A massive new analysis suggests Americans don’t just differ in what they earn or how long they live - they also differ in how they experience wellness. 



Drawing on more than 325,000 survey responses collected over eight years, researchers found clear regional differences in wellness.



People in the Northeastern and Midwestern regions tend to score higher on “traditional” wellness, which includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-focused-medicine-physical-activity-reduces-chronic-disease-risk/">physical health,</a> finances, and social support.



Many Southern regions, by contrast, rank higher on “existential” wellness, such as purpose, meaning, and a strong sense of community identity. The pattern lines up with centuries-old settlement histories that still shape local norms today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-wellness-two-ways">Measuring wellness two ways</h2>



The team worked with data from the <a href="https://news.gallup.com/topic/well-being-index.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index</a> spanning 2009–2016 and grouped responses into two broader composites.



“Traditional” wellness bundles tangible aspects of life - physical and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-crisis-half-of-the-worlds-population-will-be-affected-by-age-75/">mental health</a>, financial security, and day-to-day social support. 



“Existential” wellness captures the less tangible side - purpose, personal growth, community belonging, and living in line with one’s values.



Separating the two helps explain why some places thrive on paper (jobs, hospitals, income) yet still report a thinner sense of meaning - or the reverse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-old-map-explains-modern-feelings"><a></a>An old map explains modern feelings</h2>



To test whether regional culture matters in wellness, the researchers turned to the American Nations Model. 



This framework divides the U.S. into historical “nations” based on who settled there first. Think Yankeedom, the Deep South, Greater Appalachia, El Norte, and others.



Each region inherited durable folkways about trust, autonomy, community, and authority. Even after accounting for education and income, these cultural footprints predicted distinctive wellness profiles where people live.



The headline split was clear. Northeastern and Midwestern regions, including Yankeedom, leaned higher on traditional wellness. 



Several Southern and frontier-legacy regions - such as the Deep South, Greater Appalachia, El Norte, and parts of the Far West - leaned higher on existential wellness.



In other words, the balance of “health and money” versus “purpose and belonging” shifts in systematic ways across the cultural map.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wellness-differences-stand-out">Wellness differences stand out</h2>



Statistically, the contrasts weren’t subtle. In within-region comparisons, traditional wellness significantly exceeded existential wellness in Yankeedom.



Existential wellness was higher in the Deep South and especially Greater Appalachia - the largest reversal in the set.



Several other regions showed smaller or no gaps, demonstrating that not every place fits a single mold.



These effects held in mixed-effects models that controlled for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-education-matters-for-healthy-aging-and-longevity/">education</a> and income and accounted for clustering within metropolitan areas.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/existential-wellness_american-nations-settlements_PLOS-One_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/existential-wellness_american-nations-settlements_PLOS-One_1s.webp" alt="Wellbeing across the American Nations: First Settler Effects influence traditional and existential wellness. Credit: David R. Samson, Nathan Oesch, Colin Woodard" class="wp-image-1985865"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Wellbeing across the American Nations: First Settler Effects influence traditional and existential wellness. Click image to enlarge. Credit: David R. Samson, Nathan Oesch, Colin Woodard</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-race-and-wellness">Culture, race, and wellness</h2>



The study also looked at Black and Hispanic residents across regions. Patterns generally echoed the broader map. 



Black and Hispanic respondents tended to show higher traditional wellness in Northeastern and Midwestern regions. They also reported higher existential wellness in Southern regions.



Notably, Black respondents showed consistently lower traditional wellness than white respondents across regions. In the Northeast and Midwest, they also fared worse on existential wellness. 



Together, these patterns suggest that material constraints and structural disparities remain powerful drivers.



At the same time, the relatively stronger existential scores in many Southern contexts may reflect the buffering role of community networks and cultural identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-roots-of-wellness">Cultural roots of wellness</h2>



Culture shapes where institutions flourish (hospitals, schools, civic groups), how people relate to one another (trust, norms of reciprocity), and what counts as a good life (autonomy vs. solidarity, achievement vs. belonging).



Those long-running preferences influence migration, policy choices, and investments that, over time, help set the table for different “flavors” of well-being.



The authors found the pattern persisted even after adjusting for education and income, and they reported model checks to reduce issues like multicollinearity among predictors.



That suggests the American Nations framework isn’t just a clever historical story - it adds real explanatory power to why wellness feels different in different parts of the country.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wellness-policy-must-fit-culture">Wellness policy must fit culture</h2>



If you want to boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simply-looking-at-art-can-improve-your-well-being/">well-being</a>, focusing only on income or clinics may miss what makes people feel whole in a given place.



In regions that already score high on traditional metrics, investing in community identity, public spaces, and opportunities for contribution might move the needle on meaning and purpose.



In places rich in existential wellness but poorer on traditional metrics, policies that improve access to preventive care, stable work, and safety nets could pay outsized dividends.



Put simply, the study argues that wellness strategies work best when they respect the cultural ecologies where people live - strengthening what’s already strong while shoring up what’s thin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-and-a-next-step"><a></a>Limits - and a next step</h2>



This is an observational study using self-reported survey data; it can’t prove cause and effect. The American Nations borders blur in real life, people move, and city-level differences within regions can be large.



Still, with more than 325,000 respondents across 110 metro areas and eight years of data, the signal is hard to ignore. 



The authors call for digging into mechanisms: Which specific institutions or community practices best translate cultural inheritance into day-to-day well-being? 



And which levers - health infrastructure, schooling, neighborhood design, civic organizations - offer the highest return in each region?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-place-and-culture-shape-wellness">Place and culture shape wellness</h2>



Where you live doesn’t just shape your paycheck and your hospital bill. It also shapes how you experience a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creativity-improves-life-satisfaction-and-overall-well-being/">good life</a> - whether that’s feeling financially secure and physically well, or feeling rooted in purpose and community.



The United States’ oldest settlement patterns still echo in those experiences today. 



They remind policymakers that the most effective pathways to human flourishing may look different from Boston to Birmingham to El Paso.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0327972" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Wellness in America depends on culture and where you live

A massive new analysis suggests Americans don’t just differ in what they earn or how long they live - they also differ in how they experience wellness. Drawing on more than 325,000 survey responses collected over eight years, researchers found clear regional differences in wellness. People in the Northeastern and Midwestern regions tend to score higher on “traditional” wellness, which includes physical health, finances, and social support. Many Southern regions, by contrast, rank higher on “existential” wellness, such as purpose, meaning, and a strong sense of community...

A new study from <a href="https://www.duke.edu/">Duke University</a> shows that no matter the grueling sport, everyone eventually hits the same metabolic limit — the point of maximum exertion at which humans can sustain in the long term. 

More specifically, researchers found that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-stone-tools/">humans</a> cannot surpass burning calories at 2.5 times their resting metabolic rate. If one was able to surpass this limit, the body would begin to break down its own tissue to balance the caloric shortage.

"This defines the realm of what's possible for humans," said coauthor Herman Pontzer, an associate professor of evolutionary anthropology at Duke. The new study is published in <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

Pontzer and his colleague John Speakman, of <a href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/">Scotland's University of Aberdeen</a> and the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, believe that the limit is dependent on the digestive tract’s ability to break down food. Therefore, eating more will not necessarily help one sustain endurance.

"There's just a limit to how many calories our guts can effectively absorb per day," Pontzer said.

To come to their conclusion, the team tracked daily calories burned by a group of athletes who ran six marathons per week for five months. This regimen was part of the 2015 Race Across the USA, which is a 3,000-mile race between California and Washington D.C.

When plotting the data on a graph, the team observed an L-shaped curve that showed how the athletes energy expenditure started high during each event, but dipped and flattened at 2.5 times their metabolic rate for the rest of the race. Urine samples taken after the 20 weeks of marathoning showed the athletes were burning 600 fewer calories per day than researchers expected, thus proving that the body can “downshift” the metabolism to balance sustainable levels.

“It's a great example of constrained energy expenditure, where the body is limited in its ability to maintain extremely high levels of energy expenditure for an extended period of time," said coauthor Caitlin Thurber.

"You can sprint for 100 meters, but you can jog for miles, right? That's also true here," Pontzer said.

The L-shaped curve further proves that human endurance has less to do with the regulation of body temperature, as was previously thought and is more dependent on the body’s ability to digest and absorb calories and nutrients. 

And, as far as the researchers are aware, no one has been able to sustain levels beyond the observed limit. 

"So I guess it's a challenge to elite endurance athletes," Pontzer concluded. "Science works when you're proven wrong. Maybe someone will break through that ceiling some day and show us what we're missing."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/lzf

There is a limit to human endurance, new research shows

A new study from Duke University shows that no matter...

You have probably heard the term “brain waves” on more than one occasion, and while it may sound somewhat abstract, brain waves are actually real and measurable. 

Brain oscillations occur during neural processes that are related to memory, and neuroscientists at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> have found evidence that controlling the frequency of brain waves could help improve <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meditation-app-boosts-memory/">memory recall</a> and maybe even improve conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease.

These brain waves can be controlled in a few different ways, including through sounds and images, as well as non-invasive electrical and electro-magnetic oscillations. Deep-brain electrical stimulation can also be used to control neural oscillations.

“We can modulate memory performance via rhythmic neural stimulation, which can be as simple as flickering a light at a particular rhythm which then is followed by neurons in the brain,” says Dr. Simon Hanslmayr from the University of Birmingham’s Centre for Human Grain Health. “Much more research will be required, but it seems clear that driving brain rhythms in such a way is a promising tool for improving memory – both for healthy people and for patients suffering from conditions such as Alzheimer's disease.”

In the paper published in the journal Trends in Neurosciences, the researchers state that brain oscillations act on specific neural mechanisms that affect the formation, consolidation, maintenance, and retrieval of memories. 

While their findings are encouraging, further research will be needed into how these mechanisms are affected by brain oscillations if we hope to one day develop any effective treatments for memory-related disorders.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Agsandrew

Can controlling brain wave frequency improve memory?

You have probably heard the term “brain waves” on more...

Our addiction to technology is causing an environmental disaster. As technology becomes faster, smarter and sleeker, we are increasingly tossing aside the old for the new. While playing with our latest iPhones, most of us spend little time reflecting on how our old phone will be <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/recycling-system-major-changes/">recycled</a>, and the long-lasting effects it will have on environmental and human health.

In the last ten years, many of us have gone through at least a few different smartphones- not to mention laptops, TVs, video game consoles and iPads. Sometimes we switch phones due to logistical reasons- our screen cracked or the phone was damaged by water. But in a time when every new technology release is the “next big thing”, we are tempted to ditch our perfectly usable technology in favor of new releases.

This trend is not just occurring in the United States but throughout the whole world. Today, more than<a href="https://www.gsma.com/mobileeconomy/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/The-Mobile-Economy-2018.pdf"> 5 billion</a> people have mobile devices. Disposable incomes in many developing countries are growing, allowing more people to access technology than ever before.

All of this technology needs to be disposed of somehow. But our waste management systems have not caught up to the technology craze. Electronic waste is now the fastest-growing waste stream in the world. In the United States, electronic waste accounts for<a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/02/how-do-we-tackle-the-fastest-growing-waste-stream-on-the-planet/"> up to 70%</a> of toxic waste in landfills.

Some of us may use recycling programs to dispose of old technology. But these options require consumers to complete multiple steps. In order to ensure the highest level of user participation, actions should be as easy as possible for people to follow. Many recycling programs need people to send their old technology in the mail. Other programs have people bring their old technology to retail stores or kiosks. Many people may opt to keep the technology stored away or simply discard of it in the garbage.Our addiction to technology is causing an environmental disaster

In 2016, only 20% of the<a href="http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:6341/Global-E-waste_Monitor_2017__electronic_single_pages_.pdf"> 44.7 million metric tonnes</a> of electronic waste was recycled. Technology that is not recycled often ends up landfills and incineration plants. Up to 90% of electronic waste is illegally traded or dumped, destined for developing countries in Africa and Asia. According to the<a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/illegally-traded-and-dumped-e-waste-worth-19-billion-annually-poses"> United Nations Environment Programme</a>, electronic waste is exported undetected by being declared as plastic and metal scraps.

Once in developing countries, locals extract elements such as copper and gold from the waste as a source of income. Extraction methods such as burning cables risk exposing people to hazardous substances, the<a href="https://www.who.int/ceh/risks/ewaste/en/"> World Health Organization</a> warns. People may become directly exposed to lead, cadmium, flame retardants and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). These dangerous substances can also leak into the peoples’ soil, water and food.

The illegal dumping of electronic waste is also depleting our planet of the valuable raw materials used to make modern technology. When technology is not properly recycled, raw materials cannot be reused for future items. Rather, more materials have to be extracted from the earth. The extraction of raw materials currently accounts for<a href="http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:6341/Global-E-waste_Monitor_2017__electronic_single_pages_.pdf"> seven percent</a> of the world’s energy consumption.

These raw materials, including gold and silver, are often referred to as “<a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/tech-supply-chains-risk-links-human-rights-abuses-outside-conflict">conflict metals</a>” as their mining has been linked to armed conflict and human rights abuses.

The Democratic Republic of Congo is home to coltan- a rare ore used in the production of smartphones, laptops and video game consoles. Mining sites are often in prime habitat for the critically endangered Grauer’s gorilla. Mining activities destroy the gorilla’s habitat and exacerbate poaching pressures.

The electronic waste crisis has no easy solution. The problem spans throughout the world, crossing multiple countries with differing laws. Currently,<a href="http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:6341/Global-E-waste_Monitor_2017__electronic_single_pages_.pdf"> 66% of the world’s population</a> is covered by electronic waste management laws and 188 countries are signatories to an international treaty regulating the export of electronic waste. Yet, electronic waste legislation may not always be properly enforced or strong enough to fully address the issue.

As our addiction to technology continues, the pile of electronic waste is only going to grow. It is estimated that we will generate<a href="http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_A_New_Circular_Vision_for_Electronics.pdf"> 120 million tonnes</a> of electronic waste in 2050 alone if nothing changes.

Legislation alone is unlikely to tackle an issue this grand. A societal shift in consumer behavior is needed. Years ago, people needing to replace their technology often bought used gadgets online or from friends. Today, the idea of going on eBay to buy a used phone instead of upgrading to a newer model is unimaginable to many people.

A recent World Economic Forum<a href="http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_A_New_Circular_Vision_for_Electronics.pdf"> report</a> urges the world to move towards a zero electronic waste circular economy. In this economy, products are specifically designed for reuse, durability and recycling and product lifetimes are extended through refurbishment and second hand markets.

We are fast approaching the fifth generation of mobile networks- called 5G.<a href="https://www.techradar.com/news/5g-phones-what-are-the-first-5g-phones"> Over 30 new devices</a> are expected to be rolled out in 2019 that can access the network. The new 5G technology will undoubtedly result in a wave of consumers. And a wave of discarded technology.

If we don’t come up with a solution to electronic waste soon, we might end up drowning in our gadgets.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Poravute Siriphiroon / Shutterstock.com

Our addiction to technology is causing an environmental disaster

Our addiction to technology is causing an environmental disaster. As...

An international team of researchers has investigated how human activities during the Roman Empire may have impacted the climate in Europe. The experts found that a large amount of fires burned by ancient Romans triggered <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/visiting-city-air-pollution-breathing-issues/">air pollution</a> that cooled down the climate across the country. 

Anina Gilgen of <a href="https://www.ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a> was the lead author of the study. "We looked for the first time at whether anthropogenic aerosol impacts had an impact on climate a long time ago," Gilgen told <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a>.

The analysis adds to a growing collection of research which suggests that humans have been influencing the atmosphere and climate for thousands of years. The team estimated the amount of air pollution, such as soot, that may have been produced.

The researchers combined a global aerosol-enabled climate model with land use maps and new estimates of aerosol emissions from the Roman Empire.  

They determined that the cooling effect of air pollution would have lowered the temperature across Europe by 0.3 degrees Fahrenheit. However, an exceptionally warm climate likely countered this effect. 

The Roman Warm Period, which lasted from around 250 BC to 400 AD, was an unusually hot period that occurred at the height of the empire. Previous studies have shown that this was a natural phenomenon. 

The team found that while greenhouse gases and deforestation warmed the atmosphere by 0.27 degrees Fahrenheit, air pollution had a larger influence on cooling. Activities such as burning crop residue or wood to heat homes would have potentially altered the climate in different ways. 

According to New Scientist, human activities affected the atmosphere and temperatures in Europe and Southeast Asia as far back as 7,000 years ago. 

"Our model may overestimate aerosol-effective radiative forcing, however, and our results are very sensitive to the inferred seasonal timing of agricultural burning practices and natural aerosol emissions over land," wrote the study authors. "Nevertheless, it is likely that human influence on land and the atmosphere affected continental-scale climate during Classical Antiquity."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.climate-of-the-past.net/">Climate of the Past</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Ladislav Berecz/Shutterstock

Human activities during the Roman Empire cooled the climate in Europe

An international team of researchers has investigated how human activities...

Marriage may be key to achieving a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happy-marriage-extend-lifespan/">long life span</a>, as a new study has found that the death rates of men and women living with heart failure differ depending on marital status. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/">Aston University, Birmingham</a> found that widowed and divorced men and single women have a higher risk of dying from heart attack, heart failure, or atrial fibrillation. 

“Heart attack, atrial fibrillation, and heart failure can all cut life short,” said Metin Avkiran, the Associate Medical Director at the<a href="https://www.bhf.org.uk/"> British Heart Foundation</a>. “These findings suggest that widowed or divorced men, and single women, may be most in need of support in order to help minimize their individual risk of dying from these conditions.”

For the study, the researchers reviewed and analyzed data from 1,816,230 people who were admitted to hospitals in the North of England between 2000 and 2014. 

Those admitted were suffering from a heart attack, heart failure or atrial fibrillation, and the researchers examined how gender, marital status, and other factors influenced mortality risk. 

Men who had lost their spouse were eleven percent more likely to die than women who lost their spouse. Widowed men were also similarly more at risk to die from heart failure or atrial fibrillation than widowed women. 

Divorced men were 14 percent more likely to die from atrial fibrillation than divorced women. However, single women had a higher risk of dying from heart failure compared to single men. 

“These gender differences we are seeing could be due to men and women having different levels of support, or willingness to seek support,” said Dr. Ranjit More, a co-author of the study. “By identifying which groups of people have the worst outcomes, we can then push for healthcare professionals to encourage those people to become involved in group therapy and ensure they have adequate support networks in place to help deal with these serious, chronic medical conditions.”

The researchers will present their findings at the <a href="https://www.bcs.com/">British Cardiovascular Society Conference</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock

Widowed or divorced men are more likely to die from heart failure

Marriage may be key to achieving a long life span,...

A shocking new report has found that if greenhouse gas emissions are left unchecked, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-driving-climate-change/">climate change</a> could trigger the beginning of the end for human civilization in just 30 years.

According to the report, a chain of environmental disasters could prompt an ecological disaster that could include pandemics, extreme flooding, forced human migration, and even result in nuclear war.

The report was published by the <a href="https://www.breakthroughonline.org.au/">Breakthrough National Centre for Climate Restoration</a> in Melbourne, Australia and was authored by research director David Spratt and Ian Dunlop, a former chair of the Australian Coal Association and former executive at Shell. 

“A 2050 scenario is outlined in which accelerating climate-change impacts pose large negative consequences to humanity which might not be undone for centuries,” the researchers write.

The Paris Agreement was designed to keep emissions in check and limit global warming to 3 degrees Celsius. But after President Donald Trump withdrew the United States from the agreement, and other nations struggle to meet their promises, it is entirely possible that warming could exceed this amount if emissions are not kept in check.

If global temperatures continue to increase, it could push the Earth’s ecosystems past certain climate thresholds and cause irreversible damage.

According to the research, more than half the world’s population will endure 100 days of deadly heat each year, and these heat waves would prompt wildfires and severe drought. This in turn would lead to mass extinctions and the collapse of entire ecosystems.  

Meanwhile, severe flooding would make certain parts of the globe completely uninhabitable and prompt mass mandatory relocation.

“This scenario provides a glimpse into a world of ‘outright chaos’ on a path to the end of human civilization and modern society as we have known it, in which the challenges to global security are simply overwhelming and political panic becomes the norm,” the report reads.

“What can be done to avoid such a probable but catastrophic future? It is clear from our preliminary scenario that dramatic action is required this decade if the ‘hothouse Earth’ scenario is to be avoided. To reduce this risk and protect human civilisation, a massive global mobilisation of resources is needed in the coming decade to build a zero-emissions industrial system and set in train the restoration of a safe climate.”

---

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Editor

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Piyaset/Shutterstock

Human civilization may come to an end starting in 2050 due to climate change

A shocking new report has found that if greenhouse gas...

About 5,000 years ago, the Paleo-Eskimos migrated from Asia to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/oldest-trees-north-america/">North America</a>, roughly 10,000 years after the first Asia-to-North America migration occurred. 

Then, about 800 years ago, the Paleo-Eskimo population was replaced by a new population across the Arctic, and soon enough, all signs of Paleo-Eskimo culture was lost. 

However, researchers from the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a> argue that despite the disappearance of their culture, Paleo-Eskimos contributed much more to North American populations than previously thought.

To come to their conclusion, the team assembled genome-wide data from 48 ancient individuals and 93 modern individuals from Siberia, Alaska, the Aleutian Islands and Canada. They then compared this data to data that was previously published. They found that a large portion of genetic heritage from ancient and modern American Arctic and Chukotkan populations actually comes from Paleo-Eskimos.

"Our study is unique, not only in that it greatly expands the number of ancient genomes from this region, but because it is the first study to comprehensively describe all of these populations in one single coherent model," said Max Planck’s Stephan Schiffels.

"For the last seven years, there has been a debate about whether Paleo-Eskimos contributed genetically to people living in North America today; our study resolves this debate and furthermore supports the theory that Paleo-Eskimos spread Na-Dene languages," said David Reich of <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/">Harvard Medical School</a> and the <a href="https://www.hhmi.org/">Howard Hughes Medical Institute</a>. 

Their findings show that shortly after their arrival to Alaska about 5,000 years ago, the Paleo-Eskimos interbred with people who had similar ancestry to that of more southern Native peoples. The genetic heritage of the ancestors of Aleutian Islanders and Athabaskans is derived directly from this interbred group.

They also found that Inuit and Yup'ik ancestors crossed the Bering Strait at least three times. They first crossed as Paleo-Eskimos to Alaska. They then crossed again as predecessors of the Old Bering Sea archaeological culture back to Chukotka and stayed for about 1,000 years, interbreeding with locals related to modern Chukchi as well as locals from Kamchatka. And then they finally crossed a third time to Alaska again as bearers of the Thule culture.

"One of the most striking case examples from our study is the ancient DNA we generated from the ancient Athabaskan site of Tochak McGrath in interior Alaska, where we worked in consultation with the local community to obtain data from three approximately seven hundred year old individuals,” Reich said. “We found that these individuals, who lived after the time when the Paleo-Eskimo archaeological culture disappeared across North America, are well modeled as a mixture of the same two ancestry components as those found in Athabaskans today, and derived more than 40% of their ancestry from Paleo-Eskimos.”

"Determining what happened to this population was not possible from the archaeological record alone," added Pavel Flegontov of the <a href="https://www.osu.eu/">University of Ostrava</a>. "By analyzing genetic data in concert with the archaeological data, we can meaningfully improve our understanding of the prehistory of peoples of this region. We faced challenging analytical problems due to the complex sequence of gene flows that have shaped ancestries of peoples on both sides of the Bering Strait. Reconstructing this sequence of events required new modelling approaches that we hope may be useful for solving similar problems in other regions of the world."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Illustration by Kerttu Majander, Design by Michelle O'Reilly

DNA reveals Paleo-Eskimos majorly contributed to North American populations

About 5,000 years ago, the Paleo-Eskimos migrated from Asia to...

According to a new report from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>, the average American consumes more than 70,000 particles of microplastics per year. So far, little is known about the health impacts associated with these particles. 

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-natural-carbon-storage/">Microplastics</a> are small pieces of plastic debris that result from the breakdown of larger products in the environment. Humans consume microplastics that have made their way into food, drinking water, and into the air. Some of the particles are small enough to enter human tissues, where they can trigger immune reactions or release toxic substances.

A team of researchers led by Kieran Cox set out to investigate the extent of microplastics that are inadvertently consumed by humans. The experts reviewed 26 previous studies that analyzed the amounts of plastic particles in fish, added sugars, salts, alcohol, drinking water, and in the air. 

Based on the recommended dietary intakes from the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the researchers analyzed how much of these particular foods are included in the daily diets of men, women, and children. 

The study revealed that the average American consumes between 74,000 and 121,000 particles per year, depending on age and sex. According to the research, people who drink only bottled water are exposed to an additional 90,000 microplastics annually compared with individuals who drink only tap water. 

Furthermore, the study authors explained that these estimates are probably low considering that only 15 percent of the average person's caloric intake was examined for the investigation. They added that further research is needed to understand the health effects of the ingested particles.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Monique Raap, University of Victoria

The average American consumes 70,000 plastic particles per year

According to a new report from the American Chemical Society,...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> are reporting that food freshness sensors may eventually replace use-by dates to reduce the amount of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/older-americans-food-waste/">food that is wasted</a> by supermarkets and consumers. The new food sensors can help detect spoilage gases like ammonia that are present in meat and fish products.

Around 33 percent of UK consumers dispose of food based entirely on the use-by date. However, an estimated 4.2 million tons of food that is thrown away each year is actually safe to eat.

The prototype sensors, known as paper-based electrical gas sensors (PEGS), cost only two cents to make. The sensor data can be read by smartphones, making it simple for consumers to scan products and check to see if the food is still edible.

The researchers made the sensors by printing carbon electrodes onto cellulose paper. The materials are eco-friendly, non-toxic, and safe to use in food packaging. A series of microchips, or near field communication (NFC) tags, are incorporated into the sensors so the information can be picked up by nearby mobile devices.

During lab tests on packaged fish and chicken, PEGS picked up trace amounts of spoilage gases quickly and more accurately than existing sensors. According to the researchers, the sensors could eventually replace the use-by date and lower the cost of food for both retailers and consumers.

"Although they're designed to keep us safe, use-by dates can lead to edible food being thrown away. In fact, use-by dates are not completely reliable in terms of safety as people often get sick from foodborne diseases due to poor storage, even when an item is within its use-by," explained study lead author Dr. Firat Güder.

"Citizens want to be confident that their food is safe to eat, and to avoid throwing food away unnecessarily because they aren't able to judge its safety. These sensors are cheap enough that we hope supermarkets could use them within three years."

"Our vision is to use PEGS in food packaging to reduce unnecessary food waste and the resulting plastic pollution."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/ascefj">ACS Sensors</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock

New freshness sensors can help reduce food waste

Researchers at Imperial College London are reporting that food freshness...

New strategy for harnessing energy could be of use during blackout disasters. New research from the <a href="https://www.aip.org/">American Institute of Physics</a> has suggested a new strategy to aid electricity loss as a result of natural disasters. 

Researchers believe that using floating devices to harness energy produced by ocean waves could help supply enough electricity to optimize recovery efforts during and after a natural disaster, like the monthslong blackout in Puerto Rico following <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-maria-real-death-toll/">Hurricane Maria</a>. 

The theory is published in the AIP’s <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/1.5093731">Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy.</a>

Umesh Korde from <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">John Hopkins Universit</a>y found that mobile electricity-generating ocean platforms could by much more efficient than linear infrastructure improvement due to the fact that they can be brought to a relief zone via ocean travel. 

Furthermore, after doing the necessary calculations, Korde realized that mobile electricity-generating ocean devices can be extremely effective if they are daisy chained to multiple wave energy devices with a temporary connection to shore.

"The question is, among all the different functions of time, what's the function that minimizes the total length of time that it takes to get sufficient power to restart the power grid for an island?" he  said. 

Oftentimes, neighboring areas in the national grid pitch in electricity when a nearby grid goes down. However, if no neighboring national grid is available (as was the case with Puerto Rico), the area experiences a full blackout.

"What you see in many cases is that they don't have access to enough spare electricity to turn themselves back on," Korde said. "We might just need to provide enough to 'black-start' that grid."

Korde hopes that his tentative plan and calculations lead to the development or improvement of existing wave generator technology to better aid disaster-struck regions worldwide.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Alessandro Pietri/Shutterstock

New strategy for harnessing energy could be of use during blackout disasters

New strategy for harnessing energy could be of use during...

Research conducted by immunologists at the <a href="https://www.babraham.ac.uk/">Babraham Institute</a> has demonstrated that transplanting faecal matter from younger mice to older mice revived the gut immune system by stimulating the gut microbiome.

The aging process is particularly hard on the gut, and age-related changes to the human gut <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/link-gut-microbiome-fight-cancer/">microbiome</a> have been linked to increased frailty, inflammation, and intestinal disorders. While these changes coincide with a decrease in the function of the gut immune system, it has not been clear whether there is a direct link.

"Our gut microbiomes are made up of hundreds of different types of bacteria and these are essential to our health, playing a role in our metabolism, brain function and immune response," said study lead author Dr. Marisa Stebegg. "Our immune system is constantly interacting with the bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract. As immunologists who study why our immune system doesn't work as well as we age, we were interested to explore whether the make-up of the gut microbiome might influence the strength of the gut immune response."

Mice naturally like to sample the faecal pellets of other mice. The study showed that co-housing young and old mice boosted the gut immune system of aging mice, which partially corrected their age-related decline.

"To our surprise, co-housing rescued the reduced gut immune response in aged mice. Looking at the numbers of the immune cells involved, the aged mice possessed gut immune responses that were almost indistinguishable from those of the younger mice," explained Dr. Michelle Linterman.

The findings demonstrate that damage to the gut immune response is not irreparable. According to the study, the decline can be reversed with the appropriate stimuli by turning back the clock on the gut immune system to more closely resemble the conditions found in a young mouse.

The study confirms a link between the effects of the aging immune system and age-related changes in the gut microbiome. Furthermore, the research suggests that probiotics and diet have the potential to promote healthier aging.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Marisa Stebegg, Babraham Institute

Turning back the block on the gut microbiome promotes healthier aging

Research conducted by immunologists at the Babraham Institute has demonstrated...

Coffee is often associated with exotic places.  Names of roasts, varieties and locations listed on the bags of coffee beans all bring to mind tropical paradises or quaint villages where <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/good-news-for-coffee-lovers-drink-doesnt-stiffen-arteries/">coffee</a> is roasted in tiny batches.  

Shade grown coffee produced by fairly paid workers can indeed contribute to a paradise on Earth.  Lemurs live high in trees above coffee plantations in some regions of Madagascar. <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/coffee-farms-are-good-birds-other-wildlife-study-finds-180968205/">Smithsonian Magazine</a> reported that shade grown coffee can also support bird and other wildlife diversity.  Certifications like <a href="http://fairtradeamerica.org/Fairtrade-Products/Coffee">Fairtrade</a> also aim to guarantee that coffee plantation workers are paid and treated justly.  

With the mere presence of labels like Fairtrade and <a href="https://www.rainforest-alliance.org">Rainforest Alliance</a> certifications, it makes you wonder, what is the alternative to just and environmentally friendly coffee growing?  

According to <a href="https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/issues/food">Rainforest Alliance</a>, 80% of rainforest loss comes from agriculture, which sometimes includes coffee growing.  The organization says that sustainable farming is key to stopping not just deforestation but cycles of poverty and climate change.  

What do farms look like that fall short of the lofty goals of organizations like Fairtrade and Rainforest Alliance?  What are the worst coffee farms like? 

The answer first came last year when <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2018/09/slave-labor-found-at-starbucks-certified-brazil-coffee-plantation/">Mongabay</a> reported on coffee growers on a plantations certified by Starbucks were found to be working in almost slave-like conditions. In August 2018, Brazil Labor Ministry investigators raided the Córrego das Almas farm in Brazil and rescued 18 workers working on coffee plantations in near slavery.  

One of the workers rescued reported that there were lots of bats and mice present in the living quarters of the farm, to the point that the small mammals would eat all of the worker’s food before they could.  No records of hours were kept for 11 hour days worked 6 days a week. The workers collective housing had dangerously poor sanitation and no running water. 

Instead water for cooking, cleaning and drinking was taken from open containers with no lids where dead animals were sometimes found.  Perhaps worst of all, payments for the amount of coffee picked were rigged. Sometimes coffee was left to be weighed in the morning only to disappear at night without explanation. 

The farm was certified by C.A.F.E. Practices, a certification owned by Starbucks in partnership with SCS Global Services.  After the raid, the companies reviewed the certification of the farm to look at issues of compliance with their standards. Another certification, the UTZ seal, from a Netherlands based organization was pulled when the organization was questioned about the incident by a reporter.

According to <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/05/slave-labor-found-at-second-starbucks-certified-brazilian-coffee-farm/">Mongabay</a>, in July 2018 another farm in Brazil Cedro II was found with farm workers in slave-like conditions working 17 hour shifts, often without a day off.  This farm as well had certifications from Starbucks and Nestle that were suspended when the farm made a government ‘Dirty List’. As of April 2019, Brazil’s ‘Dirty List’ contains 48 companies that engaged in something akin to slavery.  Cedro II also had a Rainforest Alliance certification that was suspended. 

Now just this year, eight months after making Brazil’s Dirty List, Starbucks and Nescafé said they would stop buying coffee from the Cedro II farm.  This raises questions of how far can we trust certifications to begin with? 

<a href="https://counterculturecoffee.com/blog/sustainability-in-coffee-certification">Counter Culture</a> points out that different certifications mean different things, with each focusing on different aspects of the environment and farm employee wellbeing but no one certification covering all bases.  Besides that, certification labels cost money and there is a larger supply of certified coffee than there is demand for it. 

Simply, not enough consumers care whether coffee has a certification or not to create a surefire benefit to getting certified for growers.  The benefit to becoming certified is a bit speculative. On top of that, as we’ve seen, sometimes coffee growers can get around meeting the actual requirements of the certification, instead growing coffee under immoral and even illegal conditions.  Coffee is after all big business, which leaves it open to corruption and makes the supply chain complex and hard to follow.

In 2011, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/oct/04/green-coffee">The Guardian</a> reported that coffee is the second most tradable commodity after oil.  There‘ s also an imbalance in power with a majority of small growers supplying coffee to large companies like Starbucks, which increases competition between individual growers.  It’s not just people that pay the cost either. 

<a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/04/shade-trees-coffee-plantations-effect-bird-biodiversity/">National Geographic</a> reported this year that Americans drink about 400 million cups of coffee a day, without realizing the scope and impact of that consumption on the tropics.  Bird diversity suffers with the increase of coffee plantations in places like Costa Rica. Along with a loss in bird diversity, is a loss of environmental integrity as a whole. 

The good news is that beyond certifications, there are things that consumers can look at. Coffee from some sources is naturally more sustainable than others.  Coffee was first grown in Ethiopia, no one knows exactly when it was discovered. The <a href="http://www.ncausa.org/about-coffee/history-of-coffee">National Coffee Association</a> says a legend tells of a goat herder named Kaldi discovered coffee after noticing his goats wouldn’t sleep at night after eating berries from a certain bush.  From Ethiopia coffee spread to the Arabian Peninsula and then to the world, the rest is history. 

The point is that coffee is a natural part of the East African environment, where in Kenya and Ethiopia it is still grown under the shade of tall trees, according to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/04/shade-trees-coffee-plantations-effect-bird-biodiversity/">National Geographic</a>.  Mexican coffee is also said to have a high percentage of shade grown coffee.  Unfortunately, this still does little for those trapped in unending servitude that is slavery in everything but name.  

Even coffee with multiple certifications has no guarantee to exclude all forms of exploitation as with the farms raided by Brazil’s government.  The only sure way to know you as a consumer aren’t contributing to misery or destruction is to visit a farm itself or forego a cup of that magical black elixir that is so much a part of many people’s mornings.                                

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Em Faies

Coffee farms found using slave labor raise alarming regulation questions

Coffee is often associated with exotic places.  Names of roasts,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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