a> production, water availability, human health, coastal communities and biodiversity. 



Such calculations play an important role for policy makers who need to assess the potential economic benefits of strategies that reduce CO2 emissions. Unfortunately, the social costs of continuing emissions of other greenhouse gases, such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), have not received the same amount of attention and some of the assessments that do exist are considered outdated and inaccurate.&nbsp;



In a commentary article, published recently in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>, an international team of researchers called for improved assessment of the social cost of nitrous oxide, in particular. This greenhouse gas is a by-product of fuel combustion, but is primarily emitted as a result of agriculture and land use changes.&nbsp;



Molecules of nitrous oxide remain in the atmosphere for an average of over 100 years, where they have a warming capacity almost 300 times that of molecules of CO2, and cause depletion of the ozone layer.



According to the authors of the article, the current social cost estimates do not take into account how N2O, affects the ozone layer, which protects earth from the sun’s powerful radiation. This omission ends up underestimating the costs of future damages caused by the emission of this gas.&nbsp;



The researchers calculate that adding N2O’s effect on the ozone layer would increase the current social cost of this greenhouse gas by 20 percent. Continued depletion of the ozone layer by N2O would cause damage to crops and other vegetation, as well as to marine life, while also increasing human exposure to cancer-causing ultraviolet radiation, all of which have considerable economic costs.&nbsp;



“Updating the social cost of nitrous oxide’s impacts to include stratospheric ozone raises the calculation significantly above current estimates,” said study co-author David Kanter, an associate professor in New York University’s Department of Environmental Studies.&nbsp;



The research team, which also included scientists from Canada’s University of Guelph, the University of California at Davis, PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, and NYU’s Wagner Graduate School of Public Service, felt that a revised measurement of the social costs, including the costs of depletion of ozone, would likely encourage government policy makers to act with more urgency.



“A more accurate estimate would make the case for action on nitrous oxide even more compelling and increase the likelihood of meeting U.S. climate and sustainable development goals,” explained study co-author Peter Groffman, a professor with the Environmental Science Initiative at the CUNY Advanced Science Research Center.



“These damage costs are crucial to evaluating the global benefits and costs of policy measures to address climate change and are used in several countries beyond the U.S., including Canada and the United Kingdom,” wrote the study authors. “Scientists and economists have invested heavily in improving estimates of the social cost of carbon. However, the social cost of nitrous oxide has been given much less attention.”



“Accounting for these impacts in regulatory review – as well as how they are distributed across and disproportionately affect vulnerable and marginalized communities – could significantly influence the types of policies that are favored."



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nitrous oxide is far more costly than estimated

Much has been written about the social cost of carbon...

Cloud,Earth,In,Space,,Video,Available,,Clip,12661208

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abi8065">Science Advances</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-tipping-points-where-the-climate-changed-abruptly/">climate</a> change is causing the troposphere – the Earth’s lower part of the atmosphere - to gradually expand. While between 1980 and 2020, the troposphere expanded by roughly 164 feet per decade, this rate increased between 2001 and 2020 to about 174 feet per decade.



The troposphere extends from sea level to a height ranging from 4.3 miles above the poles to 12.4 miles over the tropics. It is the layer of the atmosphere containing the most heat and moisture and the place where we live and breathe.&nbsp;



By analyzing atmospheric data including pressure, temperature, and humidity and pairing it with GPS data, an international group of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/main.psp">Nanjing University</a>, China, have found that the top of the troposphere (the tropopause) is rising higher than even due to increasing quantities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gases-threaten-arctic-ozone-layer/">greenhouse gases</a>.



"This is an unambiguous sign of changing atmospheric structure," said study co-author Bill Randel, a scientist at the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> in Boulder, Colorado. "These results provide independent confirmation, in addition to all the other evidence of climate change, that greenhouse gases are altering our atmosphere."&nbsp;



Even if some natural events, such as two volcano eruptions in the 1980s and the period Pacific warming pattern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-drives-millions-of-children-into-hunger/">El&nbsp;Niño</a> in the 1990s, may have had an impact on this phenomenon, the scientists nevertheless estimate that human activity accounted for 80 percent of the total increase in the atmospheric height.



However, climate change is not the only anthropogenic factor causing the tropopause to rise. The stratosphere – the layer above the troposphere – is shrinking, due to the past release of ozone-depleting gases that significantly harmed the stratospheric ozone layer.



“The study captures two important ways that humans are changing the atmosphere,” Randel said.&nbsp;“The height of the tropopause is being increasingly affected by emissions of greenhouse gases even as society has successfully stabilized conditions in the stratosphere by restricting ozone-destroying chemicals.”



Scientists are not yet sure how a rising tropopause will impact life on our planet. While one of the short-term effects may be that airplanes will have to fly higher in the atmosphere in order to avoid turbulences, the longer-term impact could be more unpredictable and dangerous.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth’s atmosphere is expanding due to climate change

A new study published in the journal Science Advances has...

About 20,000 years ago, during the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/last-glacial-maximum">Last Glacial Maximum</a>, North America was covered by ice sheets. Until recently, scientists thought that the ice pushed storms south, drenching the Southwest and leaving the Pacific Northeast dry. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://cires.colorado.edu/">Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences</a> (CIRES) has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-climate-shift-a-million-years-ago-linked-to-ocean-currents/">ocean</a> temperatures may be the real culprit behind the dramatic shift in atmospheric circulation characterizing that period.



By using a climate model to evaluate the impact of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets on West Coast atmospheric dynamics during the Last Glacial Maximum, a research team from CIRES discovered that although the ice sheets did play a key role in forcing the North Pacific jet stream and wintertime storms southward, the situation was more complex than initially thought.



“There’s also the thermodynamic effect of having a really bright ice sheet that reflects a lot of sunlight,” explained study lead author Dillon Amaya, a former CIRES visiting fellow and currently a research scientist at the&nbsp;<a href="https://psl.noaa.gov/">Physical Sciences Laboratory</a>. “That creates cooling that also adjusts atmospheric circulation.”



These findings suggest that ocean temperatures were more responsible than the ice sheets themselves for the reorganization of North Pacific atmospheric circulation and West Coast precipitation patterns during that period.



“This study highlights the need for a holistic view of the climate system, especially when modeling its past and future behavior,” said study co-author Kris Karnauskas, a research fellow at CIRES. “Without accounting for the interaction between the atmosphere and ocean, you can end up with the right answer for the wrong reason, which is of course risky when you try to extrapolate that information to future concerns like freshwater availability.”



“It is distinctly plausible that we could get an ocean temperature pattern in the North Pacific that looks very much like what we saw during the Last Glacial Maximum. This could lead to dramatic changes in West Coast hydroclimate over a relatively short period of time, like decades,” Amaya warned.



“Although there is no chance that a 3-km-tall ice sheet will suddenly appear over North America, modern climate can produce similar changes in North Pacific ocean temperatures that could temporarily swap the climates of the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X21005276?via%3Dihub">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a>. ---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dramatic changes may be coming for Pacific storms

About 20,000 years ago, during the Last Glacial Maximum, North...

According to a new <a href="https://www.gov.br/inpe/pt-br/assuntos/ultimas-noticias/divulgacao-de-dados-prodes.pdf">report</a> by Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research (<a href="https://www.gov.br/inpe/pt-br">INPE</a>), deforestation in the Amazon rainforest has hit its highest level in over 15 years, increasing by 22 percent in the last year alone. INPE’s Prodes monitoring system has shown that 5,110 square miles of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fires-are-transforming-the-amazon-rainforest-into-savanna/">rainforest</a> was destroyed from August 2002 to July 2021.&nbsp;



These findings undermine Brazil’s attempts to increase their environmental credibility at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cop26-deal-failure-or-historic-achievement/">COP26</a> climate change summit earlier this month, when they promised to end and reverse deforestation by as early as 2030.&nbsp;



The Amazon rainforest is home to over three million species of plants and animals, as well as one million indigenous people. Furthermore, it has long acted as a vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sink</a> that helped mitigate global warming.



During the past decade, the rainforest lost over 3,860 square miles to deforestation each year, with the annual average leaping up to 4,400 square miles since 2019. The total extent of deforestation over the past three years covers an area larger than the US state of Maryland.



“It is a shame. It is a crime,” said Márcio Astrini, the executive secretary of the environmental non-profit group Climate Observatory. “We are seeing the Amazon rainforest being destroyed by a government which made environmental destruction its public policy.”



Due to deforestation, huge areas of the Amazon rainforest are now producing more carbon than they absorb. Through a combination of fires and logging, many regions recently switched from being carbon sinks to being carbon emitters, particularly in the south-eastern Amazonia, thus fueling global warming, and producing more frequent and intense extreme weather events.



Although Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro recently declared that 90 percent of the Amazon remain pristine and that international attacks on Brazil for deforestation are unfounded and unfair, the recent data appears to paint a much grimmer picture.



“This is the real Brazil that the Bolsonaro government tries to hide with fantastical speeches and actions of greenwashing abroad,”&nbsp;said Mauricio Voivodic, the executive director of the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/">World Wildlife Fund</a>, in a statement following the release of the Prodes data.



“The reality shows that the Bolsonaro government accelerated the path of Amazon destruction,” he concluded.



If measures to stop and reverse deforestation in the Amazon are not urgently taken, this vital region - as well as our entire planet- will have much to suffer.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest hits new records

According to a new report by Brazil’s National Institute for...

Mother,And,Son,Buying,Green,Peas,At,Market

Over half of the globe’s population currently lives in urban areas, a figure which will increase to 68 percent by 2050. According to scientists, increased urbanization drives changes in climate, land use, biodiversity, and human diet. A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.10.012">One Earth</a> has found that the widely accepted myths that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-forces-tiger-snakes-to-inbreed/">urbanization</a> negatively impacts food diversity are not always correct.



"We can't simply assume that urbanization exclusively, negatively impacts food biodiversity," said study lead author Karl S. Zimmerer, a professor of Environment and Society Geography at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a>.



Professor Zimmerer and his colleagues explored the intersection of urbanization and agrobiodiversity (biodiversity in food production and consumption) in four areas: land use, supply chains, food access and foodways, and urban infrastructure and food retail.



According to the researchers, on a city’s fringe, crop lands, orchards, and dairy farms could supply a large variety of products, making cities locally self-sufficient and agrobiodiverse. In Hanoi, Vietnam, for example, urban and peri-urban agriculture provide 62 to 83 percent of vegetables as well as significant amounts of meat. By contrast, large metropolitan areas in the U.S. are far from being self-sufficient.&nbsp;



"Most urbanization in coming decades will be based in Africa," said Zimmerer. "Asian cities have already grown, but increases will be much higher in Africa. The interesting thing is Africa will be dotted by large, peri-urban, and urban spaces with small farms and gardens. Nutrition and food security will be paramount."



Since cities are usually not self-sufficient, local, national, and international supply chains are crucial to provide the necessary amount and diversity of food. However, such supply chains are known to drive increasingly standardized and biologically simplified products, thus often having a negative impact on agrobiodiversity.



Nevertheless, people living in large urban areas are often of varied cultural ancestry and carry with them the diverse foodways of their respective cultures, thus potentially helping to diversify the foods available for all the inhabitants in those areas.



Finally, urban infrastructure and food retail, including supermarkets, groceries, convenience or corner stores, restaurants and other eateries, open-air markets, and street vendors provide a variety of dietary options that non-urban spaces often lack.



Thus, the relationship between urbanization and agrobiodiversity is more complex than previously thought, and should be further investigated in order to open new paths for sustainable development based on a cultivation of food diversity and an increase in food security.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Urbanization does not always decrease food diversity

Over half of the globe’s population currently lives in urban...

Prior to the massive 2019-20 wildfires in Australia, a species of assassin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-can-track-the-scent-of-killer-ants-to-avoid-them/">spider</a> known as the “pelican spider” was found only in the Western River Wilderness Protection Area on Kangaroo Island (KI). Unfortunately the area burned severely, leaving scientists to suspect that pelican spiders had been completely wiped out by the fires.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Recently, two pelican spiders were discovered alive in northern Kangaroo Island. The discovery of the surviving spiders was the result of research carried out under a grant acquired by the <a href="https://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/">Southern Australia Museum</a> (SAM) to survey the bushfire damage.&nbsp;



“This is the first time the species has been found since high severity fires burnt their only known collecting locality. We have been surveying for the spiders since the fires, so it was an amazing feeling to finally find one,” said Dr. Jessica Marsh, an honorary research associate at SAM.



Pelican spiders are especially vulnerable to fire as they inhabit highly flammable environments.



“The spider lives in leaf litter that is suspended at around knee height in low lying vegetation – a habitat which is highly flammable, even in low severity fire. It is found near creeklines in open eucalypt vegetation communities,” explained Dr. Marsh.



Assassin spider populations were previously impacted by prescribed burns on Kangaroo Island, which highlights the vulnerability of the spiders to fire. The pelican spider was always rare and limited in range, so any threat is likely to be severe.



“A section of the Western River Wilderness Protection Area was burnt in a prescribed burn in 2015 and was not impacted by the 2019/20 bushfires. Post-fire surveys of the area have revealed that the elevated litter layer has still not yet formed in the vegetation and no habitat for assassin spiders was found, illustrating how even lower severity and planned burns can be a threat to this species. This also highlights its vulnerability, due to the length of time taken for suitable habitat to re-establish post-fire," said Dr. Marsh.



“Like other species of assassin spiders, the Kangaroo Island species has a very small distributional range and restricted dispersal abilities making it particularly susceptible to major threats, such as prescribed and wild bushfires, feral pigs and increased fragmentation of native vegetation.”



As of now though, there’s still some hope that pelican spiders will survive for a while longer.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Spiders found on Kangaroo Island were thought to be extinct

Prior to the massive 2019-20 wildfires in Australia, a species...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

[sendtonews key="Ccjk8KEMzv-2550719-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

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