In the United States, about 32 percent of adults now have at least one tattoo. Despite their widespread presence across all walks of life, tattoos still trigger snap judgments about an individual's personality, values, or lifestyle.



A new study from <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> questions those snap judgments. The study revealed that observers frequently misinterpret personality traits based on tattoo content, style, and appearance



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattoos-are-common-but-still-judged">Tattoos are common but still judged</h2>



Ink has become a common part of daily life, from teachers' forearms to politicians' ankles. <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/SR_23.08.15_Tattoos_topline.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eight in ten Americans</a> say their communities are now more accepting of body art compared to 20 years ago.



Even so, a deep undercurrent of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28934022/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tattoo stigma</a> survives. Earlier research found that tattooed adults were viewed as more deviant, less conscientious, and more promiscuous than their un‑inked peers. 



Children as young as six linked tattoos to delinquent behavior in a classic 2000 <a href="https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1348/135532500168065" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> by Durkin and Houghton.



Studies also show <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/head-games/201809/are-people-with-tattoos-stigmatized" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gender effects</a>. Women with visible ink are often judged more harshly than men, especially in hospitality and healthcare settings.



Modern workplaces try to project inclusivity, yet hiring managers still admit that visible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wireless-e-tattoo-detects-when-your-brain-gets-overloaded/">ink</a> can hurt an applicant. Simmering bias fuels a market for makeup that covers sleeves during interviews.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattoo-and-personality-links">Tattoo and personality links</h2>



William Chopik and Brooke Soulliere, both psychologists at Michigan State University, photographed 375 tattoos from 274 volunteers. The volunteers completed a full <a href="https://www.truity.com/test/big-five-personality-test" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Five personality traits</a> inventory before rolling down their sleeves.



“We found that people did tend to rate the personalities of tattooed people consistently,” explained Chopik. 



A separate panel looked only at each image and guessed the wearer’s personality. Observers saw the ink but not the person’s face, clothing, or setting. That design isolated the tattoo as the single visible cue, mimicking quick judgments made on a sidewalk or social feed.



Soulliere added that the study covered 18 features, from size to color to placement. Testing each cue against personality scores allowed the team to see which visual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoos-increase-the-risk-of-developing-lymphoma/">hints</a>, if any, were worth trusting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattoos-rarely-show-true-personality">Tattoos rarely show true personality</h2>



The results showed agreement among raters, meaning most viewers made the same assumptions. Agreement, however, is not accuracy. 



Traits such as agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and neuroticism were wrongly assigned. The raters’ confidence did not rescue their guesses.



Psychologists describe this pattern with the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9103609/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lens model</a>, which says people read surface cues to infer hidden qualities. Tattoos act as one such lens, but the view they provide can be cloudy. Studies over the past decade linked skulls, guns, or prison motifs to criminal stereotypes among jurors.



Sticker‑covered <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0092656621001239" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laptops</a> tell a parallel story. Raters accurately judged an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoo-ink-travels-through-the-body-and-may-cause-long-term-risks/">owner</a>’s openness and extraversion by glancing at personalized decals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattoo-meaning-and-personality-often-clash">Tattoo meaning and personality often clash</h2>



Getting tattooed often involves what psychologists call identity claims. A self‑directed claim might memorialize a child’s birthdate, while an other‑directed claim signals allegiance to a military unit or sports team. 



The problem arises when outsiders guess the message without context. A snake entwined with roses could honor recovery from illness, yet many will see danger or rebellion.



Anthropologists note that body art has held meaning across cultures for millennia, from Polynesian rite‑of‑passage marks to Japanese irezumi. Western viewers unfamiliar with these traditions may project their own narratives instead.



Social media accelerates the misreading. A single viral image can lock a stranger into a public persona built on nothing more than a wrist tattoo glimpsed under café lights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattoos-link-to-openness-only">Tattoos link to openness only</h2>



The Michigan State team uncovered one sliver of accuracy. Viewers who saw a tattoo described as quirky, goofy, or simply odd tended to peg the owner as high in openness to experience. 



“When people see a wacky or goofy tattoo, they assume that person is open to experience, and they’re correct about it,” noted Soulliere.



Openness tracks curiosity, creativity, and a hunger for novelty. A full sleeve of abstract color or a playful cartoon can hint at those traits more faithfully than a skull wrapped around a dagger. 



Many open‑minded folks choose minimalist ink, and some conventional thinkers pick bold designs on a dare.



Researchers suspect the accuracy stems from selection rather than signal. People high in openness may be drawn to unusual images, so the art style predicts the trait.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattoo-and-personality-bias-affects-life">Tattoo and personality bias affects life</h2>



Snap judgments about tattoos happen in classrooms, clinics, courtrooms, and dating apps. Mistaking agreeableness or conscientiousness can nudge decisions on trust, hiring, or even sentencing. 



Bias also works inward. People who know the stereotypes may edit their ink choices to avoid certain images, limiting self‑expression in subtle ways.



Future research may test whether adding context - such as the story behind a tattoo - improves accuracy. For now, experts urge caution before reading too much into a rose, a dragon, or a pop‑culture tribute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-tattoo-and-personality-bias">Reducing tattoo and personality bias</h2>



The first step is awareness, and studies like this one give people an evidence‑based reason to pause before leaping to conclusions. 



Training programs in customer service and law enforcement already include modules on implicit bias, but tattoos rarely appear in those slides.



Organizations could add quick reminders that body art alone predicts little besides a taste for ink. A supervisor who knows that fact is less likely to equate a forearm phoenix with poor reliability. 



Small actions add up. Asking an employee about their new tattoo, rather than assuming its meaning, turns a potential bias trap into a conversation starter.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0092656625000613?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Research in Personality</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tattoos lead to mistaken assumptions about personality and values

In the United States, about 32 percent of adults now have at least one tattoo. Despite their widespread presence across all walks of life, tattoos still trigger snap judgments about an individual's personality, values, or lifestyle. A new study from Michigan State University questions those snap judgments. The study revealed that observers frequently misinterpret personality traits based on tattoo content, style, and appearance Tattoos are common but still judged Ink has become a common part of daily life, from teachers' forearms to politicians' ankles. Eight in ten...

As early humans evolved from their ancient primate ancestors, a helpful genetic mutation arose that created immunity to the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a virus that still plagues primate groups today. 

While this mutation stopped the virus from crossing over to infect humans, eventually the virus found a workaround and SIV evolved to give rise to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drug-treatment-eliminates-hiv-transmission/">human immunodeficiency virus </a>(HIV) which began the AIDS pandemic. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkley</a> have unlocked the inner workings of how this mutation blocked the SIV virus and how the virus eventually came to infect humans. 

An estimated 38 million people worldwide were living with HIV as of 2018, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/gho/hiv/en/">World Health Organization</a>, and since the start of the epidemic, 32 million people have died of HIV. 

Before the rise of HIV, early humans developed a mutation in the cells that stopped SIV from hacking the cell’s machinery and making thousands of copies of itself. 

The researchers found that the key was that the mutation disrupted SIV proteins from binding to human proteins. 

“The binding site involved is structurally very complex, so essentially it is not possible to adapt to it once the tight binding is lost. The virus had to invent a completely different way to do the same thing, which took a long time in evolution,” said James Hurley, a co-author of the study. “This conferred an advantage on our prehistoric ancestors: From chimps on down, every primate was susceptible to SIV, but humans were immune.” 

Cryo-electron microscopy was used to analyze the structure of SIV proteins. 

Both SIV and HIV are lentiviruses that take over a host cell, forcing the cell to make copies of the virus, and sending these copies (virions) to infect other cells. 

[caption id="attachment_1876942" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/graphic.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1876942" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/graphic.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="464" /></a> Image Credit: UC Berkeley image by Cosmo Buffalo[/caption]

The virus wraps its DNA around a piece of the host cell’s membrane to make copies. The cell sheds this piece, and the virus is safely cocooned in a bubble until it finds another cell to infect. 

Typically the immune system would recognize a virus and infection and destroy the entire cell, but SIV found a way to fight these natural defenses. 

SIV virions staple themselves to the cell membrane with something called tetherin. A protein called Nef ramps up the cell’s recycling system forcing the cell to go into overdrive and shed tetherin, whether it’s connected to a virus or not. This allows copies to be safely ejected from the cell. 

Humans developed a mutation which loosened the binding between Nef and the cell proteins and kept the tetherin firmly in place, preventing copies from infecting other cells. 

Eventually, SIV found a workaround, a second protein to wedge in between the proteins and make copies once again. 

“There were probably many crossovers into humans that failed, but eventually, some hunter in Africa, perhaps in the course of butchering a chimp, was exposed to the blood, and the virus then acquired an additional mutation, a small step that turned SIV into HIV,” said Hurley.

The study provides a detailed overview of how early humans evolved a mutation against SIV and the thousands of years it took for SIV to adopt a new strategy and infect human hosts. 

“The main importance for this paper is that it tells us what was one of the last major barriers before the crossover to humans happened,” said Hurley. “The current paper is an archeological look at how this

The researchers published their findings in the journal Cell Host and Microbe.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/monofaction

Early humans were once immune to immunodeficiency viruses

As early humans evolved from their ancient primate ancestors, a...

Research proves that the ‘crazy cat lady’ stereotype is false. After psychoanalyzing the emotional health of individuals with and without pets, a team of researchers at <a href="http://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> has determined that it is time to put the "crazy cat lady" stereotype to rest. The study revealed that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cat-owners-hunting-wildlife/">cat owners</a> are no more "crazy" than anyone else.

"We found no evidence to support the 'cat lady' stereotype: cat-owners did not differ from others on self-reported symptoms of depression, anxiety or their experiences in close relationships," wrote the study authors.

The study was focused on the mental health of 264 young adults with cats, dogs, or both. For comparison, the team also evaluated 297 young adults who had no pets.     

The researchers analyzed the potential link between pet ownership and mental health-related or social difficulties, and also observed how the participants reacted to distress calls from animals. 

The experts said that their findings do not support the idea that cat owners tend to be mentally unstable or lonely. In 2017, researchers at University College London came to a similar conclusion. They could not find any evidence that cat ownership is linked with the development of psychotic symptoms.

The UCLA study also demonstrated that cat and dog owners were more likely to react with empathy when they heard the distress calls of an animal. Pet owners were found to be more emotional than people without pets when they heard dog whimpers or cat meows.

"We found several subtle differences between how adults with and without pets generally rated animal vocalizations," said the study authors. 

A growing collection of research has found that caring for a cat or dog has a positive impact on mental health, helping to relieve depression, anxiety, and stress. In addition, pets provide companionship, boost physical activity, and ease loneliness.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Alena Ozerova

Research proves that the ‘crazy cat lady’ stereotype is false

Research proves that the ‘crazy cat lady’ stereotype is false....

Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral, and research has shown that it can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oral-healthcare-crisis/">prevent tooth decay</a>, keeping the tooth enamel strong and healthy to guard against cavities. 

Because of its potential role in improving oral health, fluoride can be found in many community water systems. According to the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/index.html">Centers for Disease Control</a>, drinking fluoridated water reduces cavities by 25 percent in children and adults. 

But as helpful as fluoride may be, there has been a long-running debate about the safety of adding this potentially toxic mineral to the drinking water and consuming high levels of fluoride. 

Now, a new study has added fuel to that debate. Researchers from several Canadian and US academic institutions and medical centers discovered that maternal fluoride exposure was linked to lower IQ scores in children aged three to four.  

The researchers reviewed and analyzed data from the <a href="http://www.mirec-canada.ca/en/">Maternal-Infant Research in Environment Chemicals cohort</a> focusing on 601 mother and child pairs across six major Canadian cities. Children in the cohort were born between 2008 and 2012. 

Of the children included in the research, 41 percent were exposed to fluoridated drinking water. 

Overall, for the children who had IQ data available, the researchers found a definite link between maternal fluoride exposure and lower IQ scores in the children, particularly for boys.  

“Based on the current evidence, it is a reasonable recommendation to tell women to reduce their fluoride intake during pregnancy,” Christine Till, a co-author of the study, told<a href="https://time.com/5656476/is-fluoride-in-water-safe/?utm_source=emailshare&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_campaign=email-share-article&amp;utm_content=20190821"> Time</a>. “It’s a low-hanging-fruit recommendation to [protect] the safety of the fetus. That’s a no-brainer.” 

The study was observational, so there are limitations to the results and the researchers caution that this is just one study, and more research is needed to explore the potentially damaging impacts of adding fluoride to the drinking water. 

The researchers published their findings in the journal<a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2748634"> JAMA Pediatrics</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Jakub Zak

Is drinking fluoride during pregnancy linked to lower IQ scores for children?

Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral, and research has shown...

‘Managed retreat’ may be a smart strategy in adapting to climate climate. As humans grapple with the effects of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/us-cities-vulnerable-climate-change/">climate change</a>, some have argued that moving populations away from at-risk areas may be the wisest strategy, while others have been quick to label it as accepting ‘defeat’. 

A.R. Siders, a researcher from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> and the <a href="https://www.udel.edu/">University of Delaware</a>, posits that “managed retreat,” a form of fleeing, may just be the best adaptation option in the midst of a rapidly changing climate. 

In an <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> Policy Forum, Siders and colleagues recognize that retreat is a “politically sensitive climate adaptation strategy," but believe that "the question is no longer if retreat will occur but how, where, and why." 

"We need to stop picturing our relationship with nature as a war," said Siders. "We're not winning or losing; we're adjusting to changes in nature. Sea levels rise, storms surge into flood plains, so we need to move back."‘ Managed retreat’ may be a smart strategy in adapting to climate climate

If the overall abandonment approach, which involves fleeing vulnerable areas with the highest climate-related hazards, is managed correctly and strategic goals are put into place, Siders suggests that there will be massive social, economic, and environmental benefits to a managed retreat. 

"No matter the circumstances, moving is hard," said co-author Miyuki Hino of <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>. "People have chosen where to live for a reason, and it is often difficult to find a place to move to that meets all their social, cultural and financial requirements.

"One major challenge with retreat is that we're so focused on getting people out of harm's way, we miss the chance to help them move to opportunity."

Furthermore, Siders believes that managed retreat should not be saved as a last resort option. If put into action now, Siders says that we can efficiently dole out vacant land and make the process sustainable and strategic for the future. In fact, managed retreat should be integrated into broader development goals right now.

"Future retreat will need to be engaged with a spirit of experimentation: a willingness to try new things paired with rigorous research and evaluation of process and outcomes for all participants," Siders and colleagues conclude.

This paper is published in <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/365/6455/761">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS)

‘Managed retreat’ may be a smart strategy in adapting to climate climate

‘Managed retreat’ may be a smart strategy in adapting to...

The <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/">Pew Research Center</a> reports that 20 percent of American women are remaining child-free after their childbearing years compared to 10 percent of women in the 1970s. For decades, researchers have investigated whether people are happier with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/parents-teens-drink-alcohol/">kids</a> or without, and most studies have suggested that having children does not make you happier. 

A study led by Christoph Becker at <a href="https://www.heidelberg.edu/">Heidelberg University</a> is shedding new light on this debate, revealing that parents are actually happier than childless adults - but not until after the kids have moved out.

The finding supports previous work which found that even though having children negatively affects relationship satisfaction, couples are happier than any other time in their relationship after the children leave the nest.

Most of the surveys that have assessed parental happiness have been conducted while the children are still in the home, showing that parents often have less money, time, or rest compared to child-free adults. Becker's team theorized that satisfaction levels may improve among parents whose children are grown.

The team focused the investigation on data from a European survey that involved 55,000 participants over the age of 50, who reported on their emotional well-being.

The analysis showed that people in this age group with children had greater life satisfaction and fewer symptoms of depression compared to older adults without children. These improvements in well-being, however, were only found among parents whose children had moved out of the family home.

Becker told <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a> that this may be because when children grow up and move out, they provide social enrichment for their parents instead of the day-to-day stress that is associated with raising them. He added that grown children often give back to their parents by providing support. "Hence, children’s role as caregivers, financial support or simply as social contact might outweigh negative aspects of parenthood."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Olena Yakobchuk

Having kids makes you happier, but only after they move out, study shows

The Pew Research Center reports that 20 percent of American...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.gwu.edu/">George Washington University</a> (GW) have developed a mapping model that is the first of its kind to track how hate clusters thrive online. 

The study revealed that self-organized clusters interconnect to form resilient networks that are spread out across multiple <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/posting-social-media-high/">social media</a> platforms, countries, and languages,

Social media has made it fast and easy for like minded people to connect. Recently, groups that share a common interest in spreading hate and extremist ideas have been linked to a sudden rise in crimes on a global scale. 

Led by Dr. Neil Johnson, the GW team set out to gain a better understanding of how online hate evolves and whether or not these types of movements can be stopped.

"Hate destroys lives, not only as we've seen in El Paso, Orlando and New Zealand, but psychologically through online bullying and rhetoric," said Dr. Johnson. "We set out to get to the bottom of online hate by looking at why it is so resilient and how it can be better tackled. Instead of love being in the air, we found hate is in the ether."

To investigate the evolution of hate online, the team mapped out how the groups interconnect and attract new members. Based on Facebook and VKontakte, the researchers tracked the development of a hate cluster and then looked outward to find a second branch that was strongly connected to the first. 

The experts discovered that hate crosses boundaries of specific internet platforms, including Instagram, Snapchat, and WhatsApp. The clusters were also associated with certain geographic locations, such as the United States, South Africa, and parts of Europe. The most commonly used languages were English and Russian.

Clusters were found to adapt their strategies in order to re-group on other platforms or to re-enter a platform after being banned. For example, the groups often use different languages to avoid detection. This allows the cluster to quickly re-organize thousands of supporters on a platform that they have already been banned from. 

"The analogy is no matter how much weed killer you place in a yard, the problem will come back, potentially more aggressively. In the online world, all yards in the neighborhood are interconnected in a highly complex way - almost like wormholes. This is why individual social media platforms like Facebook need new analysis such as ours to figure out new approaches to push them ahead of the curve," said Dr. Johnson.

The team has developed intervention strategies that social media platforms could implement immediately, such as reducing the power and number of large clusters by banning the smaller clusters that feed into them.

Dr. Johnson and his team are developing software to help assist social media platforms and law enforcement in the battle against hate online. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://nature.com">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: chainarong06/Shutterstock

Online hate thrives globally through interconnected clusters, study shows

Researchers at George Washington University (GW) have developed a mapping...

Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s Disease, was once feared to be highly contagious but is now known to be a curable bacteria disease that is not easily transmitted. Research suggests that 95% of humans are immune to leprosy, making it a mystery how the disease is spread at all. 

According to the <a href="https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/contagious-skin-diseases/leprosy">American Academy of Dermatology</a>, a healthy person must have months of contact with an infected person to catch leprosy. Often thought of in the context of biblical times, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), there were 211,009 new cases of leprosy reported globally in 2017. 

Leprosy is a strange disease that may show symptoms within a year or may be asymptomatic for up to 20 years. Although <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/amazonian-armadillos-leprosy/">leprosy</a> is often thought of as exotic or ancient, there are still cases of the disease in the US even as it remains rare. Most leprosy cases in the US are from people who traveled abroad and caught the disease from another person. Perhaps the most interesting and tragic history of leprosy in the US comes from Hawaii, starting before the islands were even part of the US.

In a remote part of the island of Molokai, 8,000 patients were kept in misguided isolation from the outside world to stop the spread of leprosy. According to the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/kala/pdf/B3LepHawaii.pdf">National Park Service</a>, the leper colony was created by an act of the legislative assembly of the Hawaiian island, approved by King Kamehameha V. 

The new law made isolation in the leper colony compulsory. The last few leper patients in the colony still remain; according to <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/hawaii-still-has-a-leprosy-colony-with-six-patients?ref=scroll">The Daily Beast</a>, there are still six patients. Patients were allowed to transfer to other medical facilities in 1969 but some preferred their isolated home. 

Initially, the leper colony was not provided with food but instead expected to farm the lands. Over time, the isolated colony grew into a community with churches, marriages and children who upon birth were removed for adoption outside the colony. The case of the Molokai leprosy colony illustrates the hysteria and confusion surrounding the disease. Although leprosy isn’t easily spread from one person to another, it can and is carried across national borders by travelers. 

No one is quite sure how leprosy came to Hawaii; the only certainty is that before contact with the outside world, Hawaii was free of the disease. Most likely, leprosy came to Hawaii by traders or others that visited the islands from outside. Another idea is that a Hawaiian chief travelled abroad and brought the disease back with him. Either way, the establishment of leprosy and its spread throughout several islands combined with a history of fear to cause the forced isolation. 

Fear and forced isolation of leprosy patients has lingered in many parts of the world. The <a href="https://www.leprosy.org/leprosy-history/">Leprosy Foundation</a> reports that it wasn’t until 1996 that forced isolation of patients was abolished in Japan. Another leper colony where people were confined in the US was in Louisiana. Lepers in the Louisiana colony weren’t allowed to vote until the right was restored in 1946, according to the <a href="https://www.hrsa.gov/hansens-disease/history.html">Health Resources &amp; Services Administration</a>. Patients in the colony were guarded as prisoners and called ‘inmates’ until being allowed to leave for two month periods in the 1970s, and eventually the colony became an outpatient treatment facility in the 1980s. 

The fact that the second leper colony in the US was in Louisiana is an important fact because leprosy is more prevalent in the southeastern US than any other part of the country. 

The southeast is a stronghold for leprosy due to another strange quirk in its natural history. Although the disease isn’t easily transferred to another person, there is one animal that is a ready carrier for the bacteria that cause leprosy. 

It was discovered in 2011 that armadillos actually carry the bacteria that causes leprosy and eventually contract the disease symptoms as humans do. Armadillos are the only other known animal (besides humans) to carry the disease. Nine-banded armadillos are only found in the southern US. Research suggests that the armadillos in the southwest don’t carry the disease but this doesn’t exclude parts of Texas. Of course, armadillos are found outside of the United States as well.

<a href="https://cvmbs.source.colostate.edu/new-evidence-that-wild-armadillos-spread-leprosy-to-humans/">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) reported last year that researchers found 62% of armadillos in the western Brazilian state of Pará were infected with the bacteria that causes leprosy. The rates of leprosy in Brazilian armadillos are three times higher than those in Louisiana or Texas. Furthermore, the research showed that people who kill, hunt or eat armadillos are at a greater risk of contracting leprosy. 

Considering the rates of infection in the southeastern US, it’s likely that people there also face a greater risk of infection from hunting or eating armadillos as well. Taking this into account, it’s easy to see why armadillos might be demonized as disease reservoirs. 

Although it’s true that armadillos carry leprosy, researchers believe that humans first transmitted leprosy (an old world disease) to armadillos (new world animals). Leprosy was first brought to Brazil by the slave trade more than 500 years ago and later spread to armadillos. 

A recent report in <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-08-humans-gave-leprosy-armadillos.html">The Conversation</a> shows evidence that armadillos in the United States were only infected with leprosy since the 1960s. Although it’s unknown how armadillos were first infected by humans, it’s possible the small mammal first contracted the disease by digging in infected soil. 

Armadillos often dig for food or to create burrows. Leprosy and armadillos seems a strange case of humans spreading a disease to an animal and then catching it from that animal through hunting. So although many people seek to eradicate armadillos due to misunderstanding the odd little creature, doing so may actually increase the risk of leprosy. 

It seems the best way to prevent catching leprosy is to leave the shy, armored mammal alone and simply observe them from a reasonable distance. Perhaps humans can learn a bit about zoonotic disease as well as dehumanizing hysteria by looking at the history of leprosy in the new world. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Heiko Kiera

The strange story of armadillos and leprosy in the Americas

Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s Disease, was once feared to...

A new study from the <a href="https://en.natmus.dk/">National Museum of Denmark</a> shows that migration patterns shifted during the southern Scandinavian <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/foxes-domesticated-bronze-age/">Bronze Age</a>, which took place in modern-day Denmark during the 2nd millennium B.C. Evidence shows that migrants of varied backgrounds traveled from distant lands to take part in the economic growth happening in the Nordic region.

During the 2nd and 3rd millennia B.C., many significant migrations to western Europe took place, and only increased after southern Scandinavia became the hub for long-distance metal trade throughout Europe, which started at around 1600 B.C. By the later millennia, the Nordic Bronze Age peaked and wealth and migrants flooded into the area.

"Around 1600 BC, the amount of metal coming into southern Scandinavia increased dramatically, arriving mostly from the Italian Alps, whereas tin came from Cornwall in south England,” said co-author Kristian Kristiansen. “Our results support the development of highly international trade, a forerunner for the Viking Age period."

The Museum’s Karin Frei, Kristiansen, and colleagues examined ancient skeletal remains of 88 people from 37 localities across modern Denmark to investigate the migratory pattern shifts during the Bronze Age. Using strontium isotopes found in tooth enamel, which record geographic signatures, Frei and the team were able to identify where individuals originally hailed from.

[caption id="attachment_1876819" align="aligncenter" width="626"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/fossils.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1876819 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/fossils.jpg" alt="" width="626" height="469" /></a> Image Credit: Cristina Jensen[/caption]

Beginning at around 1600 B.C., and spanning into the Nordic Bronze Age, the geographic signal of migrants became more diverse. The authors suggest, via their study published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0219850">PLOS ONE</a>, that this migratory shift could have established new cultural alliances within southern Scandinavia, however, more research into ancient DNA could provide insight into this theory.

"Our data indicates a clear shift in human mobility at the breakthrough point of the Nordic Bronze Age, when an unprecedented rich period in southern Scandinavia emerged,” Frei said. “This suggests to us that these aspects might have been closely related."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Marie Louise Jørkov

Wide variety of migrants traveled to Denmark during the Nordic Bronze Age

A new study from the National Museum of Denmark shows...

Two-child policy in China has resulted in the birth of 5.4 million babies. In an effort to help address an aging population with stagnant growth, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/china-co2-emissions-targets/">China</a> recently announced a new policy which allows couples to have two children instead of only one. According to a study published in The BMJ, this policy change has resulted in an additional 5.4 million births.

The study is the first of its kind to investigate the effects of the two-child policy by analyzing national data. While births substantially increased as a result of the policy change, lawmakers had hoped the increase would be larger. Two-child policy in China has resulted in the birth of 5.4 million babies

Under the new legislation, 90 million women of reproductive age who already had a child were given the opportunity to have a second child. The strategy was expected to result in the births of anywhere between one and 20 million new babies annually, but studies on the outcome have been limited. 

To investigate, a team of researchers based in the United States and China set out to measure changes in births and health-related birth characteristics associated with the policy change.

The findings are based on 67.8 million births in 28 out of 31 provinces of mainland China during the first 18 months after the new legislation went into effect. During this time frame, an estimated 5.4 million extra babies were born. Also, for the first time, the number of Chinese women giving birth to their second child exceeded the number giving birth to their first. 

Furthermore, the policy was associated with a 59 percent average increase in births to mothers who were 35 years or older, but there was no corresponding increase in premature births.

The study also revealed that there was a slight decrease in caesarean deliveries to first-time mothers. The researchers explained that this may signal a favorable trend towards vaginal birth in first-time Chinese mothers.

The study authors pointed out that many of the changes associated with the policy, including the increase in births, appeared to decline at the end of the study period. This raises questions about whether the policy's effects will be sustained.

The team concluded that further research is needed "to develop a more nuanced understanding of the sustained impact of this historic change on the world's largest nation."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/HelloRF Zcool

Two-child policy in China has resulted in the birth of 5.4 million babies

Two-child policy in China has resulted in the birth of...

Cranial modification may have been used as a way to show cultural affiliation during the 5th and 6th centuries in Croatia, a time when humans were moving across Europe in the Great Migration Period.

Artificial Cranial Deformation (ACD) has been practiced across multiple cultures and countries through the ages. 

Archaeologists have uncovered modified skulls in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-people-elongated-skulls/">China</a> dating back 5,000 to 12,000 years, and an ancient burial site in Mexico containing bones that dated to 945 A.D. to 1308 A.D. made headlines with the <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/12/alien-looking-human-skulls-found-in-mexico/">“alien-like” skulls discovered there</a>. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a> and the <a href="https://inantro.hr/en/homepage-eng/">Institute for Anthropological Research in Croatia</a> examined skeletons that were excavated from the Hermanov vinograd archaeological site in Osijek, Croatia in 2013. 

Three human skeletons were discovered in a pit dating to 415 to 560 CE, and two of the skeletons had modified skulls. One of the skulls had been elongated, and another had been compressed and heightened. 

[caption id="attachment_1876814" align="aligncenter" width="648"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/cranial.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1876814" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/cranial.jpg" alt="" width="648" height="638" /></a> CT scans of the cranial deformation. Image Credit: M Kavka[/caption]

The researchers used genetic, isotopic, and skeletal analysis to study the bones. All three skeletons were male, aged between 12 and 16 years old. The two with cranial modifications has very different genetic lineages. 

One of the skeletons discovered is the first person with mostly East Asian ancestry to be identified in Europe during the Great Migration Period. 

The find marks the oldest known evidence of ACD discovered in Croatia, and the researchers hypothesize that the practice may have been used as a way to distinguish different cultural groups.  

It is unclear if ACD was a common practice or unique to the individuals discovered. 

“The most striking observation, based on nuclear ancient DNA, is that these individuals vary greatly in their genetic ancestries,” said Dr. Mario Novak, an author of the study which was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0216366">PLOS ONE. </a>

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/ Derek R. Audette

Evidence of early cranial modification found in Croatia

Cranial modification may have been used as a way to...

Rain flowing into a storm water sewer system

Urban stormwater is washing harmful substances off of buildings and streets into storm drains, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>. 

After analyzing untreated urban stormwater from 50 rainstorms across the United States, the researchers identified various contaminants that could potentially pollute groundwater and harm marine life across surface waters.

In previous studies, urban stormwater was found to collect a combination of industrial chemicals, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/us-use-harmful-pesticides/">pesticides</a>, pharmaceuticals, and other substances that could be toxic to aquatic life at certain levels. 

For this reason, many urban water-management agencies are working to come up with ways to control stormwater and minimize the transfer of these contaminants to water bodies, such as rivers or aquifers. However, these efforts are made challenging by the fact that data from many cities across the country is lacking.

Led by Jason Masoner, the ACS team set out to quantify and document the contaminants in urban stormwater from 50 storm events at 21 sites.  

The researchers analyzed 500 chemicals in urban water samples that were collected during storms. The samples were found to contain an average of 73 organic chemicals, and the most frequently detected chemicals were pesticides. 

In more than 90 percent of the water samples, the team detected the same 11 contaminants, including the insect repellent DEET, nicotine, caffeine and bisphenol 

Prescription and non-prescription pharmaceuticals were also found to be abundant in the samples, which indicates that the stormwater was contaminated with human waste. According to the study authors, this waste could be the result of sewage leaks.

The levels of some contaminants exceeded the amount that is known to be toxic for wildlife, and even the lower concentrations could produce dangerous effects when combined with all of the other substances in the water. 

The researchers said that the findings highlight the need for further research on the long-term effects of these contaminants on aquatic organisms exposed to stormwater.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science and Technology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/serato

Stormwater is washing a cocktail of contaminants off of streets into drains

Urban stormwater is washing harmful substances off of buildings and...

New research led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> suggests that early blood pressure problems have a negative effect on brain health later in life. The investigation was focused on data from the MRC National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD), which is the longest-running birth cohort study in the UK, 

The sub-study, Insight 46, was designed to identify early signs of dementia among individuals in the years leading up to their 70s. The research will provide experts with a unique perspective on specific risk factors that may impact brain health.

While previous research has linked <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-adults-high-blood-pressure/">high blood pressure</a> in midlife to an increased risk of dementia, the mechanism which underlies this association has remained unclear. 

The current study followed 502 individuals from the NSHD, who were all born in the same week in 1946. The participants were free from dementia at the start of the study, and most of the individuals underwent scans to evaluate their brain health. 

The brain scans allowed the researchers to search for levels of a key Alzheimer's protein called amyloid. The scans also showed the size of the brain and the extent of any blood vessel damage. In addition, the NSHD data included measurements of the participants' blood pressure at various ages from 36 to 69.

The analysis revealed that higher blood pressure at the age of 53, or a gradual rise in blood pressure from 43 to 53, were both associated with more evidence of blood vessel damage or "mini strokes" in the brain by age 70. On the other hand, blood pressure was not associated with the level of amyloid protein in the brain or any memory problems at a later age. 

"This unique group of individuals, who have contributed to research their entire lives, has already shaped our understanding of the factors influencing health throughout life," said Professor Jonathan Schott. 

"The Insight 46 study has allowed us to reveal more about the complex relationship between blood pressure and brain health. The findings suggest that blood pressure even in our 30s could have a knock-on effect on brain health four decades later."

"We now know that damage caused by high blood pressure is unlikely to be driven through the hallmark Alzheimer's protein amyloid, but through changes in blood vessels and the brain's architecture. The findings show that blood pressure monitoring and interventions aimed at maximising brain health later in life need to be targeted at least by early midlife."

Dr. Carol Routledge explained that, even though the Insight 46 study is not yet complete, the initial findings are shedding new light on the mechanism by which hypertension could damage the brain. 

"High blood pressure in midlife is one of the strongest lifestyle risk factors for dementia, and one that is in our control to easily monitor and manage," said Dr. Routledge. 

"Research is already suggesting that more aggressive treatment of high blood pressure in recent years could be improving the brain health of today's older generations. We must continue to build on this insight by detecting and managing high blood pressure even for those in early midlife."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/home">The Lancet Neurology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Andrey_Popov

High blood pressure in midlife impacts brain health years later

New research led by University College London suggests that early...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way